ASSIGNMENT-
ADVANCED DIPLOMA
IN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY QLS
LEVEL 7
Mallawa Senarathge
Nilakshi Kaveesha
Sandali Senarath
Senenilakshi401@gmail.
com
+94752048608
Q1: Essential Elements of Life, Plasma Membrane Functions, and Cytoplasm Description
Life relies on specific elements. These key elements include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
These elements combine to form the molecules necessary for cellular functions, such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
and nucleic acids, all of which contribute to life’s processes.
The plasma membrane is the boundary that surrounds the cell. Its primary job is to regulate what enters and exits the cell,
ensuring balance and stability in the cell's internal environment. The membrane also enables communication with other
cells and helps maintain the cell’s shape.
The cytoplasm fills the space within the cell, surrounding its internal structures. It’s a semi-fluid substance that supports
chemical reactions and provides a medium where organelles and enzymes can function.
Q2: Mitosis, Enzymes, and TCA Cycle
Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells. It happens in stages:
Prophase: Chromosomes become visible as they condense.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's center.
Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move to opposite sides.
Telophase: Two new nuclei form, marking the end of division.
Cytokinesis: The cell splits into two distinct cells.
Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions inside the body. Without enzymes, these processes would
happen too slowly to support life.
The TCA cycle (or Krebs cycle) is a vital part of cellular respiration, taking place inside the mitochondria. It breaks down
nutrients like glucose to produce energy-rich molecules that the cell uses to power its activities.
Q3: Epithelial Tissue Functions and Skin Role
Epithelial tissue forms protective layers around organs and body surfaces. It has many functions, such as protecting the
body from infection, absorbing nutrients, and secreting fluids like sweat and mucus. Some epithelial tissue also has
sensory functions.
The skin, as the body's largest organ, protects against environmental damage and infection. It also helps control body
temperature, excretes waste through sweat, and provides a sense of touch and pressure due to its nerve endings.
Q4: Types of Joints, Muscle Tissue Types, and Muscular System Functions
The human body has three main types of joints:
Fibrous joints – These are immovable joints found in the skull.
Cartilaginous joints – Slightly movable joints, such as those between the vertebrae.
Synovial joints – These are freely movable joints, such as the elbow, knee, and shoulder.
The body has three types of muscle tissue:
Skeletal muscle – Attached to bones and responsible for voluntary movement.
Cardiac muscle – Found only in the heart, it works involuntarily to pump blood.
Smooth muscle – Located in internal organs, it works automatically to manage things like digestion and blood flow.
The muscular system enables body movement, maintains posture, generates heat to keep the body warm, and supports
the functioning of other systems like digestion and circulation.
Q5: Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction, Skeletal Muscle Classification, and CNS Explanation
Muscles obtain energy from:
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – The immediate energy source for muscle contraction.
Creatine phosphate – Helps regenerate ATP during short, intense activities.
Glucose and fatty acids – Used for energy in longer or less intense muscle work.
The skeletal muscles can be grouped into:
Axial muscles – These muscles support the head, neck, and spine.
Appendicular muscles – These muscles help move the arms, legs, and pelvis.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It controls and coordinates activities of the body,
processing sensory information, and directing movement, thoughts, and reactions.
Q6: Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brainstem, and Spinal Cord Functions
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls higher functions like thinking, learning, and voluntary movement.
It is divided into two halves, the left and right hemispheres, each responsible for different functions.
The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum and coordinates muscle movements, helping with balance and fine motor
control.
The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates basic life-sustaining functions like heart rate, breathing,
and digestion.
The spinal cord acts as a conduit for messages between the brain and the body. It also controls simple reflexes, allowing
quick responses without the need for brain involvement.
Q8: Sensory System and Heart Processes
The sensory system in the human body is responsible for detecting stimuli from the environment. It includes the senses of
sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, as well as the ability to detect pain, temperature, and body position. The sensory
organs transmit signals to the brain, which processes and interprets them, allowing us to respond accordingly.
The heart functions by pumping blood through the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing waste.
It also helps maintain blood pressure. The heart's processes include:
Diastole – The phase when the heart relaxes and fills with blood.
Systole – The phase when the heart contracts and pumps blood out to the body.
Q9: Blood Groups, Lymph, and Lymphoid Organs
There are four main blood groups:
Type A – Has A antigens and anti-B antibodies.
Type B – Has B antigens and anti-A antibodies.
Type AB – Has both A and B antigens, and no anti-A or anti-B antibodies (universal plasma donor).
Type O – Has no A or B antigens, but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies (universal blood donor).
Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system. It helps remove waste from tissues and carries
immune cells to fight infections.
The primary lymphoid organs include the bone marrow and thymus, where lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) are
produced and matured. The secondary lymphoid organs include the lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils, which filter lymph
and help mount immune responses.
Q10: Adaptive Immunity and Digestive System
Adaptive immunity is the body's ability to recognize and fight specific pathogens. It involves B-cells (which produce
antibodies) and T-cells (which destroy infected cells). This system creates memory of pathogens, providing long-term
protection after the first exposure.
The digestive system processes food so the body can absorb nutrients. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus. The system breaks down food into small molecules, absorbs nutrients, and
eliminates waste.
Q11: Respiratory System, Pleura and Pleural Cavity, Urinary System, and Nephrons
The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, trachea,
lungs, and diaphragm.
The pleura is a double-layered membrane around the lungs. The pleural cavity is the space between these layers and
contains fluid that helps reduce friction as the lungs expand and contract.
The urinary system filters waste from the blood, regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, and eliminates excess
substances. It includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys, responsible for filtering blood and forming urine.
Q12: Male Reproductive Glands and Female Sex Hormones
The male reproductive glands include:
Testes – Produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.
Seminal vesicles – Produce a fluid that nourishes and transports sperm.
Prostate gland – Secretes fluid that helps protect sperm during ejaculation.
Bulbourethral glands – Produce a lubricating fluid for the urethra.
Female sex hormones include:
Estrogen – Responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual
cycle.
Progesterone – Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and helps maintain it.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – Stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles.
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