Chapter 1: Forces and Motion
Scalars and Vectors:
● Scalar: Only magnitude (e.g., speed, distance).
● Vector: Magnitude and direction (e.g., velocity, force).
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration:
● Speed: Speed=DistanceTime\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\
text{Time}}Speed=TimeDistance (scalar).
● Velocity: Speed in a specific direction (vector).
● Acceleration: Acceleration=v−ut\text{Acceleration} = \frac{v - u}
{t}Acceleration=tv−u
○ uuu: initial velocity, vvv: final velocity, ttt: time.
Distance-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs:
● Distance-Time:
○ Gradient = speed.
○ Flat section = stationary.
● Velocity-Time:
○ Gradient = acceleration.
○ Area under graph = distance.
Newton’s Laws of Motion:
1. An object remains in uniform motion or at rest unless acted upon by an external force.
2. F=maF = maF=ma (Force = mass × acceleration).
3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Weight and Mass:
● Weight: W=mgW = mgW=mg, where g=10 m/s2g = 10 \, \text{m/s}^2g=10m/s2.
● Mass: Amount of matter (constant).
Forces:
● Contact forces: Friction, tension, normal force.
● Non-contact forces: Gravity, electrostatic, magnetic.
Chapter 2: Energy and Work
Energy Types and Transfers:
● Types: Kinetic, thermal, potential, chemical, electrical, nuclear, sound, light.
● Energy is conserved: cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred.
Work Done:
● W=F×dW = F \times dW=F×d (force × distance in the direction of force).
Power:
● P=WtP = \frac{W}{t}P=tW (work done per unit time).
Kinetic and Potential Energy:
● Kinetic Energy: KE=12mv2KE = \frac{1}{2} mv^2KE=21mv2
● Gravitational Potential Energy: GPE=mghGPE = mghGPE=mgh
Efficiency:
● Efficiency (%\%%): Efficiency=Useful Energy OutputTotal Energy Input×100\
text{Efficiency} = \frac{\text{Useful Energy Output}}{\text{Total Energy Input}} \times
100Efficiency=Total Energy InputUseful Energy Output×100
Chapter 3: Waves
Properties of Waves:
● Transverse Waves: Oscillations are perpendicular to direction of wave travel (e.g.,
light).
● Longitudinal Waves: Oscillations are parallel to direction of wave travel (e.g., sound).
Wave Equations:
● Wave speed: v=fλv = f\lambdav=fλ
○ vvv: speed, fff: frequency, λ\lambdaλ: wavelength.
Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction:
● Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
● Refraction: Bending of waves due to speed change in different media.
● Diffraction: Spreading of waves when they pass through a gap or around obstacles.
Chapter 4: Energy Resources and Energy Transfers
Energy Resources:
● Renewable: Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, tidal, biomass.
● Non-Renewable: Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear.
Energy Transfers:
● Mechanically (force), electrically, heating, radiation (light/sound).
Chapter 11: Electromagnetic Spectrum
● Order: Gamma, X-rays, UV, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves.
● Uses include:
○ X-rays for medical imaging.
○ Microwaves for communication and cooking.
Chapter 14: Work, Energy, and Power
● Covered extensively in Chapter 2.