STUDY OF FLUID FLOW AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON NACA
4412 AIRFOIL USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Shamsher Ali Ansari
Undergraduate student, Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
The prime objective of this research report is to conduct a 2-dimensional CFD analysis on NACA 4412 airfoil to
calculate and visualize different parameters like lift coefficient, drag coefficient, pressure distribution and velocity
variation at different angle of attack keeping other conditions constant. The stall angle is also calculated. The velocity
contour, static and dynamic pressure contour at different angle of attack is obtained. The study was done on fluid
(air) flow over NACA 4412 airfoil to obtain pressure distribution over the airfoil, from which we can calculate lift and
drag using integral equations of pressure over finite surface areas. Lift and drag evaluation are key parameters in
further building an efficient and controllable aircraft. Various performance parameters like minimum thrust,
minimum power, cruise speed, take off speed, endurance, range, fuel consumption etc. depend on the lift and drag
values. Stability and control portions of aircraft are governed by the lift and drag values too. Calculating the lift and
drag accurately and quite efficiently is a stepping stone for the designing the aircraft. This computational method
consists of a steady-state, viscous flow in order to compute the lift and drag by employing the Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model in Ansys Fluent 2020 R1. The data of CFD simulation shows very close agreement with those of
experimental. Thus, it advocates an alternative, cheap and efficient way of determining the lift and drag over the
airfoil.
Keywords- lift and drag coefficient, airfoil, CFD, Spalart-Allmaras, stall speed, Pressure distribution, Velocity
distribution
1. Introduction
An airfoil is the cross-sectional shape of aircraft wing or blade of a propeller, which on moving through fluid (air)
produces aerodynamic forces (Lift and drag). Cross section of wing, propeller blade, wind mill blade, compressor and
turbine blade, helicopter blade etc. are some good examples of airfoil. Airfoil is simply a 2D representation of cross-
section of wing, while wing is a 3D object. Based on the symmetricity, airfoils are of two types; symmetric and
cambered.
Symmetric airfoil has same shape on both side of
camber line, doesn’t produce any lift at zero degree angle of
attack, the centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre are
coincident and lie exactly one quarter of the chord behind the
leading edge. However, cambered airfoil has different shapes
above and below the camber line the aerodynamic centre lies
exactly one quarter of the chord behind the leading edge.
Cambered airfoil has lower stall angle than symmetric airfoil.
Symmetric and cambered airfoil
NACA stands for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is an US federal agency promoting aeronautical related
researches. NACA 4412 airfoil is one of the most experimented airfoils with good aerodynamic performance. It is a 4
digits airfoil which carries specific meaning of each value stated below.
The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile as:
➢ First digit describes maximum camber as percentage of the chord.
➢ Second digit describes the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading edge in one-tenths of the
chord.
➢ Last two digits describe maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.
As for example of NACA 4412, airfoil has a maximum camber of 4% located 40% (0.4c) from the leading edge with a
maximum thickness of 12% of the chord.
NACA 4412 airfoil created in Ansys Fluent Design Airfoil nomenclature from Wikipedia
Modeler
Stall is the condition such that when angle of attack of an airfoil is increased beyond certain value, creates maximum
lift and the flow at trailing edge is disrupted (separated). The angle of attack where coefficient of lift is maximum is
called critical angle of attack. At this condition Cl is maximum, and the corresponding angle is called stall angle. Flying
beyond stall angle can be dangerous from stability as well as control perspectives.
Cl vs angle of attack for different cambered airfoil
W/S gives wing loading which is approximately constant, density for
particular altitude is also constant. (Cl)max is constant for particular airfoil
keeping all other parameters constant, so stall velocity can be calculated
which will also be constant.
Steady state flow is the condition where the fluid property at any point in the fluid does not change over
time. The mass flow rate remains constant and thus there is no accumulation of mass in the system. We have taken
into consideration a real fluid which has certain viscosity and compressibility. If we take into account the effect of the
viscosity to the flow, such problems come into viscous flow. And due to the viscosity, boundary layer will be formed
around the surface of the airfoil. While the entire focus of this paper is on the pressure and velocity distribution
around the airfoil and in turn calculating the coefficient of drag and lift at various angle of attack. When an airfoil is
subjected to the fluid flow, it experiences aerodynamic forces which are lift and drag. Lift is an aerodynamic force
which is perpendicular to the incoming fluid flow and balances the gravity.
Lift is generated due to pressure distribution around the airfoil. Drag is an aerodynamic force parallel to the
fluid flow and tends to resist the motion of the object. Drag acts opposite to the motion of the aircraft. Some drags
are parasite drag, wave drag, interference drag, induced drag etc. First and last are the most prominent drag
generated in the aircraft.
Drag and lift are calculated by the following formulas,
1 1
𝐿 = 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑉 2 ⋅ 𝐶𝐿 ⋅ 𝐴 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷 ⋅ 𝐴
2 2
𝐿 𝐷
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐷 =
1 2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑣 𝐴 2 𝜌𝑣 𝐴
• L and D denote lift force and drag force respectively
• V denotes the velocity of aircraft (Fluid flow)
• ρ is air density
• A is the wing area
• 𝐶𝐿 and 𝐶𝐷 represent the coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag respectively
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ⋅ 𝛼 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑎0 is the 2D lift curve slope.
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝜕𝛼
𝑎0 ⋅ 𝛼 𝛼𝑖 is the angle between free stream velocity and local
𝐶𝐿 = ⅆ𝐶𝐿
57.3 𝑎 velocity caused by the downwash.
1 + 𝜋𝐴𝑅ⅇ0 𝑎0 =
ⅆ(𝛼 − 𝛼𝑖 )
ⅇ is the elliptical lift distribution.
We can clearly see that Cl is dependent on the aspect ratio which is the ratio of square of wingspan and wing area.
Higher the aspect ratio is, more Cl it produces and vice versae. From the expression of Cl, we can see that the value of
Cl is equal to the sum of lift coefficient at zero angle of attack and product of lift curve slope to the angle of attack.
𝐿𝐶2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟ⅇ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎⅇ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑏2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝜋𝐴𝑅ⅇ (Drag polar) AR = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟ⅇ𝑎
=𝐴 (Aspect ratio)
Similarly, from drag polar we can see the dependence of drag on lift. The first term is the drag coefficient at zero
angle of attack and the second term is the lift induced drag. As lift increases, it induces the drag on the airfoil. Lift
induced drag is major contributor in drag. In the finite wing span, at the wing tip the fluid is at higher pressure at
bottom surface and at lower pressure at upper surface are intermixed causing vortices formation which induces drag
further. So, winglets are used to prevent intermixing of different pressure fluids and preventing vortices formation.
Lift and drag coefficients are most influential parameters in aerodynamics whose shadow allows us to calculate tons
of performance parameters such as velocity to fly at, minimum thrust required to fly, minimum power, cruise speed,
range, endurance etc.
Along with these, Bernoulli’s equation is a powerful equation that relates pressure and velocity in a flow. It also
states that total presure is constant in a flow. And this total pressure is the sum of dynamic and static pressure. If
dynamic pressure increases, static pressure decrease and vice versae. Dynamic pressure depends on flow velocity. As
velocity increases, so does dynamic pressure and vice versae.
The relation between total pressure, dynamic pressure and static pressure is given by,
total pressure = Static pressure + dynamic pressure
1 1 1
𝑃0 = 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ; 𝑃0 − 𝑃 = 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ; q = 2 𝜌𝑉 2
• 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 static pressure
• 𝑃0 is total pressure which is constant along any streamline and is known as stagnation pressure
• 𝑉 is the flow velocity
• 𝜌 is the density of the fluid
1
• 𝑞 = 2 𝜌𝑉 2 is the dynamic pressure
2. Modeling and simulation
The coordinate for the NACA 4412 airfoil was imported into the design modeler of Ansys Fluent to make a proper
geometry. The geometry was divided into six different regions to create a uniform and proper meshing. The C-type
structural mesh was created for better convergence and accurate result. Edge sizing and face meshing was done to
make meshing appear uniform. Following figures represent the structural meshing with the quadrilateral cross-
section. Reverse biasing is chosen to converge the meshing towards the airfoil. We have made use of Spalart–
Allmaras model, strain/vorticity-based which was designed specifically for aerospace related applications involving
wall-bounded flows and it has been shown to give quite precise results for boundary layers subjected to adverse
pressure gradients.
Pressure based solver is chosen, with absolute velocity formulation. We have taken into consideration the steady
state, 2D-planar type of solver which give appropriate results. Similarly, we have considered that there is no energy,
no heat transfer and no radiation effect. The result is computed from inlet surfaces at different angle of attack,
considering turbulent viscosity ratio to be one. Pressure-velocity coupling has been chosen as the solution method.
Fig 3: C-type structural meshing
Fig 4: Mesh around NACA 4412 airfoil
Parameters considered are:
Solver Pressure based steady
state Dimension of airfoil
Viscous model Spalart-Allmaras
• Chord: 1 m
Density of fluid(air) 1.225 kg/𝑚3
• Area: 1 𝑚2
Viscosity 1.7894 kg/m-s
Inlet velocity 43.9 m/s • Mach no: 0.13
Pressure-velocity Coupled • Angle of attack: 0-20 degree
coupling
Momentum Second order upwind
Modified turbulent Second order upwind
viscosity
Initialization Inlet values
Force monitor Lift and drag
Convergence limit 1e-6
Temperature 288.16 K
Reynold’s number 3,000,000 (approx.)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Velocity
0 degree 1 degree 2 degree
3 degree 4 degree 5 degree
6 degree 7 degree 8 degree
9 degree 10 degree 11 degree
12 degree 13 degreee 14 degree
15 degree 16 degree 17 degree
18 degrees 19 degrees 20 degrees
Velocity contour gives us detailed information about the fluid flow over and below of the airfoil. It also depicts the
velocity variation at different angle of attack. The cambered airfoil shape is such a unique shape that even at zero degree of
angle of attack, the fluid flow over the surface of it is relatively higher than at the bottom surface. However, at the exact
leading edge, the air strikes normally to the surface and thus velocity is zero and this point can be summarized as stagnation
point. And of course, stagnation point is the function of angle of attack. For different positive angle of attack, the stagnation
point is seemed to move away from leading edge on the lower surface, while it moves away from leading edge on the upper
surface for negative angle of attack. An angle of attack is increased, the fluid flow experienced at the top surface further
increases. But the velocity variation is gradually changed i.e., the velocity gradually becomes higher towards the upper
surface closer to the leading edge. The upper surface has fluid flow at higher velocity but as soon as angle of attack is
increased, the highest velocity is seen closer to leading edge of the upper surface. The more is the angle of attack increased,
the higher velocity is obtained closer to the leading edge, and of course the lower surface has lesser velocity and with the
increase in angle of attack, stagnation point shifts from exact leading edge to further away from leading edge.
As far as trailing edge is concerned, it follows Kutta condition which states that “A body with a sharp trailing edge
which is moving through a fluid will create about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at
the trailing edge. The flow pattern approaches the corner from above and below, meets at the corner, then flows away from
the body creating stagnation point at the trailing edge. As the angle of attack increases, the fluid begins to flow less
smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil i.e., the separation point of the flow starts to move from the trailing edge
towards the leading edge. And at the maximum lift condition (critical angle), the flow is separated and as critical angle
increases further, the flow will be fully separated and lift coefficient decreases drastically further. The aircraft is called to be
in stall above that critical angle.
The magnitude of the velocity is higher at the upper surface and lesser at the bottom surface than that of the
incoming flow stream.
3.2 Dynamic pressure
0 degree 1 degrees 2 degree
3 degree 4 degree 5 degree
6 degree 7 degree 8 degree
9 degree 10 degree 11 degree
12 degree 13 degreee 14 degree
15 degree 16 degree 17 degree
18 degree 19 degree 20 degree
Dynamic pressure is an important term used in the fluid dynamics. By measuring the dynamic pressure in a
flight and by employing a pitot-static tube, one can determine the airspeed of the aircraft. For an incompressible flow,
the dynamic pressure of the fluid is the difference between total pressure and static pressure. It is equivalent to the
following term.
1
q = 𝜌𝑉 2 ; dynamic pressure = total pressure – static pressure
2
Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy per unit volume of the fluid. At the stagnation point, dynamic pressure
is given by the difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Stagnation pressure is also equivalent to
total pressure. Dynamic pressure is used in venturi meter and other kinds of manometers to measure velocity head.
Velocity head is obtained by dividing the dynamic pressure by the product of density and acceleration due to gravity.
Dynamic pressure varies with the flow velocity. The region with higher flow velocity will have high dynamic
velocity and the region with lower velocity gives relatively low dynamic pressure. We can see top region having much
higher dynamic pressure than lower region.
From the dynamic pressure contour, we can see the dynamic pressure variation over the airfoil at different
angle of attack. The top surface of the airfoil has higher velocity and from the above formula the dynamic pressure
should increase. So, at the zero angle of attack, upper surface has higher dynamic pressure and lower surface has lesser
dynamic pressure. However, as the angle of attack is increased the dynamic pressure at the lower surface decreases
further at the air decelerates and velocity decreases. As the angle of attack increases, the dynamic pressure (which is
lesser than that at zero angle of attack) at the upper surface moves closer towards leading edge. Thus, dynamic
pressure seems to be higher only towards leading edge as angle of attack increases.
3.3 Static pressure
0 degree 1 degree 2 degree
3 degree 4 degree 5 degree
6 degree 7 degree 8 degree
9 degree 10 degree 11 degree
12 degree 13 degreee 14 degree
15 degree 16 degree 17 degree
18 degree 19 degree 20 degree
1 1 1
𝑃0 = 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ; 𝑃0 − 𝑃 = 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ; q = 2 𝜌𝑉 2
Static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Static pressure shows us that for cambered airfoil at zero angle of attack static pressure at the lower surface is
way higher than at the upper surface. The magnitude of the pressure at the lower surface is higher than that of the
incoming flow stream. Similarly, the magnitude of the pressure at the upper surface is lesser than that of the incoming
flow stream. As the angle of attack is increased, lower surface still has higher static pressure but this pressure spreads
towards entire lower surface and is significantly high enough to produce lift. Red color denotes the highest pressure
and we can see the pattern of this pressure distribution at the lower surface of the airfoil. Since the flow separation
moves away from trailing edge on the upper surface and thus the velocity decreases due to flow separation, and this
causes an increase in the static pressure in that region as well. As the angle of attack increases, static pressure on the
upper surface keeps on decreasing and shifting towards the leading edge, while the trailing edge is engulfed by the
higher static pressure.
From Bernoulli’s theorem, we know that total pressure is constant along this flow. Since, we have concluded
that dynamic pressure is higher at upper surface due to higher velocity. So, the static pressure will be exactly opposite
of what dynamic pressure is i.e., static pressure should be higher at lower surface and lesser at lower surface. From CFD
study and images from simulation, we validated the Bernoulli’s theorem. The difference in pressure is very significant
only towards leading edge, thus these regions contribute in lift generation to great extent.
3.4 Coefficient of pressure
0 degree 1 degree
2 degree 3 degree 4 degree
5 degree 6 degree 7 degree
8 degree 9 degree 10 degree
11 degree 12 degree 13 degree
14 degree 15 degree 16 degree
17 degree 18 degree
19 degree 20 degree
Pressure coefficient is a dimensionless quantity describing the relative pressure throughout a flow field in fluid
dynamic. It is defined as the Ratio of Static Pressure to the Dynamic Pressure.
• p is the Static Pressure at the point at which pressure coefficient is being
evaluated
• p(infinity) is the Static Pressure in the Free-stream
• 𝜌(𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦) is the free-stream Fluid Density
• V(infinity) is the free-stream Velocity of the Fluid
The above diagram gives us the clear picture of pressure coefficient variation at different locations on the airfoil and
at different angle of attack. T zero angle of attack, the leading edge will have stagnation point and static pressure at
this point will be the highest. The velocity along upper surface will be high, static pressure will be lower denoted by
the lower line in above Cp plot. The lower region will have higher static pressure and is denoted by upper line.
Similarly, as the angle of attack is increased, the difference in static pressure increases will be higher as shown in the
plots. But the difference in pressure coefficient at the upper and lower surface is relatively low at lesser angle of
attack, so at low angle of attack the lift generated is very minimum. As the angle of attack is increased, the difference
in pressure coefficient on both surface is very high and abundant which helps in generation of higher lift.
The generation of lift force is estimated by the integration of the the area under the Cp curve given by,
∬ (𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑈 ) ⅆ𝐴
𝑃𝐿 is the pressure at lower surface, 𝑃𝑈 is the pressure at upper surface and ⅆ𝐴 is the total surface area covered under
the Cp curve.
It can be clearly seen that there’s larger difference in pressure coefficient towards the front edge while its smaller
towards rear end of airfoil. So, from here, it can be understood that major portion of aircrafts lift is generated by the
front end of the airfoil and rear end contributes minimum in lift generation.
3.5 Lift and drag variation
Angle
of
attack Cl Cd Cl/Cd
0 0.43463 0.01037 41.91225
1 0.54230 0.01086 49.92166
2 0.64891 0.01146 56.60569
3 0.74599 0.01181 63.18718
4 0.84618 0.01252 67.59641
5 0.95641 0.01365 70.06376
6 1.05652 0.01486 71.08401
7 1.15967 0.01616 71.77039
8 1.25987 0.01758 71.66457
9 1.35401 0.01919 70.55427
10 1.44825 0.02093 69.19825
11 1.53591 0.02295 66.91544
12 1.61733 0.02535 63.7927
13 1.69286 0.02804 60.3668
14 1.75960 0.03132 56.18135
15 1.81312 0.03540 51.22092 Variation of Coefficient of lift with angle of attack
16 1.85125 0.04066 45.5259
17 1.87835 0.04676 40.16656
18 1.87368 0.05640 33.22182
19 1.83773 0.07003 26.24386
20 1.77292 0.08930 19.85378
Variation of coefficient of drag with angle of attack Variation of Cl/Cd with angle of attack
From the above table, we can see the values of coefficient of lift, coefficient of drag and the ratio of Cl and Cd at
different angle of attack. From the above data, we have plotted graphs as shown above.
From the above Cl and angle of attack plot, we can visualize the lift coefficient variation with the angle of
attack. As the angle of attack increases, the lift coefficient also increases. The lift coefficient keeps on increasing to a
certain limit till the flow is separated. At certain angle of attack, the lift coefficient reaches maximum point and flow
separates at that point. That particular angle is called critical angle and the state of airplane is in stall.
The corresponding angle at which stall occurs is called stall angle. The maximum lift coefficient is around 1.878
and the critical angle is around 17 degree. On further increasing the angle of attack, we can see the sudden and
significant decrease in lift coefficient.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ⋅ 𝛼 𝜕𝐶𝐿 The slope of the lift coefficient decreases As the angle of attack is
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝜕𝛼 increased from zero upto critical angle, though lift increases but the relavite
change in two consecutive lift coefficient decreases i.e. the change in lift
reduces. So we can conclude from this graph that 𝐶𝐿𝛼 decreases upto critical
angle and becomes negative on further increasing angle of attack.
Since maximum Cl is known, W/S called wing loading for a plane can be
calculated at certain altitude & at certain time and local density of the fluid at
that altitude can be found. So, the stall velocity can be calcuated from this
formula.
From the drag coefficient and angle of attack plot we can conclude that as angle of attack is increased the lift
coefficient also increases. At smaller angle, Cd increase is small. However, as the angle of attack increases, the flow
separation and vorticity starts to form at the trailing edge. So, the drag coefficient increases more significantly at
higher angle of [Link] lower angle of attack, the slope of Cd vs angle of attack is very less. As angle of attack is
increased, the slope increases. After the flow separation completely obtained, the highest slope is obtained and Cd
will thus be highest.
𝐿𝐶2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝜋𝐴𝑅ⅇ ; From drag polar, we can calculate the variation of Cd with the Cl. Cd varies to the square
power of Cl. As Cl increases, Cd increases by square of the Cl. So, as angle of attack increases,
Cl increases. And Cd increases more sharply than Cl.
Similarly, from Cl/Cd and angle of attack plot we can visualize the ratio of lift to drag coefficient variation with angle
of attack. Initially, as the angle of attack increases the Cl/Cd curve seems to be rising upward. The slope initially
increases and then becomes zero at maximum point and then decreases. From above graph, slope of Cl/Cd plot
increases up to around 7 degree and then becomes zero and then decreases.
𝐿 𝐶𝐿
=
𝐷 𝐶𝐷
L/D is the lift to drag ratio which is the amount of lift generated compared to drag. The ratio of L/D indicates airfoil
efficiency. Cl/Cd is very useful to compute thrust, minimum thrust, minimum power and many more aerospace
parameters. The maximum Cl/Cd value is found to be 71 at around 7 degrees angle of attack.
In the same way, for a given weight of aircraft the minimum thrust required will be obtained when (Cl/Cd) maximum.
Clearly, minimum thrust required is at 7 degrees when Cl/Cd is around 71. Along that way, minimum power required
3
𝐶𝐿2
to fly follows the same pattern 𝐶 maximum. The Appropriate values of lift and drag coefficient gives us clear insight
𝐷
and accurate ways to calculate various performance parameters, stability and control parameters.
4 Conclusion
Based on the CFD analysis of the flow over the airfoil, the behaviour of NACA 4412 airfoil in terms of coefficient of lift
and drag, pressure and velocity distribution at different angle of attack can be visualized. We have varied angle of
attack from 0 degree up to 20 degree and accordingly taken 21 data for our study. We observed that lift coefficient
increases with the increase in the angle of attack, becomes maximum at critical angle and decreases on further
increasing angle of attack. While, drag coefficient increases and varies much sharply than lift coefficient. Lift to drag
ratio also increases to certain angle and then begins to decrease. Velocity profile revealed us that velocity of fluid flow
is higher at upper surface and lesser on lower surface. Conversely, static pressure is high at lower surface and lesser
at upper surface. And dynamic pressure follows the pattern of velocity, being higher on upper surface and lesser on
lower surface. Difference in pressure coefficient is significantly higher towards front edge of airfoil and lesser at rear
edge. By employing the Spalart-Allamaras model, we obtained quite precise result, in lesser possible time, in the most
economical way and with utmost safety of life and instrument.
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[10] [Link]
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