2.

Sources of Contamination of Food and

Factors Affecting Kind and Number of
Microorganisms
I. SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF FOOD

Introduction:
Food contamination refers to the unintended presence of harmful microorganisms or
substances in food that may lead to spoilage or foodborne illnesses. Microorganisms can
contaminate food at any point during production, processing, distribution, storage, and
handling. The major sources of contamination include soil, water, air, raw materials,
equipment, and human handling.

1. Soil:
- Soil is a rich reservoir of microbial life including bacteria, fungi,
yeasts, and viruses.
- Common soil microbes: Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas,
Micrococcus, Aspergillus.
- Root crops, leafy vegetables, and fruits come into direct contact with
soil.

2. Water:
- Water used in irrigation, washing, processing, and as an ingredient
can introduce microorganisms.
- Contaminated water may contain pathogens like E. coli, Salmonella,
Vibrio cholerae, and protozoa.

3. Air:
- Airborne microorganisms attach to dust particles or are suspended
in aerosols.
- Fungi such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Mucor, and bacteria like
Micrococcus and Bacillus are common.
- Air contamination is common during open processing and storage.

4. Sewage and Waste:

- Improper disposal of waste and sewage near food processing units
can introduce enteric pathogens.

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 - Coliform bacteria (e.g., E. coli) serve as indicators of fecal
contamination.

5. Raw Materials:
- Raw meat, milk, vegetables, and eggs often harbor native microflora
or pathogens.
- Contamination may occur through improper storage, handling, or
processing.

6. Equipment and Utensils:

- Food contact surfaces that are improperly cleaned and sanitized act
as fomites.
- Biofilms on equipment may contain Pseudomonas, Listeria, and
Staphylococcus.

7. Food Handlers and Personnel:

- Humans are a major source of microbial contamination through
hands, skin, nasal droplets, and clothing.
- Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus are common human-
associated pathogens.

8. Animals and Insects:

- Insects (flies, cockroaches) and rodents carry pathogens from waste
to food.
- Livestock may introduce Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter in meat,
milk, and eggs.

9. Packaging Materials:
- Contaminated packaging or recycled containers may harbor spoilage
organisms and pathogens.

10. Cross-contamination:
- Transfer of microorganisms from raw to cooked foods due to
improper handling or storage.

II. FACTORS AFFECTING THE KIND AND NUMBER OF

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MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD

1. Intrinsic Factors:
These are inherent to the food itself and determine the type and load of
microorganisms that can grow.

a. Nutrient Content:
- Foods rich in proteins and carbohydrates (e.g., milk, meat) support
diverse microbes.
- Sugar-rich foods favor yeasts and osmophilic molds.

b. pH:
- Neutral pH foods (6.5–7.5) favor bacterial growth (e.g., meat).
- Acidic pH (<4.5) supports molds and yeasts (e.g., fruits).

c. Water Activity (aw):

- High aw (>0.90): Supports bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas).
- Intermediate aw (0.60–0.90): Supports yeasts and molds.
- Low aw (<0.60): Microbial growth inhibited.

d. Redox Potential (Eh):

- Aerobic organisms prefer high Eh (positive) environments (e.g.,
fruits, vegetables).
- Anaerobic bacteria grow in low Eh environments (e.g., canned
foods).

e. Natural Antimicrobials:
- Eggs: Lysozyme.
- Milk: Lactoferrin.
- Garlic: Allicin.
- Spices: Eugenol, thymol, and cinnamaldehyde.

f. Biological Structures:
- Natural barriers (e.g., shells, rinds, skins) inhibit microbial
penetration.

2. Extrinsic Factors:

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 a. Temperature:
- Psychrophilic bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas) grow in refrigerated
foods.
- Mesophilic organisms (e.g., Salmonella, E. coli) thrive in ambient
conditions.
- Thermophiles (e.g., Bacillus stearothermophilus) grow in hot
conditions.

b. Relative Humidity:
- High humidity supports surface microbial growth and spoilage.
- Dry conditions inhibit microbial growth.

c. Gaseous Atmosphere:
- Oxygen presence supports aerobic organisms; vacuum packaging
favors anaerobes.
- Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) helps reduce microbial
growth.

d. Storage Time:
- Prolonged storage increases the risk of microbial growth unless
preserved.

e. Handling and Processing:

- Inadequate hygiene, delays in processing, and improper sanitation
raise contamination risk.

f. Initial Microbial Load:

- Foods with higher initial contamination deteriorate faster.

g. Use of Preservatives:
- Chemical preservatives such as sorbates, benzoates, and nitrites
influence microbial presence.

III. Interaction Between Microorganisms in Food

1. Synergism:
- One organism produces metabolites that promote growth of others.
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 - Example: Lactic acid bacteria lowering pH favoring yeast.

2. Antagonism:
- One organism inhibits another by producing acids, antibiotics, or
bacteriocins.
- Example: Nisin from Lactococcus inhibits Listeria.

3. Competition:
- Microorganisms compete for nutrients and space.
- Dominance of spoilage organisms often suppresses beneficial flora.

3. Principles of Food Preservation and

Microbial Spoilage of Foods
(Refere Food Microbiology Martin R Adams Maurice 3rd edition
Detailed notes )

I. Principles of Food Preservation

Food preservation methods aim to inhibit or destroy microorganisms to
prolong shelf life and ensure food safety.

A. Microbiostatic and Microbicidal Methods

1. Asepsis

Definition: Prevention of contamination by maintaining

sterility.

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Methods: Hygienic handling, sterilized packaging, clean
environments.

Example: Vacuum-sealed sterile containers, aseptic milk

packaging.

2. Removal of Microorganisms

Involves filtration (for liquids like beer or juice).

Techniques:

Membrane filtration: Removes bacteria using 0.22–0.45 μm pore size

filters.

Centrifugation: Partially removes cells in liquids.

Not applicable to solid foods.

3. Anaerobic Conditions

Oxygen is excluded to prevent aerobic microbial growth.

Methods:

-Vacuum packaging

-Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

-Effective against molds and aerobic spoilage bacteria.

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4. High Temperature

Pasteurization: Kills non-spore-forming pathogens. (e.g., 63°C for 30

min or 72°C for 15 sec)

Sterilization: Destroys all microorganisms and spores (e.g., canned

foods at 121°C under pressure).

UHT Processing: >135°C for 1–2 sec; used in milk.

5. Low Temperature

Refrigeration (0–5°C): Slows microbial growth.

Freezing (-18°C or lower): Stops microbial activity but doesn't kill all
organisms.

Psychrotrophs like Listeria monocytogenes may still grow slowly.

6. Chemical Preservatives

Inhibit growth or kill microbes.

Common agents:

-Benzoates: Juices

-Sorbates: Cheese

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-Propionates: Bread

-Nitrites: Cured meats (also control Clostridium botulinum)

-Sulphites: Dried fruits, wines

-Use regulated by food safety authorities.

8. High Osmotic Pressure

High salt/sugar draws water out of microbial cells.

Examples:

Jams, jellies (sugar)

Pickled vegetables, salted meats (salt)

Effective against bacteria, less against osmophilic yeasts/molds.

9. Radiation

Ionizing radiation (gamma rays, e-beams) damages microbial DNA.

Used in meat, spices.

Non-ionizing radiation (UV) for surface disinfection.

Categories:

Radappertization: Sterilization

Radicidation: Kill pathogens

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Radurization: Reduce spoilage flora

10. Smoking

Combines drying, heating, and chemical action.

Phenols and aldehydes in smoke inhibit microbes.

Used for meat, fish preservation.

II. Microbial Spoilage of Foods

Spoilage occurs due to microbial growth and metabolic byproducts

altering texture, odor, appearance, or safety.

Common Spoilage Organisms:

-Bacteria:

Pseudomonas – meats, dairy (aerobic)

Clostridium spp. – canned foods (anaerobic)

Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc – vacuum-packed spoilage

-Yeasts:

Saccharomyces, Candida – sugary foods, beverages

Cause gas, turbidity, sour odor

-Molds:

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Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus – bread, fruits, grains

Can produce mycotoxins

III. Spoilage Examples by Food Type(table)

Food Item Type of Spoilage Organisms Involved

Milk

Sour curdling, ropiness

Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Alcaligenes

Meat

Slime, souring, greening

Pseudomonas, Clostridium, Lactobacillus

Bread

Ropiness, mold growth

Bacillus subtilis, Rhizopus, Penicillium

Canned Food

Flat sour, sulfide spoilage

Bacillus stearothermophilus, Clostridium spp.

Juices/Wines

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Fermentation, turbidity

Saccharomyces, Candida, Acetobacter

Vegetables

Soft rot, spoilage odors

Erwinia carotovora, molds

4. Classification of Foods by Ease of

Spoilage & Chemical Changes
Caused by Microorganisms

I. Classification of Foods by Ease of Spoilage

Foods are categorized based on their perishability, which is influenced
by moisture content, pH, nutrient content, and natural barriers.

A. Perishable Foods

Spoil within days without preservation.

High water activity (aw > 0.90).

Examples: Milk, meat, fish, fruits, vegetables.

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Require refrigeration or preservation techniques.

B. Semi-Perishable Foods

Shelf-life of weeks to months under proper conditions.

Moderate moisture content (aw ~0.80–0.90).

Examples: Potatoes, eggs, dry fruits, cheese.

C. Non-Perishable Foods

Long shelf-life even at room temperature.

Low moisture (aw < 0.60).

Examples: Flour, sugar, dry pulses, canned foods.

II. Chemical Changes in Foods Caused by

Microorganisms
Microbial activity leads to degradation of carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids, causing off-flavors, gases, toxins, and discoloration.

A. Carbohydrate Changes
Fermentation: Conversion of sugars into acids/gases/alcohol.

Spoilage signs: Sour taste, bloating of sealed containers.

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Microbes: Lactobacillus, Saccharomyces, Leuconostoc.

B. Protein Degradation (Proteolysis & Putrefaction)

Amino acids are broken down, producing foul-smelling compounds:

Ammonia, indole, skatole, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S).

Common in meat and dairy spoilage.

Microbes: Proteus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas.

C. Lipid Decomposition (Rancidity)

Fats broken down into fatty acids and aldehydes.

Spoilage signs: Off-odors, taste changes.

Microbes: Pseudomonas, Clostridium, molds like Penicillium.

D. Pigment Changes
Due to metabolic byproducts or microbial pigments.

Example: Greening of meats (Lactobacillus, H₂S-producers).

III. Spoilage of Canned and Non-Canned

Foods (Tabular Format)

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IV. Factors Influencing Spoilage Rate
-Water activity (aw): Higher = faster spoilage.

-Temperature: Mesophiles, psychrotrophs, thermophiles.

-pH: Low pH inhibits many pathogens.

-Oxygen availability: Determines aerobic vs anaerobic growth.

-Natural antimicrobials: Garlic (allicin), onions, spices.

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