GROUND
IMPROVEMENT
Preloading and vertical drains
When highly compressible, normally consolidated
clayey soil layers lie at limited/large depths, large
consolidation settlements are expected as the result of
the loads from large buildings, highway embankments,
or earth dams etc. Pre-compression and provision of
vertical drains in soft soil may be used to minimize post-
construction settlement.
This approach has resulted in a number of
techniques involving
•Pre-compression or Pre-loading
•Sand drains
•Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
•Vacuum consolidation
•High Vacuum Densification Method (HVDM)
Embankment on Clay Foundation
Effect of Surcharge Treatment
Surcharge
Fill
Without Surcharge
Settlement
Clay
With
Surcharge
Time Time for Equivalent Time for Total
Settlement With Settlement Without
Surcharge – Remove Surcharge
Surcharge at This Time
The principle of pre-compression is explained in figure
1 shown below
The proposed structural load per unit area is ∆σ’(p)
and the thickness of the clay layer undergoing
consolidation is Hc. The maximum primary
consolidation settlement caused by the structural
load is then
Eq (1)
The settlement-time relationship under the structural
load is shown in figure 1(b). However, if a surcharge
of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) is placed on the ground, the primary
consolidation settlement will be
Eq (2)
Sequence of steps in “Precompression”:
The total settlement of Sc(p) will occur at time t2,
which is much shorter than t1.
Hence, if a temporary total surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f)
is applied on the ground surface for time t2, the
settlement will be equal to Sc(p) .
At that time, if the surcharge is removed and a
structure with a permanent load per unit area ∆σ’(p) is
built and no appreciable settlement will occur.
Note: The total surcharge ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) can be applied
by means of temporary fills.
Derivation of equations for obtaining ∆σ’(f) and t2:
From the figure 1(b), under a surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f )
the degree of consolidation at time t2 after the
application of load is
Eq(3)
By substituting Eq(1) and Eq(2) in Eq(3) we get
Eq(4)
Figure gives magnitudes of U for varies combinations of
∆σ’(p) / σ’o and ∆σ’(f) / ∆σ’(p ) . Figure 2
0
0.5
0.1 0.5 1 2 5 10
1
1.5
2.5
3
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
U (%)
The degree of consolidation from Eq(4) is actually
the average degree of consolidation at time t2 as
shown in figure 1(b).
But due to the removal of surcharge and placement
of structural load, the portion of clay close to the
drainage surface will continue to swell, and the soil
close to the midplane will continue to settle.
A conservative approach may solve this problem
i.e., assume that U in Eq(4) is the midplane degree of
consolidation
U = f (Tv)
where U = midplane degree of consolidation
Tv = time factor = Cvt2/H2
Cv = coefficient of consolidation
t2 = time
H = maximum drainage path
The variation of U and Tv is given in figure 3.
Figure 3
Example:
During construction of a highway bridge, the average
permanent load on the clay layer is expected to
increase by about 115 kN/m3. The average effective
overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer is
210 kN/m3. Here, Hc = 10m,Cc = 0.81, eo = 2.7 and
Cv = 1.08m2/month. The clay is normally consolidated.
Determine
a. The total primary consolidation settlement of the
bridge without precompression.
b. The surcharge, ∆σ’(f), needed to eliminate the entire
primary consolidation settlement in nine months by
precompression.
Solution
Part a
The total primary consolidation settlement may be
calculated from Eq(1):
= 0.4152m = 415.2mm
Part b
We have,
Cv = 1.08 m2/month.
H = 6m (two way drainage)
t2 = 9 months.
Hence,
According to Figure 3, for Tv = 0.27, the value of U
is 40%.
we have,
∆σ’(p) = 115 kN/m2
and ∆σ’o = 210kN/m2
so
According to Figure 2, for U=40% and ∆σ̕p)
( /σ̕o= 0.548,
∆σ̕(f)/σ̕(p) =2.5; ∆σ̕(f) = (2.5)(115) =287.5kN/m2
Assuming a bulk density of 20 kN/m3 for fill material and a
height of 5m gives a pre-load of 100 kN/m2. The required
surcharge is higher than pre-load and hence
consolidation by sand drains/PVDs is required.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains
Advantages of PVDs over sand drains
The installation rate of PVDs is typically 5,000 linear
meters per day, which results in a significantly lower
project cost.
There is no risk of PVDs breaking installation, while
sand drains may have discontinuities if the mandril is
withdrawn too fast.
There is no risk of shear failure of PVDs during
settlement, while sand drains are vulnerable to shear
failure during settlement.
PVDs have discharge capacities, typically 30 X 10-6 to
90 X 10-6 m3/s, while a 0.35 m diameter sand drain has
a discharge capacity of 20 X 10-6 m3/s (Van Santvoort
1994)
When installed with a properly designed mandril,
smear effects are much less for PVDs than for large
diameter sand drains. The zone of smear is directly
proportional to the diameter of mandril used for
installation.
PVDs are factory produced materials and are quality
controlled, whereas sand drains are subject to the
quality variance of naturally occuring sands.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains
The prefabricated band drains are used for accelerating
the consolidation of marine deposits or soft soils.
In general, prefabricated band drains consist of a central
core, whose function is primarily to act as a free drainage
channel, and a non-woven filter jacket, which prevents the
soil surrounding the drain from entering the central core
but allows water to flow in.
Band drain is commonly used because of its easy
prefabrication, easy quality control, economy and small
disturbance to the surrounding soil during installation.
Trial Embankments
These are useful to determine the feasibility of
preloading and vertical drains in the field and
avoids uncertainties in sampling, field properties
and installations.
It needs to reproduce stress and field conditions that
are representation of actual structure.
It should be part of final structure.
It needs to be instrumented using piezometers,
settlement gauges, levelling points etc.
Instrumentation of Vertical Drains
Surcharge
Settlement Platform
Drainage Blanket
Permanent Fill
Soft Clay
Vertical
Drain
Firm Soil
Piezometers Not to Scale
Vertical Drain Installation
Sequence
Position Rig at Drain Location
Place Anchor on Drain End
Penetrate Mandrel to Desired Depth
Withdraw Mandrel
Cut Drain Material Above Drainage Blanket
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGE OF VERTICAL DRAINS
The advantages of vertical drains are threefold:
[Link] RATE OF GAIN OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF
CLAY
Enable the load to be applied more rapidly,
thus better use of construction plant
In case of embankments, steeper slopes and
provision of berms can be avoided
Lower amount of fill required
Increased rate of consolidation
Consequent savings in construction cost
2. INCREASED RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
Reduction in time required for primary settlement.
Structure or embankments can put into commission
and use far earlier
Reduction in cost of maintenance
3. STABILITY TO EMBANKMENTS
Many soft clay strata contain thin band, or parting,
of sand or silt
Excess horizontal spread of pore pressure along
these partings take place
Vertical drains installed can relieve these excess
pore pressure
Application of PVDs
Airport Runways
Golf Courses
Dredge Consolidation
Mine Tailings Consolidation
Tailing Ponds
Swampland/Wetland Development
Building Foundations
Retaining Walls
Parking Lots
Landfills
Vertical Drain
Installation of drains on a barge