BMEE303L - Thermal Engineering Systems

Module 4: Steam nozzle

Feroskhan M
Associate Professor, SMEC
 Steam Nozzle
• Accelerate steam in steam turbines
• Same principle in jet and rocket engines
• No external work ; velocity increases p, T fall
• Names: Convergent-Divergent nozzle, C-D nozzle,
con-di nozzle, de Laval nozzle
• At design conditions, flow is subsonic (M<1) in
convergent, supersonic (M>1) in divergent
• Governing equations:
1. Continuity equation: m  AV  constant
2. Steady flow energy equation:
2 2
V1 V2
h1   h2   h0
2 2
3. T-dS relationship: Tds  dh  dp / 
4. Isentropic relationships (ideal gas):
p T

 constant;  1
 constant
 
p
 Construction and Working
• Why should area increase for accelerating a supersonic flow?
dA
A

dV
V

1 M 2 
• The change in area (+ or -) depends on the Mach number
• Acceleration requires a converging passage for subsonic flows (M < 1) and
diverging passage for supersonic (M > 1)
• The nozzle receives steam from a high pressure chamber (e.g. a boiler).
Pressure = pc ; Temperature = Tc; Velocity, Vc ~ 0
• The section of minimum area is called ‘throat’: pt, Tt, Vt
• Discharges a jet at exit: back pressure pb
• Back pressure regulated by a flow valve : Less pb gives more flow
• One dimensional flow analysis: Flow properties are constant across any
cross section, no boundary layer effects
 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow
• Flow is controlled by the pressures
• Greater Dp, more acceleration
• Chamber pressure is fixed, back
pressure reduced progressively (by
means of a flow valve etc.)
• No flow when pb = pc
a) pb slighly < pc ; Flow accelerates till
throat (M<1), then decelerates
b) Flow sonic at throat (M=1), flow is
choked, decelerates downstream
c) Flow accelerates beyond throat (M >1),
suddenly decelerates across a normal
shock wave, sudden pressure rise
d) Shock shifts downstream, e) shock at exit
f) Design condition, no shock, M> 1 throughout divergent portion
g) Underexpanded, pressure reduces across expansion wave at exit
 Variation in Velocity in C-D Nozzle
• Velocity at throat is same for
conditions b-g : Choked flow
• T, p,  at throat are also same for
b-g (from SFEE, isentropic
relationships)
• Hence mass flow rates (= AV) are
also equal for conditions b-g
• Note that the drop in velocity
across shock increases as shock
location shifts downstream (c – e)
• This is because temperatures and
thus sonic velocity are lower at
downstream points
 Points to Note
• Pressure, Temperature drop during
acceleration (irrespective of whether
subsonic/supersonic)
• Once the velocity at throat becomes
sonic, the flow becomes choked. Further
fall in pb cannot increase the mass flow
rate. The flow pattern in converging
section also remains constant
• Flow rate can be increased by widening throat area (At), but
choking would still occur at some lower value of back pressure
• A normal shock wave is necessary to convert a supersonic
flow to subsonic in the divergent passage
• p, T rise sharply (instantaneously) across a shock wave -
irreversible
• An expansion wave causes a reduction in pressure
 Actual and Ideal Operation of Nozzle
• For a given Dp, highest reduction in
enthalpy is obtained for isentropic
expansion (1-2)
• Hence isentropic expansion gives
maximum acceleration
• Actual expansion (1-2’), though still
adiabatic, has irreversible effects like
friction, shock etc. Generates entropy
• Actual Dh, DV are lower
• Isentropic efficiency compares actual Dh
to isentropic Dh Dhact h h
• Most of friction occurs in divergent s   1 2'
passage (why?), has less effect on flow
Dhisentropic h1  h2
DKE act V V
2 2 2
rate (determined by choking) V
• Friction reduces KE, increases dryness  s   2'2 12  2 '2
DKEisentropic V2  V1 V2
fraction and specific volume at exit
 CD Nozzle – Important Equations
2  p1 p2 
V2  2  h1  h2     
  1  1  2 
• Velocity at any section 2:
 1
 
2 p1   p2  
 2  T2 
 1    a1 1  

  1 1   p1      1  T1 
 
 1
 
2  T1  2   p1  
• Mach no. at any section 2: M 2    1     1
  1  T2    1   p2  
 
2
• Max velocity: Vmax  a1
 1 
 2   1 2
• Critical pressure, velocity (at throat, M = 1): p*  p1   ; V *  a
  1   1
1

Equations in red boxes are general. Others are special cases for ideal
gases, Inlet velocity is neglected : V1 ~ 0
 Estimating Properties of Steam
• Steam tables
– Saturated (w.r.t Tsat and psat)
– Superheated (w.r.t different T for a given psat)
• Can be downloaded from:
[Link]
• Online calculator:
[Link]
h-s Diagram/Chart [Mollier Diagram]
h (kJ/kg)

s (kJ/kg.K)
 p-h Diagram/Chart
p (bar)

h (kJ/kg)
 Numerical - Steam Nozzles
At design conditions, dry saturated steam at 10 bar is expanded in a nozzle to
0.4 bar. The throat area is 7 cm2 and the inlet velocity is negligible. Estimate the
mass flow and the exit area. Assume isentropic flow and take the index of
expansion n = 1.135 for dry saturated steam.

p1 = 10 bar; p2 = 0.4 bar; At = 7 x 10-4 m2; n = 1.135

For saturated condition at inlet, T1 = Tsat,g @ 10 bar = 179.9 oC,
Also, v1 = vg = 0.194 m3/kg; h1 = hg = 2778.1 kJ/kg; s1 = sg = 6.587 kJ/kg.K


At design conditions, pt  p*  p1  2   5.8 bar

 1

  1 
As expansion is isentropic, at throat, st = s1 = 6.587 kJ/kg.K
Also, st = sf + [Link]
At 5.8 bar, sf = 1.918 kJ/kg.K and sfg = 4.853 kJ/kg.K
from which, dryness fraction xt = 0.9621
 Numerical - Steam Nozzles [Contd.]
Similarly, enthalpy a throat, ht = hf + [Link] = 664.8 + 0.9621*2090.5 = 2676.1 kJ/kg
Neglecting inlet velocity, velocity at throat, Vt  V *  2  h1  ht   451.7 m/s
Specific volume at throat, vt ≈ [Link] (why are we not taking vf into account?)
= 0.3136 m3/kg
Hence, mass flow rate, m  AV t t
 1.008 kg/s
vt
Proceed in a similar manner for flow at exit:
x2 = 0.837; h2 = 2258.8 kJ/kg; V2 = 1019.4 m/s, v2 = 3.34 m3/kg; A2 = 3.3 x 10-3 m2
Extra: What will be the exit conditions, if isentropic efficiency is 94%?
Expansion follows pvn = constant
n = 1.135 for saturated steam,
n = 1.3 for superheated steam
In general, n = 1.035 + 0.1x [Zenner’s equation]
where x is the initial dryness fraction
 BMEE303L - Thermal Engineering Systems

Module 5: Steam Turbines and Gas

Turbines
Feroskhan M
Associate Professor, SMEC
Steam Turbine
Impulse Steam Turbine
Principle
Reaction Steam Turbine
 Rankine Cycle
• Solves most practical issues of Carnot cycle
• Key is to superheat the vapour (so that turbine handles only vapour) and
to condense completely to liquid (so that pump handles only liquid)
• 1-2: Isentropic compression in pump Carnot
• 2-3: Isobaric heat addition in boiler (steam generator)
• 3-4: Isentropic expansion in turbine
• 4-1: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser

Rankine
 Rankine cycle
• Is internally reversible
• Area under 2-3 in T-s diagram is heat addition
• Area under 4-1 is heat rejection
• Enclosed area is net work output
• KE and PE are usually negligible for the steady
flow devices used in the Rankine cycle. SFEE
gives:
• w pump,in = h2 – h1 (assume adiabatic)
• w turb, out = h3 – h4 (assume adiabatic)
• qboiler, in = h3 – h2 (assume isobaric, no work)
• qcondenser, out = h4 – h1 (assume isobaric, no work)
• th = wnet/qin = 1 – qout/qin
 Ideal reheat cycle
• Means of avoiding/reducing moisture
content in turbine
• Superheating (heating before entry to
turbine) can avoid moisture content, but has
metallurgical constraints (blade melting)
• Another option is to reheat steam after it
has expanded to some extent
• This requires expansion in 2 stages
• First expand steam in high pressure (HP)
turbine, then take it back to boiler and
reheated (usually to same temp as at the
inlet of HP turbine)
• Then expand in low pressure (LP) turbine,
then to condenser
• q tot in = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4)
• w tot, turb = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)
Single stage reheating
 Ideal reheat cycle (contd.)
• Reheating raises temp of heat
addition, improves thermal efficiency
by 4-5%.
• Expansion approaches isothermal with
more number of reheat and expansion
stages
• Gain in efficiency reduces with more
no. of stages
• Two reheat stages are used only in
supercritical boilers. More than two
are never used
• Excess reheating can cause
superheated exhaust at exit of turbine
– increases heat rejection and reduces
efficiency
 Example
In a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat Rankine cycle, steam
enters the HP turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and reheated at an intermediate
pressure of 4 MPa to the same inlet temperature as that of the HP turbine. After
expansion in the LP turbine, it is condensed at a pressure of 10 kPa. Find: a) the
dryness fraction at the exit of the LP turbine, and b) the thermal efficiency

at 4 MPa

= 4 MPa

Usually, the reheat pressure is 20 – 25% of the inlet pressure to HPT

 Solution
• Properties of steam at inlet of HP turbine (from superheated steam table):
• i.e. at 15 MPa and 600oC: h3 = 3583.1 kJ/kg ; s3 = 6.6796 kJ/kg.K
• At the exit of HPT (point 4), p4 = 4 MPa, and s4 = s3 = 6.6796 kJ/kg.K
• From superheated steam table (by interpolation), T4 = 375.5oC and h4 =
3155.0 kJ/kg
• At inlet of LPT (point 5), p5 = 4 MPa, T5 = 600oC.
• From superheated steam table, h5 = 3674.9 kJ/kg ; s5 = 7.3688 kJ/kg.K
• After expansion in LPT, at point 6, s6 = s5 = 7.3688 kJ/kg.K
• Also, s6 = sf + [Link], from which, dryness fraction x = 0.896 at 4 MPa

• h6 = hf + [Link] = 2335.1 kJ/kg

• Also, at state 1, h1 = hf = 191.81 kJ/kg, vf = 0.00101 m3/kg
• Specific pump work = v1.(p2 – p1) = 15.14 kJ/kg
• h2 = h1 + wpump = 206.95 kJ/kg
 Solution (Contd.)
• Heat input in boiler + reheater per kg of steam:
• qin = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4) = 3896.1 kJ/kg
• Heat rejection in condenser, qout = h6 – h1 = 2143.3 kJ/kg
• Thermal efficiency = wnet,out/qin = 1 – qout/qin = 45%

• Note: We can also calculate the net turbine work output as

• whp + wlp = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)
• The corresponding simple Rankine cycle (no reheating) has an efficiency of
43%, dryness fraction at turbine exit of 0.814
 Ideal Regenerative Cycle
• Heat addition in the initial stage (after pump) occurs at low T
• Raising the temp here would improve efficiency
• Done by taking out (bleeding) some steam from turbine and
allowing it to heat the water supplied to boiler (feed water)
• Done in Regenerator / Feed Water Heater (FWH)
– Open FWH: Bled Steam mixes with water
– Closed FWH: No mixing
• Bleeding steam causes a slight loss in work output of turbine,
but regeneration has other benefits
– Open FWH can be used to remove air which might have leaked into
water
– Reduces the volume of steam at turbine exit, can design smaller
turbines
 Regeneration with Open FWH
• Say 1 kg steam leaves boiler (pt 5)
• Expands in turbine 5-6
• y kg steam bled off at 6
• Rest (1-y) kg expands till 7, condenses (7-1)
and pumped (1-2) to the same pressure as
the bled steam (p6 = p2 = p3)
• y is fixed such that mixing results in 1 kg
saturated water (Tsat ) at this pressure (pt3)
• Pump 2 raises water to boiler pressure (3-4)

where, , etc.
• Up to 8 FWHs are used in modern systems
 Regeneration with Closed FWH
(Supplementary)
• No mixing, so bled steam and feed
water can be at different pressures
• Bled off at 7, heats feed water at pt 2
(p2 = pboiler , p7 < p2)
• Ideally both exiting streams (9 and 3)
will have same T, but usually T9<T3
• Condensate at 3 pumped to feed
water pressure (4), mixes with feed
water (5), fed to boiler
• The bled steam can heat feed water
in multiple heaters since pressures
can be different, requires less pumps
• Open FWH is simpler to construct,
heat exchange is more effective as
the streams mix
 Gas Turbines : Joule-Brayton Cycle
• James P Joule and George Brayton (~ 1870)
• Isobaric heat exchange, isentropic
expansion/compression
• pressure ratio, rp = pmax/pmin
1
 1  1

rp
• Efficiency improves with increase in rp , 
• Range of rp : 5 – 20; usually 11 to 16.
• Limited by max metal temperature (~ 1700 K) –
turbine blade strength
• Overall air fuel ratio > 50 to keep components cool
- good air standard approximation
 GT applications
Open cycle GT
• Aircraft engines – open cycle
– Turbine power used to drive
compressor and auxiliaries
– Thrust produced by high
velocity gases expelled from
turbine
• Power generation and
marine engines Closed cycle GT
• As closed cycle in nuclear
power plants
• GTs have lower  compared
to diesel cycle
• Reheat, regeneration, inter-
cooling used to improve 
 Practical Joule-Brayton Cycle
– regeneration (exhaust gases preheat air prior to combustion)
– reheating (heating the combustion product in between turbine stages)
– intercooling (cooling the air in between compressor stages)
Thank You !