Engineering Mathematics (III) B

Computer and Control Engineering Dep. (PME2211)

Lecture #2

Dr. Eng. Ali Abdelmotaal Mehrez

aly_mehrez@[Link]
I. Series solution of ordinary
differential equations (o.d.e)
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Linear second order differential equation
𝒚′′ + 𝒑 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒒 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

Solution around singular point 𝑥0 = 0

lim 𝒑 𝒙 = ∞ Ferdinand Georg
𝒙→𝟎 𝑥0 = 0
Frobenius (1849 –1917)
OR is a singular
point (S.P)
lim 𝒒 𝒙 = ∞
𝒙→𝟎
lim 𝒙 𝒑 𝒙 ≠ ∞ 𝑥0 = 0
𝒙→𝟎 is a regular
and singular point
(R.S.P)
lim 𝒙𝟐 𝒒 𝒙 ≠ ∞
𝒙→𝟎

Frobenius Method
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Solution Scheme
(1) Let the solution to be in the form
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎 𝝀 is a constant

o Substitute in the d.e. with 𝑦, 𝑦′, and 𝑦′′ where:

𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 𝒚′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟏 𝒚′′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒏 + 𝝀 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟐

𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎

(2) Change all 𝒙’s in each series to the form 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 , and make all series start
from the same number σ𝒏=

(3) Compare the coefficients in both sides

With the assumption 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎, we got a quadratic relation for 𝜆 to obtain
𝜆1 and 𝜆2 such that 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Solution Scheme (cont.) (4) With two values 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 , the general
solution
𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞
Write 𝑦 in
terms of 𝑥 𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
and 𝜆 𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 :
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]

o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 Find the general solution for the following d.e. around 𝑥0 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 2 − 4/9 𝑦 = 0

Sol The general form of d.e. is 𝒚′′ + 𝒑 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒒 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

o Check the ordinary point (with considering the general form )

1 lim 𝑝(𝑥) = lim 1/𝑥 = ∞
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥0 = 0 is a singular point
𝑥 2 − 4Τ9
𝑞 𝑥 =
𝑥2

lim 𝑥𝑝(𝑥) = lim 1 = 1 ≠ ∞

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑥 2 𝑞(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 2 − 4Τ9) = − 4Τ9 ≠ ∞

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑥0 = 0 is a regular singular point

Frobenius Method
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.) o Substitute in the d.e. with 𝑦, 𝑦′, and 𝑦′′ where:
𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 𝒚′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟏 𝒚′′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒏 + 𝝀 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟐

𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎

𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 2 − 4/9 𝑦 = 0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−2 + 𝑥 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−1 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 − 4/9 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+2 − 4/9 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝑛=0 𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.) o Change all 𝒙’s in each series to the form 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 (Index shift)

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+2 − 4/9 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝑛=0 𝑛=0

𝒏→𝒏−𝟐

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝑛=2 𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.) 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝑛=2 𝑛=0

o Make all series start from 𝒏 = 𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝜆 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.) 𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝜆 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟐

o Compare the coefficients of 𝒙’s in both sides (with the assumption 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎)

𝒙𝝀 : 𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 + 𝜆 𝑎0 − 4/9𝑎0 = 0
𝑎0 𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 𝜆 − 4/9 = 0 with the assumption 𝜆2 − 4Τ9 = 0
𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎

𝜆1 = 2Τ3 , 𝜆2 = −2/3 𝜆 = ± 2Τ3

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.)
𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝜆 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟐

𝒙𝝀+𝟏 : 𝜆 + 1 𝜆 𝑎1 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 − 4/9𝑎1 = 0

𝑎1 𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 − 4/9 = 0 𝑎1 = 0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.)
𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝜆 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟐

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 4/9 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0

𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟐

𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 4/9𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+𝜆−1 +1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 4/9𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+𝜆 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 4/9𝑎𝑛 = 0

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.)
𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+𝜆 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 4/9𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑛+𝜆 2 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 4/9𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑎𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 = 2, 3, … (Recurrence Relation)
𝑛 + 𝜆 2 − 4/9

𝑎0
𝑛=2 𝑎2 = −
2 + 𝜆 2 − 4/9
𝑎1
𝑛=3 𝑎3 = − =0
3 + 𝜆 2 − 4Τ9
….. 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + …
𝒏=𝟎 Write 𝑦 in
= 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + … terms of 𝑥
and 𝜆
𝟏
= 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟐+𝝀 − 𝟒Τ𝟗
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 2Τ3 , 𝜆2 = −2/3

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 2Τ3 − (−2Τ3)
= 4Τ3
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 2Τ3 , 𝜆2 = −2/3

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 2Τ3 − (−2Τ3)
= 4Τ3
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#1 (cont.) 𝒏=∞
𝟏
𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟐+𝝀 − 𝟒Τ𝟗
𝒏=𝟎

𝑦1 is obtained as
1
𝑦1 = 𝑥 2Τ3 𝑎0 1 − 2
𝑥2 + …
𝜆1 = 2Τ3 2 + 2/3 − 4Τ9

Substitute 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐Τ𝟑 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟑/𝟐𝟎 𝒙𝟐 + …

𝜆 = 𝜆1

𝑦2 is obtained as
1
𝜆2 = − 2Τ3 𝑦2 = 𝑥 −2Τ3 𝑎0 1− 𝑥 2+ …
2 − 2/3 2 − 4Τ9
Substitute
𝜆 = 𝜆2
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙−𝟐Τ𝟑 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟑/𝟒 𝒙𝟐 + …

The general solution is 𝑦𝐺.𝑆 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 Solve the following d.e. around 𝑥0 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ + (1 + 𝑥)𝑦 = 0

Sol The general form of d.e. is 𝒚′′ + 𝒑 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒒 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

o Check the ordinary point (with considering the general form )

1 −1
𝑝 𝑥 =− lim 𝑝(𝑥) = lim =∞ 𝑥0 = 0 is a
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
singular point
(1 + 𝑥)
𝑞 𝑥 =
𝑥2
lim 𝑥𝑝(𝑥) = lim −1 = −1 ≠ ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑥 2 𝑞(𝑥) = lim (1 + 𝑥) = 1 ≠ ∞

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑥0 = 0 is a regular singular point

Frobenius Method
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.) o Substitute in the d.e. with 𝑦, 𝑦′, and 𝑦′′ where:
𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 𝒚′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟏 𝒚′′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒏 + 𝝀 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟐

𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎

𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ + (1 + 𝑥)𝑦 = 0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−2 − 𝑥 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−1 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

1 + 𝑥 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+1 = 0
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.) o Change all 𝒙’s in each series to the form 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 (Index shift)

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+1 = 0
𝑛=0
𝒏→𝒏−𝟏

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=1
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.) o Make all series start from 𝒏 = 𝟏
𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆
𝒏=𝟏
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

− 𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏
𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝒏=𝟏

o Compare the coefficients of 𝒙’s in both sides (with the assumption 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎)

with the assumption

𝒙𝝀 : 𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 − 𝜆 𝑎0 + 𝑎0 = 0 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 1 = 0
𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎

𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 1
𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 = 0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.)

𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 = 0
To R.H.S.

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−1

Common Factors

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 − 1 + 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 2 + 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 2 + 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−1

Common Factor

𝑎𝑛 𝑛+𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 2 + 1 = −𝑎𝑛−1
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛 = 1,2, 3, …
𝑎𝑛 = −
𝑛+𝜆 𝑛+𝜆−2 +1
(Recurrence Relation)

𝑎0 𝑎0 −𝑎0
𝑛=1 𝑎1 = − =− 2 = 2
𝜆+1 𝜆−1 +1 𝜆 −1+1 𝜆
𝑎1 𝑎1 −𝑎1 𝑎0
𝑛=2 𝑎2 = − =− 2 = =
𝜆+2 𝜆 +1 𝜆 + 2𝜆 + 1 𝜆 + 1 2 𝜆2 𝜆 + 1 2

…..

𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + …
𝒏=𝟎
𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟎 Write 𝑦 in
= 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 − 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐+ …
terms of 𝑥
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 and 𝜆
𝝀 𝟐+ …
= 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒙
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 1
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]

o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 1
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]

o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.) 𝒏=∞
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝟐𝒙+ 𝟐 𝟐
𝒙 𝟐+ …
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏
𝒏=𝟎

𝑦1 is obtained as
1 2
𝑦1 = 𝑥 1 𝑎0 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + …
𝜆1 = 1 4

Substitute 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏−𝒙+ 𝒙 + …
𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝟒
𝑦2 is obtained as
𝝏𝒚
𝜆2 = 1 𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
Differentiate with
𝝏 𝟏 𝟏
respect to 𝜆 then 𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀
(𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒙
+ … )ቚ
substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2 𝝏𝝀 𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐

Differentiate with respect to 𝜆 (two multiplied functions)

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#2 (cont.)
Remember
𝝏 𝝀
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = (𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 + … ) ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐 Differentiation of 𝑎𝑢
𝒚𝟐 𝑎𝑢 𝑎𝑢 𝑢′ ln 𝑎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝝏 𝝀
= (𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 𝟎 + 𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟑 − 𝟑 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … 𝒙 = 𝒙𝝀 𝟏 ln 𝒙
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝝏𝝀
𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝒙𝝀 𝟏 ln 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ) ቚ
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀+𝟏 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒂𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 + 𝟐𝒙 − − 𝒙 + … + 𝒙 ln 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙 + 𝒙 + …
𝟖 𝟒 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + … + 𝒙 ln 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟒 𝟒

The general solution is 𝑦𝐺.𝑆 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 Find the general solution for the following d.e. around 𝑥0 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0

Sol The general form of d.e. is 𝒚′′ + 𝒑 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒒 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

o Check the ordinary point (with considering the general form )

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑥−2
𝑝 𝑥 = lim 𝑝(𝑥) = lim = lim =∞ 𝑥0 = 0 is a
𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥
singular point
2
𝑞 𝑥 =
𝑥2
lim 𝑥𝑝(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 − 2) = −2 ≠ ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑥 2 𝑞(𝑥) = lim 2 = 2 ≠ ∞

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑥0 = 0 is a regular singular point

Frobenius Method
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) o Substitute in the d.e. with 𝑦, 𝑦′, and 𝑦′′ where:
𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 𝒚′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟏 𝒚′′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒏 + 𝝀 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟐

𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎

𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−2 + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−1 +

𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

2 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+1 − 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

+2 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) o Change all 𝒙’s in each series to the form 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 (Index shift)
𝒏→𝒏−𝟏
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+1 − 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0

𝑛=∞

+2 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆

𝑛=0 𝑛=1 𝑛=0

𝑛=∞

+2 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) o Make all series start from 𝒏 = 𝟏
𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +
𝒏=𝟏
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 − 2 𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 +

𝑛=1 𝒏=𝟏

𝑛=∞

2 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝒏=𝟏

o Compare the coefficients of 𝒙’s in both sides (with the assumption 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎)

with the assumption
𝒙𝝀 : 𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 − 2𝜆 𝑎0 + 2𝑎0 = 0 𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0
𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎

𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 1

𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 − 2 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑛 = 0

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)

𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 − 2 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑛 = 0

To R.H.S.

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 − 2 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 − 2 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

Common Factors

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 − 2 + 2𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 3 + 2𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 3 + 2𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

Common Factor
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 3 + 2 = − 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1

𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛 = 1,2, 3, …
𝑎𝑛 = −
𝑛+𝜆 𝑛+𝜆−3 +2 (Recurrence Relation)
−𝜆𝑎0 −𝜆𝑎0 −𝑎0
𝑛=1 𝑎1 = = =
𝜆 + 1 𝜆 − 2 + 2 𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 2 + 2 𝜆 − 1

− 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 − 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 −𝑎1 𝑎0
𝑛=2 𝑎2 = = = =
𝜆 + 2 𝜆 − 1 + 2 𝜆2 + 𝜆 − 2 + 2 𝜆 𝜆(𝜆 − 1)
…..

𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + … Write 𝑦 in
𝒏=𝟎 terms of 𝑥
𝝀
𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟎
= 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 − 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + … and 𝜆
𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏)
𝝀
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏)
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 :
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]

o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 1
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) 𝒏=∞
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏)
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝟏 is obtained as

2
1 2
𝑦1 = 𝑥 𝑎0 1−𝑥+ 𝑥 − …
𝜆1 = 2 2

Substitute 𝟏 𝟐
𝜆 = 𝜆1 = 2 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟎 𝟏−𝒙+ 𝒙 − …
𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.) 𝒚𝟐 is obtained as
Since 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, so we need to check the
coefficients 𝑎𝑛 from the recurrence relation
𝑛 = 1,2, 3, …
𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 =−
𝑛+𝜆 𝑛+𝜆−3 +2
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2 = 1 𝑛 + 1 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = −
𝑛+1 𝑛+1−3 +2

−𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛+1 𝑛−2 +2

−𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 2
𝑛 −𝑛−2+2

− 𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1,2, 3, …
𝑛−1
− 𝑎0
𝑛=1 𝑎1 = =∞
0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)
Here, we obtained one of the coefficients, 𝑎1 , equals to ∞.
Accordingly, the second solution 𝑦2 will be obtained as
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 1
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)
Here, we obtained one of the coefficients, 𝑎1 , equals to ∞.
Accordingly, the second solution 𝑦2 will be obtained as

𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏)

𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐

𝝏 𝝀
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + … ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏) 𝝀=𝝀𝟐 =𝟏

𝝀𝟐 = 𝟏

𝝏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀−𝟏 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + … ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏) 𝝀=𝝀𝟐 =𝟏
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)

𝝏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀−𝟏 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙+ 𝒙𝟐 + … ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀−𝟏 𝝀(𝝀 − 𝟏) 𝝀=𝝀𝟐 =𝟏

Remember
𝝏 𝝀
𝟏 𝟐
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝝀 − 𝟏 − 𝒙 + 𝒙 + … ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐 =𝟏 Differentiation of 𝑎𝑢
𝑎𝑢 𝑎𝑢 𝑢′ ln 𝑎
Differentiate with respect to 𝜆 (two multiplied functions) 𝝏 𝝀
𝒙 = 𝒙𝝀 𝟏 ln 𝒙
𝝏𝝀

𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝝀 − 𝟏 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + … + 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ቚ
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐 =𝟏

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2 = 1

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟎 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + … + 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 + …
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟎 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + … + 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 + …

The general solution is 𝑦𝐺.𝑆 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2

❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 Find the general solution for the following d.e. around 𝑥0 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 2 − 1/4 𝑦 = 0

Sol The general form of d.e. is 𝒚′′ + 𝒑 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒒 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

o Check the ordinary point (with considering the general form )

1 1
𝑝 𝑥 = lim 𝑝(𝑥) = lim = ∞ 𝑥0 = 0 is a
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
singular point
𝑥 2 − 1/4
𝑞 𝑥 =
𝑥2
lim 𝑥𝑝(𝑥) = lim 1 ≠ ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑥 2 𝑞(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 2 − 1/4) = −1/4 ≠ ∞

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

𝑥0 = 0 is a regular singular point

Frobenius Method
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) o Substitute in the d.e. with 𝑦, 𝑦′, and 𝑦′′ where:
𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞ 𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 𝒚′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟏 𝒚′′ = ෍ 𝒏 + 𝝀 𝒏 + 𝝀 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀−𝟐

𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎

𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 2 − 1/4 𝑦 = 0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−2 + 𝑥 ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆−1 +
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞

𝑥 2 − 1/4 ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
𝑛=0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+2

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞
1
− ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
4
𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) o Change all 𝒙’s in each series to the form 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 (Index shift)
𝒏→𝒏−𝟐
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆+2

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=∞
1
− ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
4
𝑛=0

𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆

𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=2
𝑛=∞
1
− ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
4
𝑛=0
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) o Make all series start from 𝒏 = 𝟐

𝑛=∞

𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆
𝒏=𝟐
𝑛=∞ 𝑛=∞

+ 𝜆 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆

𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟐
𝑛=∞
1
− 𝑎0 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝜆+1 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+𝜆 = 0
4
𝒏=𝟐

o Compare the coefficients of 𝒙’s in both sides (with the assumption 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎)

1 1
𝝀
𝒙 : 𝜆 𝜆 − 1 𝑎0 + 𝜆 𝑎0 − 𝑎0 = 0 with the assumption 𝜆2− =0
4 𝒂𝟎 ≠ 𝟎 4
1 1
𝜆1 = , 𝜆2 = −
2 2
1
𝒙𝝀+𝟏 : 𝜆 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 + 𝜆 + 1 𝑎1 − 𝑎1 = 0 𝑎1 = 0
4
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) 1
𝒙𝝀+𝒏 : 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛 = 0
4
Common Factors
To R.H.S.

1
𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜆 − 1 + 1 − 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−2
4
2
1
𝑛+𝜆 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛−2
4

𝑎𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑛 = 2, 3, …
1
𝑛+𝜆 2−
4
𝑎0
𝑛=2 𝑎2 = −
2 1
𝜆+2 −
4
𝑎1
𝑛=3 𝑎3 = − =0
1
𝜆+1 2−
4
…..
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) Write 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝜆
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + …
𝒏=𝟎
𝒂𝟎
= 𝒙𝝀 𝒂𝟎 − 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟐 𝟏
𝝀+𝟐 −𝟒
𝟏
= 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝟏
𝒙 𝟐+ …
𝝀+𝟐 𝟐 −
𝟒
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐
1 1
o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = , 𝜆2 = −
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 2 2
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐
1 1
o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = , 𝜆2 = −
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 2 2
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) 𝒏=∞
𝟏
𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟐 𝟏
𝒏=𝟎 𝝀+𝟐 −
𝟒

𝒚𝟏 is obtained as

1 16 2
1 𝑦1 = 𝑥2 𝑎0 1− 𝑥 − …
𝜆1 = 9
2
Substitute 𝟏 𝟏𝟔 𝟐
𝜆 = 𝜆1 = 2
1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙 − …
𝟗
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) 𝒚𝟐 is obtained as
Since 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, so we need to check the
coefficients 𝑎𝑛 from the recurrence relation
𝑎𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 = −
2 1 𝑛 = 2, 3, …
𝑛+𝜆 −
4
1 𝑎𝑛−2
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2 = − 𝑎 𝑛 = −
2 1 2 1
𝑛− −
2 4

It is indicated that the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 equals ∞ when the denominator equals 0. i.e.
2 𝑛=0 𝑎0 = ∞
1 1 1 1
𝑛− − =0 𝑛− =±
2 4 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑎1 = ∞

Since the recurrence relation starts from 𝒏 =2, so both coefficients are rejected.
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#3 (cont.)
Here, we obtained none of the coefficients equals to ∞.
Accordingly, the second solution 𝑦2 will be obtained as
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
𝒏=∞

𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝒏=𝟎

𝒚𝑮.𝑺 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝝀𝟏 > 𝝀𝟐

o To get 𝑦1 : 𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 1
Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆1 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝝀𝟏 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ]
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 1
o To get 𝑦2 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 ≠ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2
Check the coeffecients 𝑎𝑛 , Substitute 𝜆 = 𝜆2

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝝀𝟐 [𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒚𝟐 = ቚ
+ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + … ] 𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟏 =𝝀𝟐
𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∞ At least, One coeff. 𝑎𝑛 = ∞
𝝏
𝒚𝟐 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 𝒚 ቚ
𝝏𝝀 𝝀=𝝀𝟐
❑ Power series solution around singular point (Frobenius Method)
Ex#4 (cont.) 𝒏=∞
𝟏
𝒚 = ෍ 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏+𝝀 = 𝒙𝝀 𝒂 𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙𝟐 + …
𝟐 𝟏
𝒏=𝟎 𝝀+𝟐 −
𝟒

𝒚𝟐 is obtained as

1
−2 1 2
1 𝑦2 = 𝑥 𝑎0 1− 𝑥 − …
𝜆2 = − 2
2
Substitute 𝟏
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝜆 = 𝜆2 = − 2
1 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙 𝒂𝟎 𝟏− 𝒙 − …
𝟐

The general solution is 𝑦𝐺.𝑆 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2

Thanks for today