Content Table

Unit No Unit Page No

1. Teaching Aptitude 02 – 90

2. Research Aptitude 91 – 166

3. Comprehension 167 – 181

4. Communication 182 – 222

5. Mathematical Resoning and Aptitude 223 – 244

AS PER UPDATED SYLLABUS
UGC NET/SET/JRF
Paper - 1
Unit - 1
TEACHING APTITUDE

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 UNIT
TEACHING APTITUDE 1

(c) Diverse in Application: In application, teaching is of diverse

nature. It may have various forms as formal, informal,
directional, instructional, formational, training, conditioning,
in-doctrination, talking, showing, doing, remedial, etc.
Teaching is a complex process that brings a socially desirable
behavioral change in a person. Characteristics of Teaching may be described as:
In traditional concept, teaching is the act of imparting instructions to (a) System of actions: Teaching is a system of actions varied in
the learners in the classroom situation. But in modern concept, form and related to content and pupil behaviour under the
teaching is to cause the pupil to learn and acquire the desired prevailing physical and social conditions.
knowledge, skills and also desirable ways of living in society. It is a (b) Professional activity: It is a professional activity involving a
process in which learner, teacher, curriculum and other variables are teacher and student with a view to the development of
organised in a systematic and psychological way to attain some pre- students' personality. Professionalism helps students in being
determined goals. regular and making harmony with their objects towards those
Teaching is a part of the teaching-learning process. It is required to they are concentrated.
bring specific changes in a person according to the need of his society
and environment in which he is living. ‘Teaching is notan act as it is (c) Subjected to analysis and assessment: Teaching can
dynamic in nature, so it is termed as a process. It is also not a be analyzed and assessed, andanalysis and assessment
fundamental concept as it is greatly influenced by social and human provide feedback for further improvement.
factors. (d) Interactive process: Teaching is highly dominated by
Some Expert Views about Concept of Teaching: communication skills. Teaching is an interactive process
1. Ryburn’s view: “Teaching is a relationship which keeps the carried with purpose and objectives.
child to develop all his powers.” (e) Specialized Task: It is a specialized task and may be taken as
2. Burton’s view: “Teaching is the stimulation guidance, a set of skills for realizationof certain objectives.
direction, and encouragement oflearning.” (f) Collection of various modes: Teaching is a collection of
3. Smith’s view: In words of B.O. Smith, “Teaching is a various modes of itself. It is a broader term. Terms like
system of actions intended to producelearning.” conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination denote a
kind of teaching. They are a part of teaching but not a
Objectives of Teaching: synonym with teaching. These are variousmodes of teaching
Major objectives of teaching are as follows: contributing to teaching.
• To bring desired changes in pupils.
Aim of Teaching
• To shape behaviour and conduct. The aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as
• Acquisition of knowledge follows-
• Teaching - To bring changes in the behaviour of students.
• To improve the learning skills of students.
• Conditioning - To improve the learning skills of students.
• Formation of belief.
• Training - Shaping behaviour and conduct.
• To provide a social and efficient member of society.
• Instruction - Acquisition of knowledge.
Nature and Characteristics of Teaching • Indoctrination - Formation of belief.
Nature of teaching may be described as:
(a) Dynamic, Social, and Humane: Teaching is not a
fundamental concept because it is greatlyinfluenced by social
and human factors that are dynamic in themselves.
(b) Both Art and Science: Teaching is both art and science. It We all know that teaching is a purposeful activity. Through teaching,
calls for the exercise of talent and creativity making it an art a teacher brings a desirablechange in the learners. Both the concepts
and involving repertoire of techniques, procedures, and skills of teaching and learning are interrelated to each other. The
that can be studied systematically, described and improved development of the all-round personality of the learner is the
making it science. final goal of teaching and learning. During teaching, an interaction

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takes place between an experienced person (teacher) and an • Not intrinsic motivation
inexperienced one (student). Here the main aim is to bring change in
the behavior of the student. • Problem of classroom management
Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind
about the developmental stage of the learners so that desired
• Loss of retention and recall
educational objectives can be achieved. These three levels are
Understanding Level of Teaching (ULT)
A. Memory level: Thoughtless teaching It comes in between the memory level and reflective level. This stage
B. Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching of teaching involves a moderate level of thoughtful behaviour. It is a
pre-requisite for the reflective level teaching- learning, which
C. Reflective level: Upper thoughtful level requires the use of higher mental processes. The term
“understanding” literally means to comprehend, to grasp, and to have
Memory Level of Teaching (MLT) knowledge of, to learn, to interpret and to infer, etc.
The Objective of the Memory Level of teaching is Just to impart Morris, [Link], in his book, ‘Learning theory for Teachers’, defines
information or knowledge to the learner. This knowledge or that understanding level teaching, “seeks to acquaint students with
information is factual in nature, which is acquired through a the relationships between generalizations and particulars, between
mechanical process (i.e. memorization or rote learning). principles and solitary facts, and which show- the use to which the
Memory Level of teaching covers only the knowledge-based principlesmay be applied.”
objective of Bloom’s taxonomy where the students learn to identify, Herbart mentions three forms of mental reality which play an
recall, or remember the objects, events, ideas, and concepts and important role in teaching-learning at the understanding level. They
retain them in memory. are sense impressions, images, and elective elements ofpleasure
Memory level teaching lacks insight. Psychologically, it is cognitive and pain. In Herbart’s arrangements, the teacher is conceived as an
level [Link] Points of Memory Level of Teaching: architect as well as the builder of the minds of the students by
1. It is supported by Herbart Theory of Appreciation, which states manipulating ideas to construct a student’s circle of thought.
that this level of teaching seeks the learner to acquaint himself
with the relationship between the facts and principles. He advocated six steps of teaching:
2. It is the first stage of teaching to get factual information. • preparation,
3. Useful for children in the lower classes because of their intellect
• presentation,
is under development, andthey have a rote memory.
4. MLT aims to get factual information, to train memory, to • comparison,
retrain the learning material in-memory storage, to reproduce • generalization,
and recognize the learned information when required
5. Teacher dominated methods are used- like drill, review, and • application, and
revision and asking questions. • evaluation
6. The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written, and
essay-type examinations. Morrison very clearly stated that understanding is not merely being
able to recall something; it isnot mere generalization deduced from
7. Good memory includes rapidity in learning, stability of specific facts; it is an insight into how it may be used in future
retention, rapidity in recalling, andability to bring only situations. Morrison asserted that the outcome of all teaching is ‘
desirable contents to the conscious level. Mastery’ and not memorization of facts. He proposed a unit plan,
8. Memory level teaching acts as the first step for each unit representing an insight which is relatively complete in
understanding and reflective levels ofteaching. It is a pre- itself.
requisite for understanding level teaching.
Important points:
Merits/ Advantages and Importance of Memory Level of 1. Morrison is the main proponent of understanding level of
Teaching: teaching.
• Useful for young children 2. It is ‘memory plus insight’ as it goes beyond just
• Useful for the acquisition of facts, information of models and memorizing facts. It focuses on themastery of the subject.
structure 3. It makes pupils understand generalizations, principles, and
• Help children learn a new concept
facts.

• Useful for slow learners

4. It provides more and more opportunities for the students to
develop ‘intellectualbehaviour’.
• The basis for understanding and reective level of teaching. 5. It provides an active role for both the pupil and the teacher for
the assimilation of facts. [Link] evaluation system mainly
Demerits / Disadvantages of Memory Level of Teaching: includes both essay and objective-type questions.
• Not suitable for higher classes
Merits/ advantages Understating level of Teaching (ULT):
• Use of rote memory
• Effective learning
• Dominance of teacher
• Development of different cognition abilities
• Little interaction in the classroom
• Sets stages for entering into the Reflective Level of Teaching
• No room for initiation and self-learning for the students
• Effective classroom interaction
Demerits or disadvantages of Understanding Level of Teaching

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(ULT):
• Ignores higher cognitive abilities Demerits of Reflective Level of Teaching:

• Less emphasis on intrinsic motivation

• It is not suitable for lower classes

• No individualized learning
• It is a time-consuming process.

• Teacher centered
• It is not applicable for dull students.
Reflective Level of Teaching • There is an excess burden to the teacher.
This Level of teaching is the highest level of teaching-learning
activity. It is the stage of learning when students do not merely Requirements of Teaching
repeats and revise or answer the questions as asked for; nor do they The teaching process involves the following variables.
only understand, learn, interrelate or interpret the concepts but also
they ponder upon, contemplate and pay serious thoughtful 1. Dependent Variable
consideration to the presented contents. The student is a dependent variable. He is subjected to changes
The main objectives of Reflective Level of Teaching are: and developments through the efforts of the teacher and teaching
• To develop insight into the learner to solve problems. process. In the process of teaching, the dependent variable plays
the functional or active part.
• To develop rational and critical thinking in the students.
• To develop the ability of independent thinking and decision 2. Independent Variable
making in the students. The teacher is an independent variable. He is responsible for the
functioning of students, the dependent variables. He is free to
Important Points: act in the process while students are quite dependent on him.
1. Hunt is the main proponent of reflective level of teaching. The teacher plans, organizes, leads and controls the process of
teaching. Like dependent variables,independent variables also
2. It is the highest level of teaching and includes both ULT and play the functional or active part.
MLT.
3. It is problem-centric approach of teaching. 3. Intervening Variables
There is a need of desirable interaction between the dependent
4. The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research and the independent variable to achieve the goals of teaching.
approach to solve the problem. This role is played by the intervening variables. The content of
5. Classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‘open and teaching, methods and techniques, tactics and strategies
independent’. The learners are self-motivated (intrinsic) and management of instructional material and teaching
active. environments, etc., are the Intervening Variables.
6. The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that
Basic Requirements of Teaching
they can solve problems oftheir lives by reasoning, logic, and
Basic requirements of teaching are:
imagination, and lead successful and happy lives.
7. The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes the
1. All three variables of teaching
secondary place. 2. Professionalism
8. Essay-type test is used for evaluation. Attitude, belief, and
3. Suitable environment
involvement are also evaluated. 4. Teacher-student relationship
5. Student's discipline
Merits or Advantages of Reflective Level of Teaching: 6. Teacher's devotion to teaching, and also, on the other hand,
• It is the most thoughtful mode of operation. student's devotion to learning.
• Learner-centered approach
• Development of problem-solving ability
• Useful for gifted children. Learning is a key concept in human behavior. It is the axiom of all
• Provides maximum exibility teaching and learning. It includes everything the learner does and
thinks. It influences the acquisition of information, attitudes and
• Self-motivation beliefs, goals, achievements and failures, behavior, both adaptive
• Development of creativity and maladaptive, and even personality traits
of learning. Following aresome of the definitions given by them:
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a resultof experience and practice. Any good
Learning as a Process
definition of learning should have three elements:
Hilgard an exponent in the field of learning says, “Learning is the
(i) Learning is a change in behavior; process by which anactivity originates or is changed through
(ii) This change takes place through experience or practice. training procedures.”
Changes due to growth, maturation and inquiry cannot be considered
as learning. Bernard takes learning as a process by which an organism
satisfying the motivation adopts oradjusts to situations in which it
(iii) The occurred change must be relatively permanent, i.e. the must modify its behavior in order to overcome obstacles and
learned response must last for a fairly long time. barriers.
Meaning and Definition
Various psychologists and educationists have defined the concept Learning as a Change in Performance

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 7. Learning includes all the three aspects of Human Behaviour
McGeoch- a renowned comparative psychologist says, “Learning
as we measure it is a changein performance as a function of TYPES OF LEARNING
practice.”
We can classify learning in a dozen of ways from general to the
Walker, E.L. (1976) considers “Learning as a relatively permanent specific. Making generaldistinctions, psychologists have divided
change in performancethat occurs as a result of experience, and is learning categories:
not attributable to maturation, fatigue or motivation.
1. Conditioning: - Generally speaking, the individual has to learn
Learning as Acquisition and Retention about the stimulus or theresponse/group of responses. If we learn
something about a stimulus, it is perceptual learning. But when we
Crow and Crow opine “Learning involves the acquisition of learn to make a particular response or a group of responses, it is
habits, knowledge andattitudes. Skinner also includes in learning called response learning. Response learning could be single or
both acquisition and retention. multiple-response learning. When an individual learns a single
response associated with a specific stimulus or a stimulus situation,
NATURE OF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING it is conditioning. Conditioning, where using the sequence of pairing
aconditional stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US), a
If we analyses the different definitions and interpretations of
conditioned response (CR) is learned. In this way, a number of
learning, the process and products of learning and different
conditional responses can be learned. This type of conditioning
factors of learning we can form some idea about the natureof
occurs in human as well as animal subject, single-response learning
learning. To sum up, learning has the following characteristics:
can be subdivided into classical conditioning, operant learning,
and aversive conditioning.
1. Learning is the modification of Behavior
2. Motor Learning: -It is also labeled as psychomotor learning or
2. Learning is Purposive: - McDougall stresses the purposeful skill learning. This includes all kinds of things, people learn to do,
nature of learning. Inother words, learning is a goal-directed such as eating with spoon or fork, swimming, typewriting, drives a
activity. car etc. Learning of such skills depends upon maturity, sensory-
motor co-ordination and integration of the responses related to the
3. Learning is a continuous Process intended skilllearned at initial preliminary stages.
4. Learning is a Universal Phenomenon: - Learning takes
place everywhere by all organisms in all cultures. It is an 3. Discrimination Learning: -We see that animal and human
activity that is taken up by all the living creatures. beings discriminate between a number of things in daily life. The
general feature of this type of learning is that the subject has to
5. Learning is Progressive and Developmental differentiate between the two stimuli which occur to him
6. Learning is Transferable: - Transfer in learning is feasible. simultaneously or in a close succession and one or the other is
Material, things and subject matter learned in one situation may frequently rewarded or punished. Differentiation between mother
facilitate or inhibit learning in the other situation and a stranger, a dog and a doll, taste of learning. Three
important situations of discrimination learning are: probability animals like chimpanzees is certainly more than operant
learning, incidentallearning and reversal learning. conditioning. Human beings very occasionally in solving their
problems by more trial and error method. They make use of prior
4. Verbal learning: - It is the most important kind of learning for verbal learning; they evaluate the whole situation, employ verbal
human beings because it involves words and formal education reasoning, and sometimes also use trial and error activity, and
situations, and even the most informal learning in older children and ultimately some solution to the problem is found out. Gestalt
adults occur by the verbal route. It also provides an important link Psychologists have made a series of experiments in thisdirection.
between elementary nonverbal learning processes on one hand and
learning of language and thought on the other. Characteristics of Learning
The concept of learner’s characteristics is used in the sciences of
learning and cognition to designate a target group of learners and
5. Concept Learning: -It is more specifically meant for human define those aspect of their persona, academic, social orcognitive
subjects. Learning a concept is learning to react to some common self that may influence how and what they learn. Learner’s
property/properties in a group of objects. In children,concept learning characteristics are important for instructional designer as they allow
starts at a very young age. At a very early stage they try to learn about them to design and create tailored instruction for a target group. It
various stimuli of the environment and attach verbal labels for them, is expected by taking account of characteristics of earners, more
such as house, wood, fruit, man, girl etc. Once the concepts are efficient, effective, and/or motivating instructional materials can be
learned, they are manipulated in language and thinking. At higher designer and developed.
stage of learning, power of thinking and judgment is developed, and
the individual becomes capable of solving problem in his own way. Learner’s characteristics can be

6. Problem –Solving: - This is highest level of learning. In

• Personal,
problem solving learning, a problem is given to the organism, which • Academic,
discovers some of its relationship with its environment by some sort • Social and emotional, and
of manipulation. In fact, problem-solving in human beings andhigher
• Cognitive such a particular skills and disabilities for and/or impairments to
• Personal characteristics often relate to demographic learning.
information such as age, gender, maturation, language, social
economic cultural background and specific needs of a leader group • Academic characteristics are more education and/or learning

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related such as learning goals of an individual or a group, prior 3. Social
knowledge, educational type, and educational level.
4. Emotional and Psychological
• Social and emotional characteristics relate to the group or
individual with respect to the group. Ex. of social/emotional 5. Moral
characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within Physical Development:
group, sociability, self-image, feelings of self-efficiency and mode • Restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes.
etc., • A need for physical activity because of increased energy.
• Developing sexual awareness, and often touching and
• Cognitive characteristics relate to such things as attention span, bumping into others.
memory, mental procedures,and intellectual skills which determine • A concern with changes in body size and shape.
how the learner perceives, remembers thinks, solves problems, • Physical vulnerability resulting from poor health/dietary habits
organizes and represents information in her/his brain. or engaging in riskybehaviours.
• Bodily changes that may cause awkward, uncoordinated
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT LEARNERS movements.
The characteristics of Adolescent learners can be explained on the
basis of the following factors: Intellectual (Academic) Development:
1. Physical • Moving from concrete to abstract thinking.
• An intense curiosity and wide range of intellectual pursuit, few
2. Intellectual of which are sustainedover the long term.
• High achievement when challenged and engaged. a demand forindependence and a desire for guidance and
• Prefers active over passive learning experiences. direction
• Interest in interacting with peers during learning activities.
• An ability to be self-reflective. Emotional and Psychological Development
• Demand the relevance in learning and what is being taught. • Mood swings marked by peaks of intensity and by
• Developing the capacity to understand higher levels of humor, unpredictability.
some of which may bemisunderstood by adults to be sarcastic • Needing to release energy, with sudden outbursts of activity.
or even aggressive
• A desire to become independent and to search for adult
identity and acceptance.
Social Development:
• Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of • Self-consciousness and being sensitive to personal criticism.
searching for a social positionwith peers. • Concern about physical growth and maturity.
• Exploring questions of racial and ethnic identity and seeking • A belief that their personal problems, feelings, and
peers who share the samebackground. experiences are unique to themselves.
• Exploring questions of sexual identity in visible or invisible • Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
ways.
• Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting
• Feeling intimidated or frightened by the initial middle school
behaviours.
experience.
• Liking fads and being interested in popular culture.
Moral Development:
• Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
• An understanding of the complexity of moral issues (question
• Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting values, culturalexpressions, and religious teachings).
behaviours.
• Being capable of and interested in participating in democracy.
• As interpersonal skills are being developed, fluctuates between
• Impatience with the pace of change and underestimating how • Accept responsibility for their own learning if learning is
difficult it is to make socialchanges. perceived as timely andappropriate.
• Needing and being influenced by adult role models who will
listen and be trustworthy.
• Relying on parents and important adults for advice but
wanting to make their owndecisions.
• Judging others quickly but acknowledging one’s own faults Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics
slowly. physical mental abilities,knowledge, habit, personality and character
• Show compassion and are vocal for those who are traits.
downtrodden or suffering and havespecial concern for animals The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group
and environmental issues. differences. This studyclassifies individuals by age, traits, sex, race,
social class and so on, and observes the differences within and
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS between those groups. Physical, mental, social and cultural
• Problem-cantered; seek educational solutions. differencesetc. are being studied, under individual differences.” –
• Results-oriented; have specific results in mind for education. John [Link] Ceeceo
• Self-directed; typically, not dependent on others for direction. According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as
including any measurableaspect of the total personality.” It is clear
• Often sceptical about new information; prefer to try it out from this definition of individual differences that it comprehends
before accepting it. every aspect of human personality which is in some manner
• Seek education that relates or applies directly to their measurable.
perceived needs, that is timely andappropriate for With respect to learner characteristics there are often large
their current lives. differences between the characteristics of different learner and

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groups of learners such as children, students, professionals, adult, • Age: - Mental abilities and potentialities develop with age, so
older people and disabled persons. This group differ in their learning efficiency increases with age up to a certain level, and after
motivation, that, it tends to decrease. As children are in growing and developing
prior knowledge, expertise level, study time, and physical abilities, age, their capacity to learn and acquire new things is greater as
etc. compared to that of the older individuals. Grown-up children have
grater potential to learn than very young children.
Individual differences can be categorized on the following • Motivation: - Motivation is the core of learning. It is of pivotal
characteristics: importance in affecting an individual’s persistence to learn.
1. Physical Appearance: Motivation is important in at least three ways; (i) Itis a condition for
2. Intelligence: eliciting behaviour. In other words, it brings out appropriate
behaviour to be learned, (ii) Motivation is necessary for
3. Attitudes: reinforcement, which, in turn, is an essential condition for learning,
4. Achievement: It has been found through achievement tests i.e. motivation permits reinforcement to occur, and (iii)It increases
that individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These the variability of behaviour and thus raising the probability of
differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in learning occurrence of correct responses. For example, curiosity and
mathematics. exploratory drive bring the individual into wider contact with the
These differences in achievement are even visible among the environment which increases the possibility of performing correct
children who are at the same level of intelligence. These behaviour/response. Thus, motivation provides a powerful incentive
differences are on account of the differences in the various factors for the learner to perform better.
of intelligence and the differences in the various experiences,
interests and educational background. • Previous learning: -Rate of learning is partially determined by
5. Motor ability the learner’s previous learning experiences with similar or somewhat
6. Sex: similar material. In the same or somewhat similar learned previous
situation, the individual might have “learned how to learn,” it at least
McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences prepares the ground to learn and provides ease in learning in the new
between men and women, on thebasis of some studies: set-up. So, the factor or relevant previous learning is of great
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater importance.
motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in • Intelligence: - Intelligence, an innate mental ability is basic to
mathematics and logic. the cognitive development of an individual. There is individual
difference in the intellectual ability oflearners. Intelligence, in terms
(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of of I.Q. score obtained on intelligence tests, is positively related to
taste, touch and smell etc.,while men show greater reaction learning. Generally, children with higher I.Q. learn new material
and conscious of size- weight illusion. more rapidly as compared to the average I.Q. children. However,
(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are learning is not always linearly related to I.Q. One point of caution is
superior in physics and chemistry. that intelligence cannot be defined solely in termsof learning ability
or the learned material by the learner.
(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of
speech etc. in men were found to bethree times of such faults • Mental health: - Good mental health in terms of the absence of
in women. anxiety, conflict, worry,and frustration, etc. provides the learner a
(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are good ground to learn better. All learning, especially for the
three times as many colour-blindmen as there are women. beginners, entails a certain amount of anxiety, but anxiety above
certain limits hampers learning and the outcomes in terms of the
7. Racial differences learned material decreases. Thus, the teacher should take care that
children must not be put in such an emotional state as may prove a
8. Economic status hindrance in learning.
9. Interests
• Physical handicaps and dysfunctioning: -Malformation and
10. Emotion malfunctioning of physical organs or some system cause great
hindrance in children’s proper learning. Defects in vision, hearing,
11. Personality and other diseases such as epilepsy, paralysis, cardiacproblems, etc.
affect learning. Needless to say that poor vision, hearing defects, and
Factors Affecting Teaching physical handicaps have far-reachingg psychological consequences
in learning.
Factors Affecting Teaching related to the Learner
Both physiological and psychological factors of the learner affect • Diet and nutrition: - Good diet and other nutrients are an
learning [Link] can discuss as follow: essential part of good physical health. These are essential for
• Maturation: - Maturation is the process of development of developing children and for better learning. For example,90% of the
bodily systems and co- ordination in the functioning of bodily organs glucose taken by a person is consumed by brain cells, so naturally,
and systems. It is the physical readiness of the individual for poor dietlacking adequate nutrients has an adverse effect on learning.
learning. Maturation governs not only certain specific motor
behaviour such as walking and talking etc., it also plays an essential • Attention and interest: -Both are interrelated to each other and
role in acquiring other skills such as reading and writing. This are also a part of the motivation. Interest originates attention, and
readiness or potentially within the individual determines “what to attention creates interest in the material/subject to be learned. If a
learn” and ‘how to learn’. child has an interest in some subject, he will pay moreattention to that;
and if he pays more attention, he may develop interest in the learning

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of that subject. generated would be a powerful aid to learning.

• Goal setting and level of aspiration: - Goal setting and level • The similarity of the task: - Tasks which have some elements
of aspiration both relatedto the psychodynamics of behaviour. Goal similar to the previouslylearned material make learning
set, high or low, by the individual, goes withthe expectation of the quick and comfortable. As in life, it is equally applicable in teaching-
individual to achieve. High expectation for achievement excites and learning situations.
individual to set a high goal, and if he succeeds in achieving that, he
will further have an expectation to set a higher goal. Low
achievement, on the contrary, will not onlydisappoint the doer, but
• Organization: - The subject-matter should be logically
organized so that we have betteroutcomes. The organization of
also lowers his goal setting behaviour. Teachers should take care that
learning material should be from simple to difficult, from concrete
learners make a realistic view of their abilities, set the goal
to abstract and from direct to indirect keeping in view
accordingly, and goon increasing it on its achievement.
the physical and mental development of learners, otherwise much of
teacher’s efforts and learner’s energy will be wasted.
Factors Affecting Teaching related to the Subject-Matters
Educationists and psychologists set the syllabi according to the • Relationship with life: - The task to be learned must be
physical and mentaldevelopment of children; even then, the presented in an interrelated manner. No subject- matter should be
important material related factors influencing learning can be taught in an isolated way. Most of the material from different
discussed as follows: subjects can be taught keeping in view their
• The difficulty of the task: - the material to be learned should interrelationship. If some part of the subject- matter is related to life
be of appropriate difficulty [Link] a very easy task fails to while teaching, its effectiveness increases, and
challenge children, a very difficult task disappoints them and forgetting, in that case, is minimized.
results in a slow rate of acquisition. The same task varies in
difficulty for children of different developmental levels or capacity Factors Related to Methods of Teaching and Environment
and previous experiences. Knowledge of methods of teaching is very essential for effective
learning. For better outcomes, teachers should use the appropriate
• Length of the task: - A lengthy material poses a big problem methods of teaching considering chronological age and mental
for young learners. The longer a material the more difficult it would development of children. However, a summary of the generally used
be to learn. The difficulty task should also be presented in small methodsis presented as below:
parts.
• Distribution of practice: - It is also called a method of masses
• Meaningfulness of the task: - Learning outcomes are V/s spaced practice. Learning depends upon the rate at which the
associated with the meaningfulness of the learning material. Rapid individual practices with the task. Short periods of practice inter read
learning occurs when children have to learn something meaningful. with a period of rest permit more efficient learning thandoes
continuous or masses practice.
So, the kind of material to be learned makes a considerable
difference in the rate of learning. Some tasks are hard, others are
• Whole V/s part learning: - One important question is whether
the material should belearned as A whole or in parts. One may
easy. The tasks that have some meaning make learning easier. In
go over the whole learning material several times or take one part at
verbal learning what makes certain learning material more
a time and learn it in the piecemeal method.
meaningful than others, dependsupon:
Experiments have proved that generally whole method gives better
(i) Pronounce ability: -Syllables or words that are easily results as it provides a total grasp of the material, shows
pronounced are comparativelymore readily learned than meaningful relationships between the different parts of the
those which are difficult to pronounce. material. The material thus learned can be retained for a longer time
(ii) Discriminability: - It means how far the instructional than learning by part method. But relative effectiveness of
material “stands out” differentfrom the other parts of the each method depends upon: (i) The age of the learner; (ii) Difficulty
syllabus. Sometimes an altogether different material level of the task; (iii) Length of the learning material; (iv)
catches good attention of the learners and is learned Mental ability of the learner.
quickly and easily than some other. • Recitation: - One way to secure the active participation of the
(iii) Associativeness: -The greater the number of associations learners in teaching- learning is to use the recitation
in the subject-matter, the greater is its meaningfulness and method. After learning certain material once, the learner recites and
easier it will be to learn. tries to recall it loudly. Later on, he checks up and corrects
his errors. Recitation method is superior to other methods in many
(iv) Perceptual Organization: - These are related to the situations, because:
organization of the material. If the instructional material is
organized well, its meaningfulness is increased, and the (i) It arouses active participation of the learner:
learners will have an easy grasp of it. One important type (ii) It gives instant feedback about his right responses: thereby
of such organization is known as “clustering” which is permitting immediate correction of the errors.
very helpful in learning. The gestalt Psychologists have
recommended certain principles perceptual organization. (iii) While reciting the material the learner practices for the
(v) Conceptual hierarchies: - Concepts may be ground into recall of the material, in a way, he is going through the
categories at some higher levels; making conceptual final shape of the material, which he is likely to use late
hierarchies of three or four levels, starting with concrete when tested.
instances and then ascending to general concepts. Teacher • Knowledge of result: - the learner goes on improving his
can start taking concrete examples with young children and performance if he is given information about the correctness of his
then go up to very general categories when he dealswith responses or his progress in learning at each stage of mastery. The
grown up children. Once the material to be learned is learner can sustain his efforts, if, during the
organized in certain ways,the meaningfulness thus course of learning,he may periodically know how well he has done or

9
how far he is away from the target. Knowledge of result aids learn much. The best teachers are the most open, welcoming, and
learning by being an incentive. Some information about his easy to approach. A good teacher possesses good listening skills and
accomplishment helps in maintaining his interest and motivation in take time outof their busy schedule to solve all kinds of problems of
learning. their students.

• Learning by doing: -Participation of the learner is of central Personality and behaviour

significance. So, the students should be encouraged to A teacher as a leader has to lead his students in the teaching learning
learn things by doing. It will bring more of their involvement in the process through the magneticinfluence and incredible impression left
task. They would take more interest in learning that on the minds of the students on the basis of his personalitytraits and
task and pay more attention to it. Therefore, the teacher should behaviour. He is a role model for his students. His actions, behaviour
devise means and ways to ensure active pattern and personality traits carry a great meaning to his students for
participation of the students. being imitated and brought into practice.
• Suitability of Method: - Methods of teaching adopted by the
teacher and environmental factors affecting learning are many Level of Adjustment and Mental health of the teacher
and varied. These can be elaboratedto any extent. Learning is affected How adjusted a teacher feel in his personal and professional life and
by the suitability of methods of teaching like; the state and level of mentalhealth maintained by the teacher carries
Discussion method, Demonstration method, Lecture method, Project much weight in influencing his teacher behaviour and teacher
method, Heuristic method, programmed learning method, Plat- effectiveness needed for the effective control and management of the
way method, Story-tellingmethod, Field-work, excursion and teaching, learning process. While a teacher possessing poor mental
trips etc. health and lack of adjustment in his personal and professional life
• Teacher and Environments related Factors: - These factors may prove totally failure in realization of teaching learning
also play an importantrole in the effectiveness of teaching- objective, a teacher possessing good mental health and adjustment
learning outcomes. Physical environment, social environment, may prove
classroom culture, curricula, time table; and an ideal image to his students and boon to the effectiveness of the
fatigue and rest veryimportant for providing conductive environment teaching learning process.
to learn better.
Discipline
Factors Affecting related to Teacher In a classroom, a teacher uses discipline to ensure routine is
If the learner stands on one end of the ongoing teaching-learning maintained, school rules are enforced,and the students are in a safe
process as one of the poles thenthe teacher act as the other pole for learning environment. A great teacher has effective discipline skills
the desired one of the teaching-learning activities in the classroom. and can promote positive behaviours and change in the classroom.
Hence, teacher-related factors play a quite significant role in the Without discipline, learning cannot be accomplished.
process of teaching.
The following are the teacher related factors in the teaching-learning Factors affecting Teaching related to Institution
process: 1. Teacher -Student ratio
Subject Knowledge
2. Quality of Teachers and Their Commitments
There is a saying that a teacher is only as good as what they know. If 3. Infrastructure
a teacher lacks knowledge ina subject, that dearth of understanding 4. Adopted teaching Methods
is passed along to the students. A teacher who knows his subjects
well can only play a decisive role in leading the journey of the
5. Management
teaching learning process. 6. Institutional Achievements
7. Stability
Knowledge of learners
8. Environment
This is a broad category that incorporates knowledge of the
cognitive, social and emotional development of learners. It includes 9. Physical and Material Resources
an understanding of how students learn at a given developmental
level; how learning in a specific subject area typically progresses
like learning progressions or trajectories; awareness that learners
have individual needs and abilities; and an understanding that
instruction should be tailored to meet each learner’s needs.
Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has
emerged thanks to various psychology theories. For example,
Teaching Skills
behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to
A teacher may know his subject well but for sharing, communicating learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically
and interacting with variousexperience related to the learning of the spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some
subject, he needs specific teaching skills. The proficiency and theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely
deficiency possessed by a teacher in this regard are quite responsible accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding
for turning the teacher learning process a big success or failure. of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these
theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of
Friendliness and Approachability psychology's past, present and future.
Because it’s the teacher’s job to help students learn, they must be 1. Behavioral Theories
easy to approach. Students will have questions that can’t be
answered if the teacher isn’t friendly and easy to talk to. The 2. Cognitive Theories
unapproachable, mean, arrogant, rude, teacher can’t last long. If the 3. Developmental Theories
students think of their teacher as their enemy, they certainly won’t

10
4. Humanist Theories specific social phenomena, including group behavior, social
influence, love and much more. Social psychology looks at a
5. Personality Theories wide range of social topics, including group behavior, social
6. Social Psychology Theories perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity,
aggression and prejudice. It is important to note that social
7. Learning Theories psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social
perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding
1. Behavioral Theories social behavior.
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory
of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired 7. Learning Theories
through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such
Learning theories focus on how people learning and acquire new
as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories
knowledge. This is an interdisciplinary topic of interest that often
dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth
draws upon information from psychology, education,
century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in
instructional design, and other areas.
therapeutic settingsto help clients learn new skills and behaviors.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli
shapes our behaviors.
Teaching is both, art and science. It requires mastermind creativity
2. Cognitive Theories that the students of different nature and community should be
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such handled carefully. Therefore, it is an art. On the other hand, it calls
as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and for the exercise of talent and creativity making it and involving
attention. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that repertoire of techniques, procedures, and skills that can be studied
studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, systematically, described, and improved, making it science. The
remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, teaching profession has successfully faced many challenges and
this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including transformations andadopted recent sophistication and technological
neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. The core focus of innovations suitably. All these developments have helped the
cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store teaching community to regain a high status in academic campuses
information. There are numerous practicalapplications for cognitive worldwide. The principles of learning and teaching are the tools
research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making available to a teacher to teach in a classroom or through TV.
accuracy and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning. Successful teaching needs systematic planning and careful
execution. Teaching is done in sequential steps. These steps are
called the phases.
3. Developmental Theories The teaching act follows in three stages:
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about (i) Pre-active phase. It is the planning phase.
human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever
wondered about what motivates human thought and behaviour, (ii) Inter-Active Phase. It concerns the implementation and
understanding these theories can provide useful insight into carrying out what has beenplanned. Therefore, it is a stage
individuals and society. of actual teaching.
(iii) Post-Active Phase. This phase concerns the evaluation
activities, which serve asfeedback for improvement.
4. Humanist Theories There are five steps involved in the method of teaching.
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity
during the 1950s. While earlier theories often focused on 1. Preparation
abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist 2. Presentation
theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings.
Some of the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and
3. Comparison
Abraham Maslow. 4. Generalization
5. Application
5. Personality Theories
Almost every day we describe and assess the personalities of the Methods of Teaching According to different Schools of
people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily Philosophy
musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to
whatpersonality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks (a) Methods by idealism
at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a
Buttler is right when he says, "Idealists consider themselves creators
person unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology
and determiners of methods, not devotees of someone method."
are devoted to the subject of personality. Almost everyday we
They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only. They do
describe and assess the personalities of the people around us.
not specify any method to be adopted in the centres of learning.
Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and
Therefore, the method is the weakest aspect of the philosophy of
why people behave as they do are similar to what personality
idealism. Different idealists have adopted different methods. Socrates
psychologists do.
laid adopted the question method. Plato, his disciple, changed the
question method into the conversational method and made it logical.
6. Social Psychology Theories His disciple, Aristotle followed inductive and deductive methods.
Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and Hegel adopted alogical method. Pestalozzi adopted the self-activity
explain social behavior. Social theoriesare generally centered on method. Herbart on methods says, "I have no conception of
education without instruction and do not acknowledge any

11
instruction which does not educate." He also takes the help of the (iii) Activity method and project method should be used in
discussion method and at times suggests debate as a technique of school practice.
teaching.
(iv) Establishing Experimental and Demonstration schools and
For classroom practice, idealists would encourage the use of the training in activities such asas scout movement, N.C.C., first
discussion and the lecture methods. The discussion method of aid should be encouraged.
learning which is popularly known as the Socratic method involves
questioning and discussion. It was the method of learning in the Some Specific Methods of Teaching
Upanishadic period of Indian education. It is also known as the
'Informal dialectic' [Link] value the use of well-prepared
and presented lectures. The lecture should not be a phonographic 1. Inferential Problem-Solving Technique
recitation on facts but a scholarly exposition. It should also not be Inductive and deductive are two important procedures of
deliveredin an autocratic way. It should be participatory. systematic approaches toproblem-solving.

(b) Methods by Naturalism Steps in Inductive Method

Rousseau considers education as a process of living. Being a process, (i) Recognition of the problem
it lasts throughout life or at least from birth to adult life. It finds its (ii) Searching for data
meaning for any particular stage, not on a future state. It is not
artificial, harsh, unsympathetic, repressive of all-natural inclinations, (iii) Organisation of data
by which "the child as a "little man" is made into a "big man" through (iv) Framing tentative solutions
the hands of the teacher. Development of the child through the
natural process is an enjoyable, rational, harmoniously balanced, ^ (v) Elimination
useful and hence natural life. The aim of education is achieved not (vi) Verification
in adult life, but in each succeeding day, whenever life has its natural
activities, its appropriate duties, and its corresponding satisfaction. Steps in Deductive Method
Thus stress is given on direct experience of things. Rousseau,
therefore says, "Give your scholar no verbal lessons: he should be
(i) Recognition of problem
taught by experience alone. (ii) Searching for data
(iii) Reviewing
(c) Pragmatic Methods (iv) Formulation of inferences
The focus of pragmatic methods of teaching is on the 'child-in-
society' and his activities therein rather than the book, the teacher, (v) Verification
the subject or exclusively the child-of-nature. Learning always
occurs as a result of an activity. The teacher has to capitalize upon 2. Team-Teaching
the activities of children to direct the teaching-learning process. Team-teaching is also called co-operative teaching. This is a recent
Activity is the basis of all teaching. The child should be enabled to idea in the field of education.
find out information by himself instead of pouring information on M.B. Naik said, "In a team-teaching method, two or more
him. Children should be encouraged to discover and investigate the teachers make a plan of the subjects cooperatively, carry it out,
facts of life. Education must develop a laboratory habit of mind. The and always evaluate its effects on the students periodically." In
method of teaching shouldbe experimental. team teaching, subject teachers give lectures to a big class. On
every working, all the members of the team have a common
(d) Existentialist Methods assembly. Here they discuss the methods used by the fellow-
The method of teaching advocated by existentialism is of asking teachers.
questions, refining answers, asking more questions and pushing the
issue until some acceptable conclusion was reached. Existentialists 3. Micro-Teaching: Micro-teaching is an innovative teaching
favored the Socratic approach to teaching, as it was inductive, technique. It is a new developmentin the field of teaching. The term
proceeding from the immediate and particular to the abstract and micro-teaching was first coined by Dwight Allen of Stanford
universal. In this method,knowledge and wisdom are gained through University in 1963.
personal relationships between the teacher andthe pupil. They give
emphasis on individual attention. Since the emphasis is given on Features of micro-teaching
individual attention, they prefer home education to school education.
In an existentialist system, the teacher cannot impose upon children
his own ideas, ideals, ideologies, and values. Religious education
(i) It is a teacher training technique.
may be imparted, provided there is no scope for indoctrinations. (ii) It focuses on developing teaching skills.
They advocate a method of teaching which can develop creativity (iii) It reduces the class size in five to ten students.
among the pupils.
(iv) The size of the topic is also reduced.
Methods of Teaching as recommended by Secondary Education (v) Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training skill.
Commission (1952-53)
(i) The commission suggested that methods of teaching should (vi) It provides feedback for trainee's performance.
provide ampleopportunities for students to develop clear (vii) It is an effective device to prepare competent teachers.
thinking and clear expression.
(viii) In this technique, learners are provided with immediate
(ii) Individual-centred methods and opportunities for practical knowledge of the correctnessof the response.
application of knowledgeshould be adopted.

12
Steps in Micro-teaching (ix) Repeating the cycle until the desired level of skill is
(i) Defining the skill achieved.
(ii) Demonstrating the skill
(iii) Planning the lesson
4. Question-Answer technique in teaching
No teacher of elementary or secondary subjects can succeed in his
(iv) Teaching the lesson instruction, which has not a fairmastery of the art of questioning.
(v) Discussion
Purposes of questioning:
(vi) Re-planning (i) To test the knowledge
(vii) Re-teaching (ii) To locate the difficulty
(viii) Re-discussion
Teaching Style
(iii) To arouse motivation Daniel K. Schneider thinks that teaching style refers to the
(iv) To secure active participation of students. teaching strategies and methodsemployed, including the use of
certain kinds of rhetoric.
(v) To apply knowledge The term itself has no agreed definition but the more widely
(vi) To recapitulate the lesson learnt. accepted definitions refer to it as:"a set of teaching tactics" (Galton
et al, 1980)
(vii) To promote thinking and originality "instructional format" (Siedentop, 1991).
(viii) To increase self confidence "the general pattern created by using a particular set of strategies"
Anthony Grasha (1996) identified five potential approaches for
(ix) To maintain discipline
classroom teachers:
(x) To promote intellectual and social development.
Underlying the need for questioning Parkar Said. "Questioning is • Expert
the key to all educativeactivities." • Formal Authority
• Personal Model
Teaching Methods for Different Focused Groups
• Facilitator
• Delegator

Comparison of Five Teaching Styles

Style Description Advantage/

Disadvantage

Expert Possesses knowledge and Advantage: The

expertise that students information,
need. Strives to maintain knowledge, and
status as anexpert by skills such
displaying detailed individuals
knowledge and possess.
challenging students to Disadvantage: If
enhance their competence. overused the
Concerned with display of
transmittinginformation knowledge can be
and ensuring that students intimidating to
arewell prepared. inexperienced
students. May not
always show the
underlying
though processes
that produced
answers.
Here, you will learn about the teaching styles especially, teacher-
centred and learner- centred (student) centred) approach of Formal Possesses status among Advantage: The
teaching. You will also get the concept, pros and cons, Authority student because of focus on clear
comparison between teacher vs student-centred approach and some knowledge and role as a expectations and
other methods of teaching. faculty. Concerned with acceptableways
providing of doing things.
Teaching Method positive/negative Disadvantage: A
The term “teaching method” refers to the general principles, feedback, establishing stronginvestment
pedagogy, and managementstrategies used for classroom learning goals, in this style can
instruction. expectations, and rules of lead to rigid
conduct. Concerned with standardized

13
 “correct, acceptable, and ways of decisions. Develop student courages of
standard ways to do managing capacity for independent actions to achieve
things.” students and their responsibility. Works as a goals.
concerns. consultant on student Disadvantage:
projects and provides Style is time-
support and consuming and
encouragement. ineffective when
a more direct
Believes in “teaching by Advantage: The approach is
example,” establishesa “hands on” nature [Link] make
Personal prototype for how to think of the approach. students
Model and behave. Oversees and Emphasison uncomfortable if
directs by showing how to direct observation not used in a
do things and encouraging andfollowing a positive and
students to observe and role model. affirming manner.
then emulate the Disadvantage: Concerned with
instructor’s approach. Some instructors developing students’ Advantage:
believe their Delegator capacityto function Contribute to
approach is “best” autonomously. Students students
leading some work independently on perceiving
students to feel projects or as part of themselves as
inadequate if they autonomous teams. The independent
cannot live upto teacher is available atthe learners.
such expectations request of students as a Disadvantage:
and standards. resource. May misread
Emphasizes the personal Advantage: The students’
nature of teacher- student personal readiness for
Facilitator interactions. Guides flexibility; the independent
students by asking focus on students’ work. Some
questions, exploring the needs and goals; students may
option, suggesting the willingness to become anxious
alternatives, and explore when given
encouraginginformed alternative autonomy.

Behar-Horenstein (2006) and many other studies distinguish 8. Style H (Individual) - Teacher determines content. Student
between: plans the programme.
9. Style I (Learner Initiated) - Student plans own programme.
Teacher centred A teacher is an advisor.
Student-centred (Learner Centred)
10. Style J (Self Teaching) - Student takes full responsibility for
the learning process.
Daniel K. Schneider doesn't feel that these 2 dimensions reflect
more recent theory. E.g.
Teacher-Centred Method
modern socio-constructivism (typically associated with "student-
In teacher-centred methods, students put all of their focus on the
centred") is very much teacher-led and can be highly scripted. In
other words, it may be more interesting to talk about the amount of teacher. You talk, and thestudents exclusively listen. During
scaffolding, monitoring and tutoring provided. activities, students work alone, and collaboration is discouraged.

Pros
Moston and Ashworth (1986) define according to Doherty (2003) When education is teacher-centred, the classroom remains
a list of teaching methods. orderly. Students are quiet, and youretain full control of the
classroom and its activities.
1. Style A (Command) - teacher makes all decisions. Because students learn on their own, they learn independence
and make their own decisions.
2. Style B (Practice) - Students carry out teacher-prescribed
tasks. Because you direct all classroom activities, you don’t have to
worry that students will miss an
3. Style C (Reciprocal) - Students work in pairs: one performs, important topic.
the other provides feedback.
4. Style D (Self-check) - Students assess their own performance Cons
against criteria When students work alone, they don’t learn to collaborate
5. Style E (Inclusion) - Teacher planned. Student monitors own with other students, and theircommunication skills may suffer.
work. Teacher centred instruction can be boring for students. Their
minds may wander, and they maymiss important facts.
6. Style F (Guided Discovery) - Students solve teacher set Teacher centred instruction doesn’t allow students to express
movement problems with assistance. themselves, ask questions, anddirect their own learning.
7. Style G (Divergent) - Students solve problems without
assistance from the teacher.

14
Pros Desired learning is
Students learn important communicative and collaborative assessed indirectlythrough Desired learning is assessed
skills through group work. the use of objectively directly through papers,
scoredtests projects, performances,
Students learn to direct their own learning, ask questions, and
portfolios, and the like
complete tasks independently.
Focus is on a single
Students are more interested in learning activities when they discipline Approach is compatible with
can interact with one another andparticipate actively. interdisciplinary investigation
Learner-centred Method (Student Centred) Culture is competitive and
When a classroom operates with student-centred instruction, individualistic Culture is cooperative,
students and instructors share thefocus. Instead of listening to the collaborative, andsupportive
teacher exclusively, students and teachers interact equally. Only students are viewed
Group work is encouraged, and students learn to collaborate and as learners Professor and students learn
communicate with one another. together

TEACHER CENTRED and LEARNER CENTRED instruction

Cons (According to Assessing Academic Programs in Higher Education
Because students are talking, classrooms may often be noisy or by Allen 2004)
chaotic.
Teachers may have to attempt to manage all students’
activities at once, which can be difficult when students are
working on different stages of the same project.
Because the teacher doesn’t always deliver instruction to all
students at once, some students may miss important facts.
Some students prefer to work alone, so group work can
become problematic.

Comparison of Teacher-Centred and Learner-Centred

paradigms
(According to Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses
by Huba and Freed 2000)

Teacher-Centred Learner-Centred Paradigm

Paradigm
Knowledge is transmitted
fromprofessor to students Students construct knowledge
through gathering and
synthesizing information and
integrating it with the general Concept Teacher-Centered Learner-Centered
skills of inquiry, communication, Students learn:
critical Teaching Cover the discipline
goals
- How to use the discipline
thinking, problem-solving and so
on - How to integrate
disciplines to solvecomplex
Students passively receive
Students are actively involved problems
information
-
Emphasis is on the An array of core learning
acquisition of knowledge Emphasis is on using and objectives,such as
outside the context in communicating knowledge communication and
whichit will be used effectively to address enduring information literacy skills
and emerging issues and problems
in real-life contexts Cohesive program with
Professor’s role is to be Organization Courses in catalogue systematicallycreated
primary Professor’s role is to coach and ofthe opportunities to synthesize,
information giver and facilitate Professor and students curriculum practice, and develop
primary evaluator evaluate learningtogether increasingly complex ideas,
Teaching and assessing skills, and values
are separate Teaching and assessing are Students master learning
intertwined Course Faculty cover topics objectives
Assessment is used to structure
monitor learning Assessment is used to promote
anddiagnose learning
Emphasis is on right
How ListeningReading · Students construct
answers Emphasis is on generating better knowledge by integrating
questions and learning from errors students
learn Independent learning, new learning into what they
often incompetition for already know
grades Learning is viewed as a

15
 cognitive andsocial act • Teaching and learning are concentrated on "plug and play"
method rather than practicalaspects.
• The handwriting of the lecturer decides the fate of the subject.
• There is insufficient interaction with students in classroom.
• More emphasis has been given on theory without any practical
Pedagogy Based on delivery of - Based on engagement of and real lifetimesituations.
information students • Learning through memorization but not understanding.
• Marks oriented rather than result oriented.

· Lecture ·
Active learning Online Methods
Course E-Learning: E-Learning is an abbreviation of the term electronic
delivery ·
Assignments and exams Assignments for learning. It is the use of electronic media, educational technology
forsummative purposes formative purposes and ICT in education. In includes numerous types of media that
· Collaborative learning deliver text, audio images, animation and streaming video. It also
· Community service includes technologyapplications and process such as audio or video
learning tape, satellite, TV, CD-ROM and computer- based learning
· Cooperative learning information and communication system. E-Learning can occur in or
out of the classroom. It suited to distance learning and flexible
· Online, asynchronous, leaning but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face
self-directedlearning teaching, in which case, in which case, the term ‘Blended Learning’
- Problem-based learning is commonly used.

Course · Faculty as gatekeepers · Grades indicate mastery Online Learning:

grading · Normal distribution of learningobjectives There is no single definition for online learning. It includes learning
expected with the assistance of theInternet and a personal computer. The
term e-learning or electronic learning often is used interchangeable
Faculty role · Sage on the stage · · Designer of learning with online learning.
environments There are many terms for online education. Some of them are
virtual education, interest-basededucation, web-based education
and education via computer mediated communication.

Effective · Teach (present · Engage students in their Characteristics of Online Teaching-Learning Methods
information) well and learning
teaching
those who can will learn · Help all students master
1. The separation of teachers and learner, which distinguish it
from face to face education.
learningobjectives
· Use classroom 2. The influence of an educational organization, which
assessment toimprove distinguishes it from self-study andprivate tutoring.
courses 3. The use of a computer network to present of distributes
· Use program educational content.
assessment to improve 4. The provision of two-way communication via a computer
programs network, so that students maybenefit from communication
with each other, teacher and staff.

Advantages of Online Method

1. Extendibility, Accessibility and Suitability: Users can proceed
through a training programme at their own pace and at their
own places. They can also access the training at any time
receivingonly as much as they need.
2. Easy to content Update: The changes you make to any of your
In the pre-technology education context, the teacher is the sender or content are immediatelyavailable to your learning audience
the source, the educationalmaterial is the information or message, across the world.
and the student is the receiver of the information. In terms of the 3. Travel Cost and Time Savings: Learning is delivered directly to
delivery medium, the educator can deliver the message via the the learner instead of the otherway around.
"chalk-and-talk" method and overhead projector (OHP) 4. Internet Connections are Widely Available: Most computer
transparencies. This directed instruction model has its foundations users have access to a browser andare connected to a
embedded in the behavioural learning perspective and it is a company’s internet and have access to the internet.
popular technique, which has been used for decades as an
educational strategy in all institutions of learning.
5. Vast Untapped Market for Training: If you are looking for
commercial markets, the internetalso offers a huge audience
Some limitations which may prevail in traditional teaching method:
hungry for material via the net.
• Teaching in classroom using chalk and talk is "one-way flow"
of information. 6. Inexpensive Worldwide Distribution: No separate or distinct
• Teachers often continuously talk for an hour without knowing distribution mechanism isneeded.
student’s response andfeedback. 7. Direct Access to Many Other Training Resources: The internet
• The material presented is only based on lecturer notes and gives access to the largest library in the world. Capitalize on the
textbooks. offering that have already been created and use them toenhance

16
 the learning you are distributing. courses, taught in classrooms from Class 9 till post-graduation to be
accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. All the courses are
Disadvantages of Online Learning Methods interactive, prepared by the best teachers in the country and are
1. Student assessment and feedback is limited. available, free of cost to any learner. More than 1,000 specially
chosen faculty and teachers from across the country have
2. Cannot design and develop robust multi-media courses. participated in preparing these courses.
3. The net is not right for all types of training.
4. It is highly costly method of learning. The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants – (1) video
5. Limited bandwidth means slower performance. lecture, (2) specially prepared reading material that can be
downloaded/printed (3) self-assessment tests through tests and
6. Bandwidth/browser limitation may restrict instructional quizzes and (4) an online discussion forum for clearing the
methodologies. doubts.
7. Little formatting of content in current browsers. Steps have been taken to enrich the learning experience by using
audio-video and multi-media and state of the art pedagogy /
8. There is lack of personal community and connections. technology.
In all according to Steve Lohr(2009), “On average, students in online
learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to- Benefits of Swayam
face instruction.”
Today’s age is the age of technology and hence the need and • Best in class instructors: empowering you with knowledge
importance of online learning willincrease day-by-day. and skills.
• Weekly assignment: ensuring your progress in timely manner.
SWAYAM • Proctored exams: Channelised through our authorised partner.
SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active–Learning for Young Aspiring
Minds) is a programme initiated by Government of India and • Easy Credit Transfer: complementary your academic
designed to achieve the three cardinal principles of Education Policy progress.
viz., access, equity and quality. The objective of this effort is to take • Active local chapters: enhancing effectiveness of MOOCs.
the best teaching learning resources to all, including the most
disadvantaged. SWAYAM seeks to bridge the digital divide for
• Systematic Approach: enabling you towards desired learning
goals.
students who have hitherto remained untouched by the digital
revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the
National Coordinators of SWAYAM
knowledge economy. This is done throughan indigenous developed
In order to ensure that best quality content is produced and delivered,
IT platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses taught in
nine National Coordinatorshave been appointed. They are:
classrooms to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. All the
courses are interactive, prepared by the best teachers in the country 1. AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education) for self-
and are available, free of cost to the residents in India. paced and internationalcourses
SWAYAM platform is developed by Ministry of Human Resource 2. NPTEL (National Programme on Technology Enhanced
Development (MHRD) and NPTEL, IIT Madras with the help of Learning) for Engineering
Google Inc. and Persistent Systems Ltd. It would be ultimately 3. UGC (University Grants Commission) for non-technical post-
capable of hosting 2000 courses and 80000 hours of learning: graduation education
covering school, under- graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law
and other professional courses.
4. CEC (Consortium for Educational Communication) for under-
graduate education
What is offered in SWAYAM? 5. NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and
Courses that are taught in classrooms from 9th class till post- Training) for school education
graduation. 6. NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) for school
The courses hosted on SWAYAM is in 4 quadrants education
- video lecture 7. IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) for out-of-
- specially prepared reading material that can be school students
downloaded/printed 8. IIMB (Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore) for
- self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes and management studies
- an online discussion forum for clearing the doubts. 9. NITTTR (National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and
Categories of courses include - Engineering, Science, Research) for TeacherTraining programme
Humanities, Management, Language, Mathematics, Arts and
Recreation, Commerce, General, Library, Education. How to Get Certificate for SWAYAM Courses?
Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to
to the learners. the learners, however learners wanting a SWAYAM certificate
Students wanting certifications need to register and shall be should register for the final proctored exams that come at a fee and
offered a certificate onsuccessful completion of the course, with attend in-person at designated centres on specified dates. Eligibility
a little fee. for the certificate will beannounced on the course page and learners
will get certificates only if this criterion is matched.
At the end of each course, there will be an assessment of the Universities/colleges approving credit transfer for these courses can
student through proctored examination and the marks/grades use the marks/certificate obtained in these courses for the same.
secured in this exam could be transferred to the academicrecord
of the students. Credit Transfer
UGC has already issued the UGC (Credit Framework for online
How does SWAYAM Platform work? learning courses through SWAYAM) Regulation 2016 advising the
This is done through a platform that facilitates hosting of all the Universities to identify courses where credits can be transferred on

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to the academic record of the students for courses done on 3 Channel 03: PRABODH: CEC/UGC: Social Science -1,
SWAYAM. AICTE hasalso put out gazette notification in 2016 and Sociology, Political Science and related
subsequently for adoption of these courses for credittransfer. subjects EMRC Jodhpur
4 Channel 04: SAARASWAT: CEC/UGC: Social Science -
How to access SWAYAM 2, Education, Psychology, Home
You can access the SWAYAM portal on the web - Science and related subjects CEC, New Delhi
[Link] 5 Channel 05: PRABANDHAN: CEC/UGC: Social Science
- 3, Management, Library Science,
You can access the SWAYAM mobile apps for - Android and Information Science and related subjects MCRC Jamia
iOS Milia
6 Channel 06: VIDHIK: CEC/UGC: Social Science - 4,
Law, Legal Studies, Human Rights and
related subjects EMRC Patiala
7 Channel 07: KAUTILYA: CEC/UGC: Economics,
SWAYAM Prabha is an initiative of the Ministry of Human Commerce and Finance EMRC Ahmadabad
Resources Development to provide32 High Quality Educational 8 Channel 08: ARYABHATT: CEC/UGC: Physical
Channels through DTH (Direct to Home) across the length and sciences, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry
breadth of the country on 24X7 basis. and related Subjects EMRC, University of Calicut
It has curriculum-based course content covering diverse disciplines. 9 Channel 09: SPANDAN: CEC/UGC: Life Sciences,
This is primarily aimed at making quality learning resources Botany, Zoology, Bio-Science and related
accessible to remote areas where internet availability is still a subjects EMRC, Kashmir University, Srinagar
challenge. 10 Channel 10: DAKSH: CEC/UGC: Applied Sciences,
The DTH channels are using the GSAT-15 satellite for programme Allied Physical and Chemical sciences and
telecasts. related subjects EMRC, Anna University, Chennai
Managed by NPTEL
Scope of Swayam Prabha
The SWAYAM PRABHA has new content every day for at least (4) 11 Channel 11: NPTEL: Chemical Engineering, Chemistry
hours which would be repeated 5 more times in a day, allowing the and related Subjects IIT Kharagpur
students to choose the time of their convenience. The channels are 12 Channel 12: NPTEL: Civil Engineering and related
uplinkeded from BISAG, Gandhinagar. The contents are provided subjects IIT Delhi
by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The 13 Channel 13: NPTEL: Computer Science and Engineering
INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web portal. IIT Kharagpur
14 Channel 14: NPTEL: Electrical engineering, Electronics
The DTH Channels covers the following: and Communication Engineering and
1. Higher Education: Curriculum-based course contents at related subjects IIT Delhi
post-graduate and under-graduate level covering diverse
15 Channel 15: NPTEL: Engineering Sciences and general
disciplines such as arts, science, commerce, performing
subjects for engineering IIT Madras
arts, social sciences and humanities, engineering,
technology, law, medicine, agriculture, etc. All courses 16 Channel 16: NPTEL: Humanities, Social Sciences and
would be certification-ready in their detailed offering Management IIT Kanpur
through SWAYAM, the platform beingdeveloped for 17 Channel 17: NPTEL: Mechanical Engineering and related
offering MOOCs courses. subjects IIT Kanpur
18 Channel 18: NPTEL: Mathematics, Physics, Metallurgy
2. School education (9-12 levels): modules for teacher's and related subjects IIT Tirupati / IIT
training as well as teaching and learningaids for children Madras
of India to help them understand the subjects better and
Managed for High School students by IIT Delhi and is called
also help them in preparing for competitive examinations
IIT PAL
for admissions to professional degree programmes.
19 Channel 19: IIT PAL: Biology IIT PAL 1 IIT Delhi
3. Curriculum-based courses that can meet the needs of life-
20 Channel 20: IIT PAL: Chemistry IIT PAL 2, IIT Delhi
long learners of Indian citizens inIndia and abroad.
21 Channel 21: IIT PAL: Mathematics IIT PAL 3. IIT Delhi
4. Assist students (class 11th & 12th) prepare for
competitive exams. 22 Channel 22: IIT PAL: Physics IIT PAL 4, IIT Delhi

List of Channels Managed by IGNOU, New Delhi

23 Channel 23: IGNOU: Liberal Arts and Humanities
Channel IGNOU, New Delhi
No. Channel Name - Route/Parent
24 Channel 24: IGNOU: Agriculture, Vocational and Allied
Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
Managed by CEC, New Delhi.
Managed by the NIOS, New Delhi
1 Channel 01: VAGEESH: CEC/UGC: Humanities- 1,
Language and Literature EMRC, EFLU, 25 Channel 25: NIOS: [Link] (Regional Language) NIOS,
Hyderabad New Delhi
2 Channel 02: SANSKRITI: CEC/UGC: Humanities- 2, Managed by IGNOU, New Delhi
Arts, History, Philosophy and related
Subjects CEC, New Delhi

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26 Channel 26: IGNOU: State Open Universities' programs academic credit.
IGNOU, New Delhi
Techopedia explains Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
Managed by the NIOS, New Delhi
MOOCs are a recent progression in distance education. The concept
27 Channel 27: NIOS: Secondary School Education NIOS, of MOOCs originated in 2008 among the open educational resources
New Delhi (OER) movement. Most of the initial courses were influenced by
28 Channel 28: NIOS: Higher Secondary School Education connectivist theory, which emphasizes that knowledge and learning
NIOS, New Delhi arise from a network of relationships or connections. 2012 was a big
Managed by UGC-INFLIBNET, Gandhinagar year for MOOCs, as the industry attracted significant media buzz and
venture capital interest. Numerous providers have emergedthat are
29 Channel 29: UGC-INFLIBNET (PG Subject's & YOGA) affiliated with top universities; some of these include edX, Coursera
UGC-INFLIBNET, Gandhinagar and Udacity.
Managed by the NIOS, New Delhi Some of the advantages of a MOOC are as follows:
30 Channel 30: NIOS: Gyanamrit NIOS, New Delhi No tuition fees
Managed by NCERT Open access, exposing top-level professors at schools that
would otherwise be unavailable tomuch of the World's
31 Channel 31: NCERT: School and Teacher Education population
NCERT, New Delhi Open courses for all interested, regardless of location,
Managed by IGNOU and NIOS jointly resulting in a more diverse student base
32 Channel 32: IGNOU and NIOS: Teacher Education Collecting data via computer programs helps closely monitor
IGNOU and NIOS, New Delhi the success and failure of eachstudent. Traditional classroom
participation cannot offer this type of precise information.
Some enthusiastic professors have found global sharing of
knowledge more appealing. Many acknowledge that MOOCs
help them re-evaluate their pedagogical methods while
improvingknowledge sharing.
One drawback is the low course completion rate. Some studies
A massive open online course (MOOC) is an online course that has have shown that courses arecompleted by as few as 10 per cent
open access and interactive participation by means of the Web. of the huge volume of students that join the MOOC.
MOOCs provide participants with course materials that are
normally used in a conventional education setting - such as The Basics of MOOCs
examples, lectures, videos, study materials and problem sets. Apart To better understand what a MOOC is, take a deeper look into the
from this, MOOCs offer interactive user forums, which are meaning behind the acronym:
extremely useful in building a community for students, TAs, and
professors. Generally, MOOCsdo not charge tuition fees or provide

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