PDHonline Course C155 (2 PDH)

Earth Pressure and Retaining Wall

Basics for Non-Geotechnical Engineers

Instructor: Richard P. Weber, P.E.

2012

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[Link] PDH Course C155 [Link]

Earth Pressure and Retaining Wall Basics

for Non-Geotechnical Engineers
Richard P. Weber

Course Content

Content Section 1

Retaining walls are structures that support backfill and allow for a change of grade. For
instance a retaining wall can be used to retain fill along a slope or it can be used to
support a cut into a slope as illustrated in Figure 1.

Fill

Retaining Wall to Support a Fill.

Cut

Retaining Wall to Support a Cut.

Figure 1 – Example of Retaining Walls

Retaining wall structures can be gravity type structures, semi-gravity type structures,
cantilever type structures, and counterfort type structures. Walls might be constructed
from materials such as fieldstone, reinforced concrete, gabions, reinforced earth, steel and
timber. Each of these walls must be designed to resist the external forces applied to the
wall from earth pressure, surcharge load, water, earthquake etc. Prior to completing any
retaining wall design, it is first necessary to calculate the forces acting on the wall.

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This course is not intended to be exhaustive nor does it discuss a wide range of surcharge
loads or other lateral forces that might also act on a wall such as earthquake. There are
many textbooks and publications that explain loading conditions in depth including:

• Foundations and Earth Structures, NAVFAC, Design Manual 7.2

• Retaining and Flood Walls, Technical Engineering and Design Guides As
Adapted from The US Army Corps Of Engineers, No. 4, ASCE
• Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, AASHTO

In the following sections, we will first discuss basic considerations necessary for
calculating lateral earth pressure and then how to apply these pressures in developing the
force. We will illustrate how the lateral forces are combined with vertical forces to
calculate the factor of safety with respect to sliding, overturning and bearing capacity.
These three components are important elements in retaining wall design. Structural
design of a retaining wall is beyond the scope of this course.

Content Section 2

Categories of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are three categories of lateral earth pressure and each depends upon the movement
experienced by the vertical wall on which the pressure is acting as shown in Figure 2
(Page 4). In this course, we will use the word wall to mean the vertical plane on which
the earth pressure is acting. The wall could be a basement wall, retaining wall, earth
support system such as sheet piling or soldier pile and lagging etc.

The three categories are:

• At rest earth pressure

• Active earth pressure
• Passive earth pressure

The at rest pressure develops when the wall experiences no lateral movement. This
typically occurs when the wall is restrained from movement such as along a basement
wall that is restrained at the bottom by a slab and at the top by a floor framing system
prior to placing soil backfill against the wall.

The active pressure develops when the wall is free to move outward such as a typical
retaining wall and the soil mass stretches sufficiently to mobilize its shear strength.

On the other hand, if the wall moves into the soil, then the soil mass is compressed,
which also mobilizes its shear strength and the passive pressure develops. This situation
might occur along the section of wall that is below grade and on the opposite side of the

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retained section of fill. Some engineers might use the passive pressure that develops
along this buried face as additional restraint to lateral movement, but often it is ignored.

In order to develop the full active pressure or the full passive pressure, the wall must
move. If the wall does not move a sufficient amount, then the full active or full passive
pressure will not develop. If the full active pressure does not develop, then the pressure
will be higher than the expected active pressure. Likewise, significant movement is
necessary to mobilize the full passive pressure.

How movement affects development of the active and passive earth pressure is illustrated
in Figure 3 shown on Page 4. Note that the “at rest” condition is shown where the wall
rotation is equal to 0, which is the condition of zero lateral strain.

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Active Case At Rest Case Passive Case

(Wall moves (No movement) (Wall moves

away from soil) into soil)
Figure 2 - Wall Movement

Figure 3 - Effect of Wall Movement on Wall Pressure [Ref: NAVFAC DM-7]

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From Figure 3 it is evident that:

• As the wall moves away from the soil backfill (left side of Figure 2), the active
condition develops and the lateral pressure against the wall decreases with wall
movement until the minimum active earth pressure force (Pa) is reached.

• As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill (right side of Figure 2), the
passive condition develops and the lateral pressure against the wall increases with
wall movement until the maximum passive earth pressure (Pp) is reached.

Thus the intensity of the active / passive horizontal pressure, which is a function of the
applicable earth pressure coefficient, depends upon the degree of wall movement since
movement controls the degree of shear strength mobilized in the surrounding soil.

Calculating Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients

Lateral earth pressure is related to the vertical earth pressure by a coefficient termed the:

• At Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ko)

• Active Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ka)
• Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient (Kp)

The lateral earth pressure is equal to vertical earth pressure times the appropriate earth
pressure coefficient. There are published relationships, tables and charts for calculating
or selecting the appropriate earth pressure coefficient.

Since soil backfill is typically granular material such as sand, silty sand, sand with
gravel, this course assumes that the backfill material against the wall is coarse-grained,
non-cohesive material. Thus, cohesive soil such as clay is not discussed. However, there
are many textbooks and other publications where this topic is fully discussed.

At Rest Coefficient

Depending upon whether the soil is loose sand, dense sand, normally consolidated clay or
over consolidated clay, there are published relationships that depend upon the soil’s
engineering values for calculating the at rest earth pressure coefficient. One common
earth pressure coefficient for the “at rest” condition in granular soil is:

Ko = 1 – sin(φ) (1.0)

Where: Ko is the “at rest” earth pressure coefficient and φ is the soil friction value.

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Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients

When discussing active and passive lateral earth pressure, there are two relatively simple
classical theories (among others) that are widely used:

• Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

• Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory

The Rankine Theory assumes:

• There is no adhesion or friction between the wall and soil

• Lateral pressure is limited to vertical walls
• Failure (in the backfill) occurs as a sliding wedge along an assumed failure plane
defined by φ.
• Lateral pressure varies linearly with depth and the resultant pressure is located
one-third of the height (H) above the base of the wall.
• The resultant force is parallel to the backfill surface.

The Coulomb Theory is similar to Rankine except that:

• There is friction between the wall and soil and takes this into account by using a
soil-wall friction angle of δ. Note that δ ranges from φ/2 to 2φ/3 and δ = 2φ/3 is
commonly used.
• Lateral pressure is not limited to vertical walls
• The resultant force is not necessarily parallel to the backfill surface because of the
soil-wall friction value δ.

The general cases for calculating the earth pressure coefficients can also be found in
published expressions, tables and charts for the various conditions such as wall friction
and sloping backfill. The reader should obtain these coefficients from published sources
for conditions other than those discussed herein.

The Rankine active and passive earth pressure coefficient for the specific condition of a
horizontal backfill surface is calculated as follows:

• (Active) Ka = (1 – sin(φ)) / (1 + sin(φ)) (2.0)

• (Passive) Kp = (1 + sin(φ)) / (1 - sin(φ)) (3.0)

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Some tabulated values base on Expressions (2.0) and (3.0) are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 - Rankine Earth Pressure Coefficients

φ (deg) Rankine Ka Rankine Kp

28 .361 2.77
30 .333 3.00
32 .307 3.26

The Coulomb active and passive earth pressure coefficient is derived from a more
complicated expression that depends on the angle of the back of the wall, the soil-wall
friction value and the angle of backfill. Although this expression is not shown, these
values are readily obtained in textbook tables or by programmed computers and
calculators. Table 2 and Table 3 show some examples of the Coulomb active and passive
earth pressure coefficient for the specific case of a vertical back of wall angle and
horizontal backfill surface. The Tables illustrate increasing soil-wall friction angles (δ).

Table 2 - Coulomb Active Pressure Coefficient

δ (deg)
φ (deg) 0 5 10 15 20
28 .3610 .3448 .3330 .3251 .3203
30 .3333 .3189 .3085 .3014 .2973
32 .3073 .2945 .2853 .2791 .2755

Table 3 - Coulomb Passive Pressure Coefficient

δ (deg)
φ (deg) 0 5 10 15 20
30 3.000 3.506 4.143 4.977 6.105
35 3.690 4.390 5.310 6.854 8.324

Some points to consider are:

• For the Coulomb case shown above with no soil-wall friction (i.e. δ = 0) and a
horizontal backfill surface, both the Coulomb and Rankine methods yield equal
results.

• As the soil friction angle (φ) increases (i.e. soil becomes stronger), the active
pressure coefficient decreases, resulting in a decrease in the active force while the
passive pressure coefficient increases, resulting in an increase in the passive
force.

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Calculating the Vertical Effective Overburden Pressure

The vertical effective overburden pressure is the effective weight of soil above the point
under consideration. The term “effective” means that the submerged unit weight of soil
is used when calculating the pressure below the groundwater level. For instance, assume
that a soil has a total unit weight (γ) of 120 pcf and the groundwater level is 5 feet below
the ground surface. The vertical effective overburden pressure (σv’) at a depth of 10 feet
below the ground surface (i.e. 5 feet below the groundwater depth) is:

σv’ = 5(γ) + 5(γ’)

Where γ is the total unit weight of the soil and γ’ is the effective (or submerged) unit
weight of the soil which equals the total unit weight of soil minus the unit weight of
water (i.e. 62.4 pcf). Thus:

σv’ = 5(120) + 5(120-62.4) = 888 psf

Calculating the Lateral Earth Pressure

There is a relationship between the vertical effective overburden pressure and the lateral
earth pressure. The lateral earth pressure (σ) at a point below ground surface is:

• σa = Ka (σv’) Active lateral earth pressure (4.0)

• σp = Kp (σv’) Passive lateral earth pressure (5.0)

Where (σv’) is the vertical effective overburden pressure. The symbols σa and σp denote
active and passive earth pressure respectively.

If water pressure is allowed to accumulate behind a retaining wall, then the total pressure
and the resulting total force along the back of the wall is increased considerably.
Therefore, it is common for walls to be designed with adequate drainage to prevent water
from accumulating behind the wall and introducing a separate water pressure force.
Thus, weepholes, lateral drains or blanket drains along with granular soil (freely draining
backfill) are commonly used behind retaining walls. In the case of a drained condition,
the total unit weight of soil (γ) is used behind the full height of the wall and there is no
contribution from hydrostatic water pressure.

An example of an earth pressure calculation using the Rankine active earth pressure
coefficient is shown later in Example (1.0). A similar calculation can be performed for
the Coulomb case by using the applicable Coulomb earth pressure coefficient.

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Calculating the Total Lateral Earth Pressure Force

The total lateral earth pressure force is the area of the pressure diagram along the wall. In
the example shown later in this course, the area of the earth pressure diagram is the
lateral earth pressure at the bottom of the wall KaγH (note that γH is the vertical effective
overburden pressure in this example) times the height of the wall (H) times one-half (1/2)
since the pressure distribution increases linearly with depth creating a triangular shape.
Thus the total active earth pressure force (Pa) acting along the back of the wall is the area
of the pressure diagram expressed as:

• Pa = ½ Ka γ H2 (6.1)

The total passive earth pressure force is:

• Pp = ½ Kp γ H2 (6.2)

The total force acts along the back of the wall at a height of H/3 from the base of the
wall.

In more complicated cases, the earth pressure distribution diagram is drawn and the total
force is calculated by determining the separate areas of the pressure diagram. The
location of the resultant force is also determined. The direction of the force is based upon
the angle of backfill and in the Coulomb case, it is also based upon the soil-wall friction
value.

Other Forces Acting on the Wall

Aside from the earth pressure force acting on the wall, other forces might also act on the
wall and these are superimposed onto the earth pressure force. For example, these forces
might include:

• Surcharge load
• Earthquake load
• Water Pressure

Surcharge Load

A surcharge load results from forces that are applied along the surface of the backfill
behind the wall. These forces apply an additional lateral force along the back of the wall.
Surcharge pressures result from loads such as a line load, strip load, embankment load,
traffic (such as a parking lot), floor loads and temporary loads such as construction traffic
and stockpiles of material. Generally, elastic theory is used to determine the lateral
pressure due to the surcharge and solutions are available in published references.

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In the case of a uniform surcharge pressure (q) taken over a wide area behind the wall,
the lateral pressure due to the uniform surcharge:
• K()q (7.0)

Where K() is the applicable at rest, active or passive pressure coefficient. The pressure
diagram behind the wall for a uniform surcharge is rectangular and acts at a height of H/2
above the base of the wall. Thus, the additional lateral force (Ps) acting behind the wall
resulting from a uniform surcharge is the area of the rectangle, or:

• Ps = K()qH (8.0)

Whether the total surcharge force is calculated from elastic theory or as shown in
Expression (8.0), the pressure (force) is superimposed onto the calculated lateral earth
pressure (force).

Earthquake Force

Additional lateral loads resulting from an earthquake are also superimposed onto the
lateral earth pressure where required. Publications such as AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges and other textbooks provide methods for calculating
the earthquake force.

Water Pressure

Walls are typically designed to prevent hydrostatic pressure from developing behind the
wall. Therefore the loads applied to most walls will not include water pressure. In cases
where hydrostatic water pressure might develop behind an undrained wall, the additional
force resulting from the water pressure must be superimposed onto the lateral earth
pressure. Since water pressure is equal in all directions (i.e. coefficient (K) = 1), the
water pressure distribution increases linearly with depth at a rate of γwz where γw is the
unit weight of water (62.4 pcf) and z is the depth below the groundwater level. If the
surface of water behind a 10-foot high wall (H) were located 5-feet (d) below the backfill
surface, then the superimposed total lateral force resulting from groundwater pressure
would be:

• W = ½ (γw)(H-d)2 = 780 pounds (which is the area of the linearly increasing

pressure distribution).

W acts at a height of (H-d)/3 (or 1.67-ft) above the base of the wall.

If seepage occurs, then the water pressure must be derived from seepage analysis, which
is beyond the scope of this course.

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Compaction

If heavy rollers are used to compact soil adjacent to walls, then high residual pressures
can develop against the wall increasing the total pressure. Although a reasonable amount
of backfill compaction is necessary, excess compaction must be avoided.

Example (1.0)

Use the Rankine method to calculate the total active lateral force and location of the
forces behind a 10-foot high vertical wall. Assume that the soil has a total unit weight of
120 pcf and a friction value of 32 degrees. Assume that there is a uniform surcharge of
100 psf located along the surface behind the wall. Groundwater is well below the depth
of the foundation so that groundwater pressure does not develop behind the wall.

Wall

Ka = 1 – sin (32) / 1 + sin (32) = 0.307 is the Active Earth pressure Coefficient

At bottom of wall (surcharge pressure) s = Ka (q) = 0.307(100) = 30.7 psf

At bottom of wall (active lateral earth pressure) pa = Ka (γ) H = 0.307(120)(10) = 368.4

psf

Total Surcharge Force: Ps = Ka(q)H = 307 pounds and acts at a height of H/2 from the
base of the wall.

Total Earth Pressure Force: Pa = ½ Ka (γ) H2 = ½ (0.307) (120) (10)2 = 1842 pounds and
act at a height of H/3 from the base of the wall.

Total Active Force = 1842 + 307 = 2149 pounds

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Content Section 3

Earth Pressure Force

Although there are three categories of lateral earth pressure as discussed in Section 2, this
section discusses the active earth pressure because it is the active pressure that produces
the destabilizing earth force behind retaining walls. Although passive pressures might
develop along the toe of the wall and provide resistance, it is commonly ignored and
therefore it is not discussed in this section. Other lateral forces such as those resulting
from surcharge, earthquake, etc., also produce additional destabilizing forces. The reader
is advised to review the concepts developed in Section 2 before continuing in this
Section.

Since soil backfill is typically granular material such as sand, silty sand, sand with gravel,
this course assumes that the backfill material against the wall is coarse-grained, non-
cohesive material. For this reason, cohesive soil such as clay is not discussed.

It is important to note that the full active earth pressure condition will only develop if the
wall is allowed to move a sufficient distance. The lateral outward movement required to
develop the full active pressure condition ranges from:

• Granular soil: 0.001H to 0.004H

• Cohesive soil: 0.01H to 0.04H

Where H is the height of the wall.

The Rankine active lateral earth pressure in the following discussions will be developed
using Expression (2.0), which is for the specific case of a horizontal backfill surface. The
expression is modified for sloping backfill surfaces and the reader can find these
modified expressions in published references.

The Coulomb active earth pressure coefficient is a more complicated expression that
depends on the angle of the back of the wall, the soil-wall friction and the angle of
backfill slope. Although the expression is not shown, these values are readily obtained in
textbook tables or by programmed computers and calculators. Table 4 shows an example
of the Coulomb active earth pressure coefficient for the specific case of a wall with a
back of wall angle (β) of 80 degrees and a horizontal backfill surface. In this Table, the
soil-wall friction value (δ) has been taken as (2/3)φ.

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Table 4 - Coulomb Active Pressure Coefficient

[Note: δ = (2/3)φ]
φ]

φ (deg) β = 80 deg
28 .4007
30 .3769
32 .3545

Calculating the Total Active Earth Pressure Force

The total lateral force is the area of the pressure diagram acting on the wall surface. The
examples in this course assume drained conditions and a homogeneous granular soil
backfill behind the wall, which results in a simple triangular distribution. Although this
is a common case, the pressure diagram can become more complicated depending upon
actual soil conditions that might have different values.

With the Coulomb method, the active force acts directly on the wall and friction develops
between the soil and wall. With the Rankine method however, wall friction is ignored
and the active force acts directly on a vertical face extending through the heel of the wall.
If the back of the wall were vertical, then the force acts on the wall. On the other hand, if
the back of the wall were sloping, then the force acts on the vertical soil plane as
illustrated in Figure 4.

In the Example (2.0), the area of the earth pressure diagram is the earth pressure at the
bottom of the wall (KaγH) times the height of the wall (H) times one-half (1/2) since the
pressure distribution increases linearly with depth creating a triangular shape. Thus the
total active earth pressure force (Pa) acting along the back of the wall is the area of the
pressure diagram expressed as:

• Pa = ½ Ka γ H2 (6.1)

The total force acts along the back of the wall at a height of H/3 from the base of the
wall. So far we have not stated whether this is the Rankine or Coulomb Case. The
calculation for the active earth pressure force (Pa) is the same provided that the
appropriate earth pressure coefficient (Ka) is used. Selecting whether the Rankine
method or Coulomb method will be used is usually a matter of choice or convention.

The example shown in Figure 4 relates specifically to a wall supporting a horizontal

backfill. Thus the active earth pressure coefficient (Ka) can be derived directly from
Expression (2.0) or Table 2. For the case of a sloping backfill and other wall geometries,
the reader should refer to the published references.

The example shown in Figure 4 (Page 15) assumes that a 9-foot high gravity type
retaining structure supports soil backfill having a total unit weight of 125 pcf.

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Groundwater is well below the structure and the backfill material is freely draining. The
backfill soil has an angle of internal friction (φ) of 32 degrees and the backfill surface
behind the wall is horizontal. Both the Rankine and Coulomb earth pressure force is
shown.

Note that the location and direction of the active forces follows the assumptions stated
above for the Rankine and Coulomb Theory. Although the back of the wall has an angle
of 80 degrees, The Rankine force acts along a vertical plane beginning at the heel of the
wall while the Coulomb force acts directly along the back of the wall. Since the Rankine
Theory assumes that there is no soil – wall friction, the force (Pa) is parallel to the
backfill surface. On the other hand, since the Coulomb Theory takes the soil – wall
friction into consideration, the force (Pa) acts at an angle of δ from the perpendicular to
the wall. This results in both a vertical and horizontal component of the force (Pa), which
is expressed as Pah and Pav. The Rankine method will also produce a vertical and
horizontal component of the force (Pa) if the backfill surface is sloped.

In each case, the resultant force Pa acts at a height of H/3 from the base of the wall where
H is the height of the wall for the simple case illustrated herein. If the pressure diagram
were more complicated due to differing soil conditions for instance, then the location of
the force (Pa) will change. In all cases however, the resultant of the force (Pa) is located
at the centroid of the combined mass area.

Other Forces Acting on the Wall

Aside from the earth pressure force acting on wall, other forces might also act on the wall
as discussed in Section 2 such as.

• Surcharge load
• Earthquake load
• Water Pressure

These additional forces would be superimposed onto the earth pressure force to yield the
total lateral force in a similar way as shown of the uniform surcharge in Example (1.0).

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Ka = (1 – sin (φ)) / (1 + sin (φ)) = 0.307

Pa = ½ Ka γ H2 = (0.5)(0.307)(125)(92)

Pa = 1554.2 pounds

Ka = 0.3545 from Table 1 for conditions stated

Pa = ½ Ka γ H2 = (0.5)(0.354)(125)(92)

Pa = 1792.1 pounds

Calculate horizontal and vertical components of

Pa where Pa acts 31.3 deg from the horizontal.

Pah = Pa cos (31.3) = 1531.3 pounds

Pav = Pa sin (31.3) = 931.0 pounds

Figure 4 - Calculation of Earth Pressure Force for a Homogeneous Cohesionless

Backfill

Factors of Safety

Retaining wall design is an iterative process. An initial geometry is usually assigned to

the wall and the appropriate forces are calculated. The actual forces are then checked
using acceptable factors of safety and the geometry is revised until satisfactory factors of
safety are reached. There are however, common dimensions for walls that are available
that can be used as a first cut.

Proportioning Walls

In order to achieve stability, retaining walls are usually proportioned so that the width of
the base (B) is equal to approximately 0.5 to 0.7 times the height of the wall (H). This is
illustrated in Example (2.0). Thus, the 9-foot high wall would have a base approximately
4.5 feet to 6.3 feet wide, which provides a convenient starting point.

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Sliding

A retaining structure has a tendency to move away from the backfill surface because of
the horizontal driving forces resulting from the soil backfill and other forces such as
surcharge. Generally, the wall resists sliding by the frictional resistance developed
between the foundation of the wall and foundation soil. Although other horizontal forces
act opposite to the driving force such as passive soil pressure in the fill in front of the
wall, it is often ignored.

The factor of safety with respect to sliding equals the resisting force divided by the
driving force and is shown in Expression (9.0). A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 is
desirable to resist sliding assuming that passive resistance from any fill in front of the
wall is ignored. This is a common assumption and avoids relying on the presence of soil
in front of the wall for additional resistance.

FSs = ΣV tan(kφ1) / Pah (9.0)

ΣV is the total vertical force, Pah is the horizontal active earth pressure force and tan(kφ1)
is the coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and the soil. The factor “k”
ranges from ½ to 2/3 and φ1 is the friction angle of the foundation soil. Friction factors
between dissimilar materials can also be found in publications such as NAVFAC Design
Manual 7.2. Expression (9.0) assumes that the soil below the wall is a cohesionless
material such as sand without any cohesive strength. Therefore there is no additional
resistance due to cohesion.

Overturning

A retaining structure also has a tendency to rotate outward around the toe of the wall.
The moment resulting from the earth pressure force (as well as other lateral forces such
as surcharge) must be resisted by the moments resulting from the vertical forces produced
by the wall including any vertical component (Pav) of the earth pressure force. Thus, the
factor of safety with respect to overturning is the resisting moment divided by the
overturning moment as shown in Expression (10.0). A minimum factor of safety of 2 to
3 is desirable to resist overturning.

FSo = ΣMr / ΣMo (10.0)

Where ΣMr is the sum of the resisting moments around the toe of the wall and ΣMo is the
sum of the overturning moments around the toe of the wall.

Bearing Capacity

As with any structure, the bearing capacity of the soil must be adequate to safely support
the structure. The ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation soil (qu) is calculated using

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theoretical bearing capacity methods presented in textbooks and other published

resources. The calculation of bearing capacity is not presented in this course.

The resultant of all forces acting along the base of the wall from earth pressure and the
weight of the wall result in a non-uniform pressure below the base of the wall with the
greatest pressure below the toe of the base and the least pressure below the heel of the
base.

The maximum and minimum pressure below the base of the wall (B) is:

qmax = (ΣV / B) (1 + 6e / B) (11.0)

qmin = (ΣV / B) (1 - 6e / B) (12.0)

Where e = eccentricity; e = (B / 2) - (ΣΜr − ΣMo) / ΣV (13.0)

The factor of safety with respect to bearing capacity is shown in Expression (14.0).
Generally, a factor of safety of 3 is required.

FSbc = qu / qmax (14.0)

Eccentricity is an important consideration when proportioning the walls. Consider the

eccentricity (e) in relationship to the minimum pressure (qmin). Substituting for (e) in
Expression (12.0):

If e = B / 6 then qmin = (ΣV / B) (1 - 6e / B) = 0 (15.0)

If e < B / 6 then qmin = (ΣV / B) (1 - 6e / B) > 0 (16.0)

If e > B / 6 then qmin = (ΣV / B) (1 - 6e / B) < 0 (17.0)

Expressions (15.0) and (16.0) give acceptable results since the pressure at the heel is zero
or greater (positive). Thus the entire base lies in contact with the soil. If Expression
(17.0) were true, then the pressure at the heel is negative indicating the heel of the base is
tending toward lifting off the soil, which is unacceptable. If this condition occurs, then
the wall must be re-proportioned.

Other Considerations

Before a wall design is complete, the settlement of the wall and the global stability of the
entire mass on which the wall is supported must be checked. Settlement must lie within
tolerable ranges and global stability such as slope stability calculations must be adequate.
These calculations however, are beyond the scope of this course.

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Example (2.0)

Using the Rankine method of analysis, calculate the factors of safety with respect to
sliding, overturning and bearing capacity. Use the values presented in the following
Table and refer to Figure 5. It is inferred that all calculations relate to a unit length of
wall.

Friction angle of soil backfill (φ) 32 degrees

Soil Backfill Unit Weight (γ) 125 pcf
Friction angle of the foundation soil (φ1) 33 degrees
Rankine active pressure coefficient (Ka) 0.307
Concrete Unit Weight (γc) 150 pcf
Dimensions of the concrete wall section 1 1-ft by 8-ft
Dimensions of the soil backfill section 2 4-ft by 8-ft
Dimensions of the concrete wall section 3 6-ft by 1-ft

Note:

Since Pa is horizontal, there is no

vertical component of the force. If
the backfill surface were sloping then
Pa would slope at an angle parallel to
the backfill slope. In this case there
would be both a vertical and
horizontal component of Pa. The
lateral thrust would be the horizontal
component and the vertical
component would be an additional
vertical force included in ΣV.

Figure 5

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Solution

Calculate the values shown in the following Table. The dimensions for “Area” relate to
each of the three sections identified in Figure 3. The unit weight (γ) is provided for the
concrete wall and soil backfill over the base of the wall. W is the weight of each section
and it acts at the centroid of the mass area as shown in Figure 3. The value “m” is the
moment arm measured from the toe to the location of the individual W values. M is the
resisting moment for each of the individual areas.

Section Area (sf) γ (pcf) W (lbs) m (ft) M (ft-lb)

1 1x8 150 1200 1.5 1800
2 4x8 125 4000 4 16000
3 6x1 150 900 3 2700
ΣV = 6100 ΣMr = 20500

Pa = ½ Ka γ H2 = (0.5) (0.307) (125) (81) = 1554.2 lbs

ΣMo = Pa (h) = (1554.2) (3) = 4662.6 ft-lbs

Overturning: Fso = ΣMr / ΣMo = 20500 / 4662.6 = 4.4 > 2 OK

Sliding: FSs = ΣV tan(kφ1) / Pah = (6100) tan (22) / 1554.2 = 1.58 > 1.5 OK
Where k = 2/3

Bearing Capacity:

Assume that the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation soil is 5000 psf.

e = (B / 2) - (ΣΜr − ΣMo) / ΣV = (6 / 2) – (20500 – 4662.6) / 6100 = 0.4 (i.e. e < B / 6)

qmax = (ΣV / B) (1 + 6e / B) = (6100 / 6) ( 1 + 2.4 / 6) = (1016.6) (1.4) = 1423.4 psf

qmin = (ΣV / B) (1 - 6e / B) = (6100 / 6) ( 1 - 2.4 / 6) = (1016.6) (.6) = 610 psf (i.e. base
of wall is in full soil contact)

FSbc = qu / qmax = 5000 / 1423.4 = 3.5 > 3.0 OK

Page 19 of 20
[Link] PDH Course C155 [Link]

Disclaimer

The material presented in this course is intended only for general familiarization with
the subject matter and for educational purposes. The course does not cover all aspects
of the subject. Use of this material in any manner whatsoever shall only be done with
competent professional assistance. The author provides no expressed or implied
warranty that this material is suitable for any specific purpose or project and shall not
be liable for any damages including but not limited to direct, indirect, incidental,
punitive and consequential damages alleged from the use of this material. This
communication is not intended to, and shall not be construed as, providing
professional engineering in any jurisdiction.

Page 20 of 20
 Design of Retaining Wall
The Structural World > Topics > Shear Wall Design > Design of Retaining Wall

l thestructuralworld } March 4, 2019 v 52 Comments

m Shear Wall Design, Site Construction Design  cantilever retaining wall, design of retaining wall, retaining wall design
calculations excel

Our previous article, Retaining Wall: A Design Approach discusses the principle and concept behind and when and where to consider a retaining wall in our design. We
have learned the different checks against the mode of failures in the retaining wall should be considered in the design. To further understand the designed approach, here
is a worked example of the design of the retaining wall.

This example is intended to be readily calculated by hand although a lot of structural spreadsheets and software such as Prokon are available. The purpose of this article
is for the reader to fully understand the principle behind it.

Worked Example:

Figure A.1-Retaining Wall Cross Section

Consider the cantilever retaining wall with the cross-section shown in the above Figure A.1, which retains a 2m depth of soil having the groundwater table at -1.0m level.

Design Parameters:
Soil Bearing Capacity, qall : 100 kPa
:
 Coefficient of Soil Friction, ф: 30°

Unit Weight of Soil, ɣs: 18 kN/m3

Unit Weight of Water, ɣw: 10 kN/m3

Unit Weight of Concrete, ɣc: 25 kN/m3

Surcharge, ω: 12 kN/m2
Ground Water Level: -1m from 0.00 level
Height of Surcharge, h: 0.8m
Height of Wall: 2.0m
f’c: 32 Mpa
fy: 460 Mpa
concrete cover: 75mm

1. Analytical Geometry and Variables

Before we proceed with the design, it is important for the designer to know the geometric variable and parameters of the retaining wall. Refer to Figure A.2 below.

Figure A.2-Retaining Wall Geometric Variables

where:

H: Height of the retaining wall

L: Width of the base
D: Thickness of the base
B: Width of the toe
C: Stem thickness at the bottom
T: Stem thickness at the top

2. Approximate Proportions of a Cantilever Retaining Wall

The next thing to consider is the assumptions that we can make in terms of the geometry of the retaining wall that we are designing. Given the height, H of the retaining
wall, we can assume or counter check our initial design considerations should at least according to the following geometric proportions:

Base width: L= 0.5H to 2/3H

Thickness of base: D= 0.10H
Stem thickness at the bottom: C=0.10H
Width of the toe: B= 0.25L to 0.33L
Stem thickness at the top: t=250mm (minimum)

Based on the above approximate geometric proportions, let us assumed the following parameters to be used in our design:

Base width: L= 1.5m

Base thickness: D= 0.25m
Stem thickness: C=t =0.25m
:
 Width of Toe: B= 0.625m

3. Analytical Model
Sketches of the retaining wall forces should be considered to properly distinguish the different forces acting on our retaining wall as tackled in the previous article,
Retaining Wall: A Design Approach. Based on our example in Figure A.1, we have the forces due to soil pressure, due to water and surcharge load to consider. Figure
A.3 below is most likely our analytical model.

READ ALSO: Retaining Wall: A Design Approach

Figure A.3-Retaining Wall Forces Diagram

Considering the Figure A.3, we can derive the following equation for the active pressures, Pa and passive pressure Pp. Notice that the pressures acting on the wall are
equivalent to the area (triangle) of the pressure distribution diagram. Hence,

Pa1=1/2 ɣKaH2 →eq. 1, where H is the height of retained soil

Pa2=1/2 ɣHw2 →eq.2, where Hw is the height of the groundwater level

Pa3=ωKah →eq.3, where h is the height of surcharge

The passive pressure, Pp would be:

Pp=1/2 ɣkpHp2 →eq.4

Values of Coefficient of Pressure, ka and kp

According to Rankine and Coulomb Formula, the following are the equation in calculating the coefficient of pressure:

Ka= (1-sin ф)/(1+sin ф)

Ka= 0.33

Kp= (1+sin ф)/(1-sin ф)

Kp= 3

Substituting the values, we have the following results:

Pa1=1/2 ɣkaH2 = 11.88kN

Pa2=1/2 ɣHw2= 5kN

Pa3=ωkah= 3.17 kN

Pp=1/2 ɣkpHp2= 9.72kN

3. Stability Check:
There are two checks to consider the stability of the retaining wall. One is the check for an overturning moment and the other one is the check for sliding. The weight of
the retaining wall including the gravity loads within it plays a vital role in performing the stability check. Refer to Figure A.4 for the mass or weight calculations.
:
 Figure A.4-Retaining Wall Weight Components

The self-weight component of the retaining wall should be factored down or to be multiplied by weight reduction factor (0.9) to account for uncertainty because they are
“stabilizing” in this context. Hence,

Weight due to soil: W1= 18kN/m3 x 0.6m x 0.625m x 1.0m = 6.75kN

Weight due to footing: W2= 0.9 x 25kN/m3 x 0.25m x 1.5m x 1.0m = 8.44kN

Weight due to wall: W3= 0.9 x 25kN/m3 x 0.25m x 2.0m x 1.0m = 11.25kN

Weight due to soil: W4= 18kN/m3 x 0.625m x 2.0m x 1.0m = 22.5kN

Weight due to water: W5= 10kN/m3 x 0.625m x 1.0m x 1.0m = 6.25kN

Weight due to surcharge: Ws= 12kN/m2 x 0.625m x 1.0m = 7.5kN

Total Weight, WT = 62.69kN

3.1 Check for Overturning Moment:

To satisfy the Overturning Moment Stability, the following equation should follow:

where:

RM: Righting Moment due to the weight of the retaining wall

OM: Overturning Moment due to lateral earth pressure

With reference to Figure A.4 diagram and taking moment at the point, P conservatively neglecting the effect of passive pressure hence:

RM= W2 (0.75) + W3(0.75) + W4(1.19) + W5(1.19) + Ws(1.19) = 57.91 kNm

OM= Pa1 (0.67) +Pa2 (0.33) +Pa3 (0.4) = 10.88kNm

READ ALSO: The Sequence of Actual Construction

RM/OM = 5.32 > 2.0, hence SAFE in Overturning Moment!

3.2 Check for Sliding

To satisfy the stability against sliding, the following equation should govern:

where:

RF: Resisting Force

SF: Sliding Force

The sliding check should be carried out with reference to the Figure A.4 diagram and considering the summation of vertical forces for resisting force and horizontal forces
:
 for sliding force conservatively neglecting the passive pressure, hence:

RF= W1+W2+W3+W4+W5+ Ws = 55.94kN

SF= Pa1+Pa2+Pa3 = 20.05kN

RF/SF = 2.79 > 1.5, hence SAFE for Sliding!

4. Check the Wall Thickness for Shear

The nominal shear is equal to the lateral forces on the retaining wall, neglecting the effect of passive pressure which will give us:

Nominal Shear, Vn = 20.05kN

Ultimate Shear, Vu = 1.6Vn = 32.08kN

For the thickness of the wall to be safe in shear, the ultimate shear, Vu should less than the allowable shear, Vallow as recommended by the ACI 318 code.

Vc = 0.17√fc’bwd

where: ф=0.75

bw=1000mm

d= 250mm-75mm-6mm = 169mm

Vc = 0.17√fc’bwd = 162.52kN

Vallow= 121.89kN

Since Vu < Vallow, hence SAFE in Shear!

5. Design the Wall Stem for Flexure

Nominal Moment, Mn = 10.88kNm

Ultimate Moment, Mu = 1.6Mn = 17.40kNm

Mu =φ fc’ bd2ω (1- 0.59 ω)

17.40×106 = 0.90 x 32 x 1000 x 1692 ω (1-0.59 ω)

ω = 0.0216

ρ = ω fc’/fy= 0.00150

As= ρbd = 0.00150x1000x169 = 254mm2

Asmin= ρminbt = 0.002 x 1000 x 250 = 500mm2

Required Vertical Bar: Try T10-200; As act= 392mm2 x 2 sides = 785.4mm2

Required Horizontal Bar: Try T10-250; As act= 314mm2 x 2 sides= 628.32mm2

Hence: use T10-200 for vertical bar and T10-250 for horizontal bar.

6. Check for Bearing Pressure under Footing

The foundation bearing capacity usually governs the design of the wall. The soil, particularly under the toe of the foundation, is working very hard to resist the vertical
bearing loads, sliding shear, and to provide passive resistance to sliding. The bearing capacity of the soil should be calculated taking into account the effect of
:
 simultaneous horizontal loads applied to the foundation from the soil pressure.

For the footing to be safe in soil pressure, the maximum soil pressure under working load shall be less than the allowable soil bearing capacity. The maximum soil bearing
pressure under the footing considering 1m strip is:

where:

P= 62.69kN

A= (1×1.5) m2
M=10.88 kNm
b= 1m
d=1.5m

Substituting the values above will give us:

qmax= 70.81kPa < qall=100 kPa, hence, oK!

Solving for Ultimate bearing pressure:

where:

P= 1.6x 6.75 + 1.4×8.44 +1.4×11.25 +1.6x 22.5 +1.6×6.25 +1.6×7.5= 96.37kN

A= (1×1.5) m2
M=17.40kNm
b= 1m
d=1.5m

Substituting the values above will give us:

qumax= 110.65kN

qumin= 17.85kN

7. Check the Required Length of the Base

If qumin is in tension check the required length otherwise ignore if it is in compression. Since our qumin is tension (+), the value of L must be computed as follows:

READ ALSO: Concrete Shear Wall Design

:
 Figure A.5-Pressure Diagram under Tension

From Figure A.5:

Solve for Eccentricity:

e=M/P = 0.181

where:

a=length of pressure
qe= qumax

b=1 meter strip

a= 1.74m

L= 2(e+a/3) = 1.52 say 1.6m

8. Check the Adequacy of Footing Thickness for Wide Beam Shear

Fig A.6-Pressure Diagram under Compression

8.1 When qumin is in Compression

:
 Solving for y by similar triangle: referring to Figure A.6 above

y/1.044 = (112.24-19.44)/1.5; y = 64.59 kPa

qc= 19.44 + 64.59 = 84.03 kPa

L’= (1.5m-1.044m) = 0.456m

B= 1m strip
qumax=112.24kPa

Vu= 44.75kN

8.2 When qumin is in Tension

qc=y

Solving for y by similar triangle: (referring to Figure A.6 above, L=a=1.75)

y/1.244= 112.24/1.75; y = 79.79 kPa

qc=79.79kPa

Vu= 1/2 (qc + qumax) L’b

L’= (1.6m-1.244m) = 0.356m

B= 1m strip
qumax=112.24 kPa

Vu=34.18kN

Hence, use: Vu=44.75kN

Vallow= фVc

Vc = 0.17√fc’bwd

where:

ф=0.75
bw=1000mm

d= 250mm-75mm-6mm = 169mm

Vc = 0.17√fc’bwd = 162.52kN

Vallow= 121.89kN

Since Vu < Vallow, hence SAFE in Shear!

9. Check the Wall Thickness for Flexure

:
 Figure A.7-Pressure Diagram for Flexure Check

9.1 When qumin is in Compression

Solving for y by similar triangle:(referring to Figure A.7 above)

y/0.875 = (112.24-19.44)/1.5; y = 54.13 kPa

qc= 19.44 + 54.13 = 73.57 kPa

Mu= (73.57×0.625) x (0.625/2) + (38.67×0.625) (1/2) x (2/3) (0.625) → (area of trapezoid x lever arm)

Mu=19.40 kNm

9.2 When qumin is in Tension

qc= qumin + y

Solving for y by similar triangle: (referring to Figure A.7 above. L=a=1.75)

y/1.075 = 112.24/1.75; y = 68.95 kPa

qc=19.44 + 68.95= 88.39 kPa

Mu = (88.39×0.75) x (0.75/2) + (23.85×0.75) (1/2) x (2/3) (0.75) → (area of trapezoid x lever arm)

Mu= 19.40kNm

Hence, use Mu=29.33kNm

Mu =φ fc’ bd2ω (1- 0.59 ω)

29.33×106 = 0.90 x 32 x 1000 x 1692 ω (1-0.59 ω)

ω = 0.0364

ρ = ω fc/fy= 0.002532

As= ρbd = 0.002532x1000x169 = 428mm2

Asmin= ρminbt = 0.002 x 1000 x 250 = 500mm2

Required Vertical Bar: Try T10-200; As act= 392mm2 x 2 sides = 785.4mm2

:
 Required Horizontal Bar: Try T10-250; As act= 392mm2 x 2 sides= 628.32mm2

10. Reinforcement Details of Retaining Wall

The presented calculations above are actually too tiring to perform manually especially if you are doing a trial and error design. Thanks to structural design soft wares
and spreadsheets, available nowadays, our design life will be easier.

Our team developed a user-friendly spreadsheet for the design of cantilever retaining wall based on the above calculation. Grab your copy here!

What do you think about this article? Tell us your thoughts! Leave a comment on the section below. Subscribe to our newsletter to be updated with the latest posts or
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52 Comments

Mohmand Andar September 18, 2019 at 4:16 pm

i need for your help minimum depth for stone masonry wall refer to ACI code is how much?
kindly send me with Ref of ACI code

thestructuralworld (Post author) October 10, 2019 at 3:53 pm

You can use the parameters written in section 2 of this article and confirm whether the thickness is adequate using a shear check.

Ross October 11, 2019 at 11:39 am

This is a helpful guide to Retaining Wall design. However, I have noticed errors in Section 3’s loadings. For example, Pp is not substituted correctly. I have not checked further than this.

It would be worth double-checking the spreadsheet you are selling as this is a dangerous error that would show a retaining wall having a higher capacity than it actually does.
:
 thestructuralworld (Post author) October 13, 2019 at 3:34 pm

Thanks for pointing out. We have checked and found out that that is merely a typo error and it has been updated accordingly. We have also double-checked the attached
spreadsheet and it is not affecting the results as we conservatively neglect the effect of passive pressure in the calculation.

Intisar October 22, 2019 at 9:08 am

Helpful guide. Which section in ACI360 the calculations are referred to?

Edgar October 29, 2019 at 9:15 am

Hello

Can you explain why the height of the surcharge is only 0.8m and why is it not reflected on the Analytical model ?

Its very detailed example , thanks for that.

Edgar October 29, 2019 at 12:33 pm

Also ,would you be able to explain how is the d in critical shear calculated ? number 1.044 is used for similar triangles,however I struggle to find exact theory how you arrived to this number
as I get different.

thestructuralworld (Post author) November 4, 2019 at 2:47 am

Substitute the values from (L-T)/2 + T + d, where L=1.5, T=0.25 and d=.169. That will give us 1.044.

thestructuralworld (Post author) November 2, 2019 at 6:35 pm

In this example, a 0.80m surcharge height is a given parameter. In the analytical model, the surcharge, ω is mentioned and the height corresponds to that is 0.80 m.

Rosina October 29, 2019 at 2:39 pm

Very helpful information.. thanks for sharing

thestructuralworld (Post author) November 2, 2019 at 6:36 pm

Thanks Rosina!

Renzo January 14, 2020 at 9:33 am

where do you get this 1.244 on similar triangles under (qc = y) condition. Thanks in advance!

Ant April 1, 2020 at 4:26 am

You need to use effective stress when doing the calculation.

bricklayer April 14, 2020 at 10:12 pm

we have to learned the different checks against the mode of failures in the retaining wall should be considered in the design. Here some worked examples of the design of the retaining wall are
described.I like the I have also found this resource [Link] useful and its related to what you are mentioning.
:
 KL June 9, 2020 at 9:07 am

Could you please clarify why in section 7 you determine L=1.6m, but later in the calculation you still use L=1.5m? thanks a lot.

Charles July 9, 2020 at 5:34 pm

I find this helpful though.

Samir Khan December 30, 2020 at 2:39 am

In the overturning moment, you have this factor: W1 (0.313)

Where do you get the 0.313 from?

PS I purchased the spreadsheet!

Elifnur Kanburoğlu December 30, 2020 at 7:19 pm

why we used 18 kn/m^3 insted of 12 kn/m^3 when we calculate the weight of surcharge?

thestructuralworld (Post author) December 31, 2020 at 4:18 pm

This is just a typo error and we corrected this according to 12KPa as per the attached spreadsheet.

Ranjana January 8, 2021 at 3:52 pm

while calculating restoring moment is it good to take moment due to surcharge load because surcharge load may be transient in some cases , like fire tender or other
vehicular load

EDUARDO CINCO ARENAS February 27, 2021 at 4:21 am

fine example for design

Sadhbh April 29, 2021 at 5:43 pm

Why did you put 1/2 for Pa1 instead of 1/3 as it is H/3 with triangular load?

thestructuralworld (Post author) May 2, 2021 at 12:21 am

Notice that the pressures acting on the wall are equivalent to the area (triangle) of the pressure distribution diagram. Upon getting the Pressure, we will multiply it by h/3 to get the
moment.

Meaghan May 3, 2021 at 11:20 am

What does the height of the surcharge, h, represent? You have given us the value of the surcharge, so I can’t work out what the h is referring to?

Verna Owen May 27, 2021 at 7:17 am

I’m amazed at your Math skills! However, retaining walls can also be built through stone masonry construction. But yeah, the cost and quality should be considered.

Shahram Aftabiazar August 25, 2021 at 2:29 am

:
 Hi,
in the section “Check for Sliding”, I think you have forgotten to multiply the vertical weight to “tan([Link]/3)”. if you do that Rf would be reduced 55.94 x 0.35= 19.50, as a result, the design cannot pass
the sliding check.
the active lateral load should be against the passive lateral load, not the vertical load.

Casey Roberts September 7, 2021 at 11:20 pm

Does this spreadsheet allow for an offset footing where the toe length is different than the heel lenth.

Also, why vertical rebar on both faces of the stem? Primary vertical rebar should be on the tension (back/burried) face.

thestructuralworld (Post author) September 15, 2021 at 9:03 pm

This excel is for retaining walls with concentric walls to its foundation only. Yeah, that’s right theoritically, the primary bar should place on the tension side of the wall only. But,
practically speaking, or in actual it’s best for the designer to add another rebar on the other side, just in case.

Ruben Fegsar September 15, 2021 at 4:42 pm

I bought the file, yet why cant I edit the file so i may be able to put my own logo for the finished output?

Is it not allowed? I mean like I already paid for the file.

Thanks and would really appreciate a feedback on this one.

thestructuralworld (Post author) September 15, 2021 at 8:51 pm

Hi Ruben, you can actually put your own logo on the space provided. Either editing some option setting on your excel or typing your company name on it. If none of these options are
working, do it manually. Once you finish the design, convert the file to pdf and paste your logo from there.

Hiwotie September 29, 2021 at 7:59 pm

it would have been better, if you can reference the equations.

Nadirlaini Souza October 7, 2021 at 2:09 pm

Hi, thank you for this example. It is really helpful.

I just have a question about the unit weight of soil used. Below the groundwater level, the active earth pressure shouldn’t be calculated considering the submerged unit weight of soil?

portland baic October 17, 2021 at 7:29 pm

IT CAN BE ALLOWED TO USED THE MINIMUM STEEL RATIO OF 1.4/fy ? for vertical reinf of retaining wall.

Aaron November 1, 2021 at 9:05 pm

I think your RM is incorrect in its total value. Each time I calculate it I get 57.91KN, not 60.02KN

thestructuralworld (Post author) November 3, 2021 at 10:56 pm

Thanks, Aaron for pointing it out. We have checked and found out that that is merely a typo error and it has been updated accordingly. We have also double-checked the attached
spreadsheet and it is not affecting the results in the calculation.

Ashim Saha November 30, 2021 at 1:14 pm

:
 Ashim Saha November 30, 2021 at 1:14 pm

Sir, would you please to explain about qumax 112.24 and qumin 19.44 respectively of article [Link].

John Edwin December 24, 2021 at 6:11 pm

This sit is very good,how can i become member.

Sangeetha February 9, 2022 at 1:53 pm

Hi, Thanks for the detailed calculation. How if the surcharge height is not given, what estimation can we use?

thuan cao March 13, 2022 at 10:42 pm

is there unit in imperial ? or only in metric

thestructuralworld (Post author) March 17, 2022 at 10:04 pm

This is in the metric unit. Imperial or SI unit is under development.

Heinrich May 8, 2022 at 4:17 pm

Good day
Our lecturer used this exact extract as a curveball to calculate retaining walls with water, I found this before we had to give it in…full marks then :D.

Why do you not use friction forces to calculate FR, FR = ΣV * tan(k1*Φ1) + k2C2B + Pp

There is no cohesion forces hence k2C2B = 0

But the rest will equate to 32.54kN

Then sliding test will be 1.62>1.5 = OK, this is how we are taught.

Could you elaborate on your method for sliding and where the 0.9 safety factor comes from for the concrete weight. I have tried to find this info in our foundations handbook with no success.

Heinrich May 8, 2022 at 7:56 pm

I also see your turning point is not at an extreme point. You use the top of your toe instead of the bottom. From what I can see this means your moments won’t be accurate, but it will give
similar results.

There is also a comment earlier about a typo of MoT = 57.91, the figure was right at 60.02, the weight of section 1 was not added to the equation. Though all of these moments are taken
from the top of the toe and not the furthest point, thus moments are not accurate.

Principle is good, great article.

[Link] November 2, 2022 at 4:19 pm

sir, Thank you for your valuable information. this is very much useful and one more plea that can we have any examples for considering wings & returns with head wall can be treated as a retaining
wall any such kind of examples please post to mail if any thanks in advance

Mike January 25, 2023 at 12:41 pm

Hi
Great example. Thanks. Wouldn’t you think you need to add the vertical stress applied on the wall base due to the surcharge and also calculate its moment?
Thanks
Mike
:
 thestructuralworld (Post author) February 7, 2023 at 11:21 pm

Thanks, Mike! The surcharge is already considered in the example.

Matthew April 14, 2023 at 12:33 pm

Good day. May I ask if why bw is equal to 1000 mm? As per ACI R11.1:

The shear strength is based on an average shear stress on the full effective cross section (bw x d). In a member without shear reinforcement, shear is assumed to be carried by the
concrete web. In a member with shear reinforcement, a portion of the shear strength is assumed to be provided by the concrete and the remainder by the shear reinforcement.

Thus, the assumed cross section must be 250 mm (base thickness where shear failure is expected) x 169 mm.

Adrian P December 8, 2023 at 11:51 am

Hi, awesome example! I have a question though, in the overtunring moment:

RM= W2 (0.75) + W3(0.75) + W4(1.19) + W5(1.19) + Ws(1.19) = 57.91 kNm
OM= Pa1 (0.67) +Pa2 (0.33) +Pa3 (0.4) = 10.88kNm

where did 0.75, 1.19, 0.67, 0.33 and 0.4 came from? are those USA safety factors or what?

thestructuralworld (Post author) December 20, 2023 at 10:34 pm

Those are lever arms! With reference to Figure A.4 diagram and taking moment at the point P.

Adrian P December 21, 2023 at 12:13 pm

Hey, thanks! I did get now where the

0.67, 0.33 and 0.4 in OM
came from there the height of the resultant,
but I still cant figure out the
0.75 and 1.19 from RM, are they the distance to a certain turning point?

sujit mondal February 11, 2024 at 11:29 pm

would you please to explain about qumax 112.24 and qumin 19.44 respectively ???

Shanks February 21, 2024 at 10:55 am

in check the wall thickness for flexure section

Mu= (73.57×0.625) x (0.625/2) + (38.67×0.625) (1/2) x (2/3) (0.625)
How is this calculated
and where did we get 38.67 from
Please explain

Jesus Saves March 6, 2024 at 6:12 pm

Thank for this detailed design to follow; It has been very helpful. One thing I noticed is that the calculation for the wall stem does not match the value you then indicated for the moment when
checking for wall stem flexure. You have listed that Mu=19.40KNm again for tension, but the calculation comes out to the 29.33KNm you used. I believe it was just a typo but it made it a bit
confusing to follow then. Thanks again, and God bless.

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