Basic assumptions
Chapter 6: Behavioural therapy
• Behaviour is Learned: Behaviour shapes learning, influenced by both past
experiences and the current environment. Radical behaviourism suggests that
we don't need to consider internal thoughts to explain behaviour—learning
and behaviour changes can be explained by what has been reinforced or
rewarded in the past.
• Environment Shapes Behaviour: Behaviour is controlled by the
environment, following the ABC model: Antecedents (A) trigger Behaviours
(B), which lead to Consequences (C). This model explains that behaviour is
a response to what happens before it and the results that follow.
Reinforcement and punishment guide what actions people take.
• Personality and Behaviour: Personality is seen as a collection of behaviours
learned through experiences. Since personality is shaped by reinforcement
history, it can be changed through behavioural interventions.
• Observational Learning: People can learn by watching others. This can
either help them learn new behaviours or perform previously learned
behaviours in new situations, depending on the rewards they might get.
• Rewards Influence Behaviour: Basic needs like food and water are primary
reinforces, while things like money or praise are secondary reinforces
because they help obtain those basic needs. Positive and negative
reinforcements increase the likelihood of certain behaviours, while
punishment can reduce them.
• Selective Reinforcement: Specific behaviours can be shaped by reinforcing
them selectively, helping people learn and improve skills by responding to
certain cues or stimuli.
Chapter 7: Cognitive behavioural therapy
• Beliefs Guide Behaviour: People's actions and feelings are driven by their
beliefs and expectations about situations. These belief schemas influence
how they respond emotionally and behaviourally.
• Dysfunctional Beliefs: People may adopt dysfunctional beliefs based on
cognitive errors or irrational thoughts, leading to maladaptive behaviours and
emotional distress.
• Irrational thoughts and cognitive errors: People often misinterpret
situations due to cognitive distortions, which contribute to dysfunctional
thinking.
• Cognitions, Emotions, and Behaviour Interactions: Thoughts, emotions,
and behaviours are interconnected. A change in one area can lead to changes
in the others, influencing overall psychological functioning.
• Natural Striving for Happiness: People inherently strive towards self-
actualization and happiness within a social system. This involves self-directed
activities, acceptance of uncertainty, and rational thinking.
• Information Processing for Meaning: People process information to find
meaning in their experiences, guiding their behaviour towards goal
achievement and personal well-being.
• Everyone Has Irrational Beliefs: Irrational beliefs are universal, but
individuals can learn to challenge and change these beliefs to reduce distress
and improve functioning.
• Everyone Has Irrational Beliefs: Irrational beliefs are universal, but
individuals can learn to challenge and change these beliefs to reduce distress
and improve functioning.
• Internal locus of control: Developing a belief in one's ability to influence their
outcomes is essential for overcoming irrational beliefs and achieving personal
fulfilment.
Chapter 8: Social Interest
Social Interest and Community Feeling: People have an innate need for
empathy, bonding, and actions for the common good. This social interest is
linked to mental health and a sense of belonging and is shaped more by
choices and actions than by genetics or environment.
Becoming Superior and Overcoming Inferiority: Individuals strive to be
their best and overcome feelings of inferiority. Healthy striving involves self-
improvement, while unhealthy striving may involve dominance over others.
Subjective Reality: People’s perceptions are shaped by their unique
subjective reality, which influences their social actions and relationships. High
social interest aligns with well-being, while low social interest is linked to
discouragement.
Guiding Self-Ideals: Individuals form fictional goals based on aspirations and
societal expectations. These goals shape behaviours and attitudes toward life
challenges and can be functional or dysfunctional.
Lifestyle and Life Tasks: Each person develops a unique lifestyle based on
fictional goals, impacting their approach to life tasks like friendship, love, work,
and spirituality. Success in these tasks reflects personal growth and
community contribution.
Birth Order and Sibling Relationships: Birth order influences social
experiences and family dynamics, shaping how individuals relate to others.
This is especially significant in African contexts, where older siblings often
take on caregiving roles.
Encouragement and Discouragement: Encouragement is crucial for
motivating individuals to pursue life tasks and overcome fears. In some
cultural contexts, emphasis is placed more on social responsibility than on
individual achievement.
Chapter 9: Humanistic therapy
• Humanistic therapy focuses on helping individuals reach their full potential (self-
actualization) by understanding and accepting their unique experiences and values
(organismic valuing).
• It emphasizes the importance of authentic living, which involves being true to
oneself and maintaining openness to new experiences while acknowledging cultural
influences.
• The therapy recognizes that people have the freedom to choose their paths and
bear responsibility for their actions, fostering intrinsic goals aligned with their true
selves.
• Authentic living requires empathy, genuineness, and congruence in interactions with
others.
• Additionally, spirituality is considered a core aspect of human existence, providing
meaning, purpose, and a sense of belonging, which are essential for well-being and
coping with life’s challenges.
Chapter 10: Indigenous therapy
Health antecedents (collective beingness and spirituality) contribute to
Sources of maladjustments (relational discordance) which are in interaction with
Recovery activation agents (ceremonial practices) leading to
Treatment goals and practices (symptom relief and personal- and life situation
change)
Constitutive reciprocity: Individual’s value defined by kinship network and collective
consciousness.
Chapter 11: Discursive therapy
• Antecedents (narratives, solution focus, collaboration) leads to possible
maladjustment (problem saturated stories, cultural norms, diagnostic stories)
which is linked to an activating event and specific outcomes
• People make sense through conversation
• Subjectivity and uniqueness
• Linguistic and language focus
• Perceived attributions are the basis for conversations
• Attributions between self and personal challenges influence ongoing actions
Chapter 12: Family therapy
Families serve as a health resource
A sense of belonging is created through intergenerational solidarity
Family life can provide meaningful interpersonal relationships
Families create resilience in that they can ‘bounce back’ and recover from
adversity
Most of the support people identify stems from their family
Chapter 13: Community counselling
Chapter 14: Employment and vocational counselling
• Livelihood is the core (See Figure 14.7)
• Employment is everyday living and central to life
• Employment status change is normal
• Meaningful employment can stem from work engagement
• Work-life balance is a continuous quest
• Employment participation attributes (beliefs) are in play
• Individual traits results in a fit/misfit with a specific job