REVIEW GUIDE
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
The Earth's Spherical Shape
● The circular shadow during a lunar eclipse was key evidence used by the Greeks to prove that the Earth is spherical.
Models of the Universe
● The primary difference between the geocentric and heliocentric models is the center of the universe: the former places Earth at the
center, while the latter places the Sun.
Greek Contributions to Navigation
● Greek sailors used the fixed stars in the sky as references for navigation, demonstrating their knowledge of diurnal motion.
Eratosthenes’ Measurement
● The most effective demonstration of Earth’s spherical shape was Eratosthenes’ observation of the difference in shadow angles at two
cities, which he used to calculate its circumference.
Retrograde Motion
● In the Copernican model, retrograde motion is explained by the difference in orbital speed of planets as Earth overtakes them.
Astronomical Observations
● Ancient Greek astronomers used the circular shadow during eclipses to convince others of Earth’s spherical shape.
Key Astronomers
● Eratosthenes measured the Earth’s circumference using shadow angles and geometry.
Lunar Eclipses
● During a lunar eclipse, the Earth is positioned between the Sun and the Moon, causing Earth’s shadow to fall on the Moon.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
● Kepler’s first law is significant because it shows that planetary orbits are elliptical rather than circular.
Precession
● Precession describes the wobbling of Earth’s axis over thousands of years, which affects the position of stars.
Historical Models of the Universe
● The Ptolemaic system is a geocentric model where Earth is the center, and all celestial bodies orbit it.
● The Tychonic system, proposed by Tycho Brahe, is a hybrid model combining aspects of geocentric and heliocentric systems.
Galileo’s and Newton’s Contributions
● Galileo demonstrated that no force is needed for continuous motion in the absence of interference and proved that objects of different
weights fall at the same rate.
● Newton expanded this with his laws of motion, particularly the second law, which explains the relationship between force, mass, and
acceleration.
Behavior of Light
● Light can be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed when it strikes a surface.
● The Law of Reflection states that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
Optics and Mirrors
● A smooth surface produces a clear image due to specular reflection, while a rough surface causes diffuse reflection.
● The two types of spherical mirrors are convex and concave.
Light Phenomena
● Dispersion splits white light into a spectrum of colors, with violet bending the most during refraction.
● Diffraction occurs when light passes through a narrow slit and spreads out.
Einstein and Newton on Gravity
● Newton described gravity as a pulling force, while Einstein explained it as the warping of space-time.
● If the Sun’s mass doubled, space-time would curve more, increasing the gravitational effect.
Relativity and Time Dilation
● Time slows down for astronauts traveling at high speeds compared to people on Earth due to time dilation.
Hubble’s Law and the Expanding Universe
● Hubble’s Law describes the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies moving away, supporting the concept of an
expanding universe.
● The expansion of the universe is illustrated by the raisin-bread loaf analogy, where raisins (galaxies) move farther apart as the dough
(space) expands.
Redshift
● When a celestial object moves away, its light shifts to the red end of the spectrum (redshift), indicating its increasing distance.