🌱 Environmental Science – Module 1

What is Ecology?

Ecology is the scientific study of how living organisms interact with each
other and with their non-living environment. It covers relationships such
as food chains, nutrient cycles, energy flows, and the impacts of
environmental changes on biodiversity.

Key Terms and Concepts

 Species:
A group of similar organisms capable of breeding and producing
fertile offspring under natural conditions. Species share similar
characteristics and occupy specific ecological roles.

 Population:
All individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the
same time. Populations interact through competition for resources,
mating, and social behaviors.

 Community:
Different populations of various species living and interacting within
the same environment. These interactions include predation,
competition, and mutualism.

 Ecosystem:
A system formed by a community of living organisms interacting
with their physical (abiotic) environment. Examples include ponds,
forests, coral reefs, and deserts.

 Biosphere:
The global sum of all ecosystems. It includes all areas where life
exists — land, water, and the lower atmosphere.

 Atmosphere:
The thin layer of gases surrounding Earth. It provides oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and other essential gases that sustain life.

 Hydrosphere:
All the water found on, under, and above the surface of the Earth. It
includes oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers, and
atmospheric water vapor.

 Lithosphere:
The outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the
 uppermost part of the mantle. It provides the land, minerals, and
soil necessary for life.

 Habitat:
The natural environment where an organism lives, finds food,
shelters, and reproduces. Examples include rainforests, coral reefs,
and grasslands.

 Niche:
The specific role or function of an organism within its environment.
It includes what the organism eats, how it obtains resources, where
it lives, and how it interacts with other species.

 Biome:
A large region characterized by a specific climate and types of
plants and animals adapted to it. Examples are deserts, tundras,
rainforests, and savannas.

 Ecotone:
A transitional area between two ecosystems where two communities
meet and interact. Ecotones usually have high biodiversity because
they include species from both adjoining ecosystems.

Explaining the Relationship Between Living Organisms and Their

Environment

(i) Biotic and Abiotic Environments

 Biotic Environment:
All living things in an ecosystem, animals, plants, fungi, bacteria,
etc. They depend on each other for food, shelter, reproduction, and
protection

 Abiotic Environment:
The non-living physical and chemical components — sunlight,
temperature, wind, soil, water, pH levels, and minerals — that affect
the living organisms.

Relationship:
Organisms depend on both biotic and abiotic factors for survival. For
example, plants need sunlight (abiotic) and pollinators (biotic) to
reproduce.

(ii) Tolerance Ranges and Limiting Factors

 Tolerance Range:
The range of environmental conditions (like temperature, salinity, or
pH) that an organism can survive, grow, and reproduce in.
 Example: Coral reefs can only survive within specific temperature
ranges; too hot or too cold and they die.

 Limiting Factor:
Any environmental factor that restricts the growth, survival, or
reproduction of organisms.
Example: In a desert, water scarcity is a major limiting factor for
plant and animal life.

Organisms thrive when conditions are within their tolerance range, but
struggle or die if conditions are too extreme.

(iii) Ecological Niches

 Fundamental Niche:
The full set of environmental conditions under which an organism
can survive and reproduce, without competition or predation.

 Realized Niche:
The narrower range of conditions an organism actually occupies,
limited by factors such as competition, predation, or human
influence.

Example:
A species of bird may be able to live across an entire forest (fundamental
niche), but it only nests in a few areas because of competition with other
species (realized niche).

3. Outline the Importance of Biogeochemical Cycles

➔ What are Biogeochemical Cycles?

Biogeochemical cycles describe how essential elements like carbon,

nitrogen, phosphorus, and water move through living organisms (bio),
geological formations (geo), and chemical processes (chemical).
These cycles are crucial for recycling nutrients necessary for life.

 Carbon Cycle:
Carbon moves between the atmosphere, living organisms, oceans,
and Earth's crust.
Key processes include photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition,
and combustion.

Basic Equations:

o Photosynthesis:
 o Respiration:

 Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen is converted between different chemical forms through
nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and
denitrification.

Key Formulas:

o Nitrogen fixation:

o Nitrification:

 Phosphorus Cycle:
Phosphorus moves through rocks, water, soil, and organisms. Unlike
other cycles, it does not have a gaseous phase. Phosphates (PO₄³⁻)
are absorbed by plants and transferred through the food chain.

 Water Cycle:
Water circulates through evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, and runoff.
Water supports all living organisms by maintaining cells and
ecosystems.

4. Explain the Significance of Biogeochemical Cycles to Organisms

 They recycle essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,

and water needed for survival.

 Support processes such as growth, reproduction, and energy

transfer.

 Help maintain environmental stability and the health of ecosystems.

  Prevent the accumulation of waste products and shortages of critical
nutrients.

5. Explain How Energy and Nutrients Flow Within Ecosystems

(i) Productivity of Producers and Ecosystems

 Primary productivity is the rate at which producers (plants, algae)

convert solar energy into chemical energy (food).

 Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total amount of energy

captured.

 Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Energy left after respiration;

available to herbivores.

Formula:

NPP= GPP- RESPIRATION

(ii) Food Chains and Webs

 Food Chain: A linear sequence showing who eats whom. Example:

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk

 Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains

showing all feeding relationships in an ecosystem.

(iii) Trophic Levels

 Each step in a food chain or web.

 Producers → Primary consumers (herbivores) → Secondary

consumers (carnivores) → Tertiary consumers → Decomposers.

(iv) Ecological Pyramids

 Graphical representations of energy, biomass, or numbers at each

trophic level:

o Pyramid of Energy: Always upright; shows energy loss at

each level.
o Pyramid of Biomass: May be inverted in aquatic systems.

o Pyramid of Numbers: Can be upright or inverted depending

on ecosystem.
6. Discuss Types of Interactions Between Organisms in
Communities

(i) Competition

 Organisms compete for limited resources like food, space, light, or

mates.

 Competition can be within a species (intraspecific) or between

different species (interspecific).

(ii) Predator-Prey Relationships

 Predators hunt and consume prey.

 These interactions regulate population sizes and maintain balance in

ecosystems.

➔ (iii) Symbiosis

 Parasitism:
One organism benefit (parasite) while the other is harmed (host).

- Parasites that live within the host’s body are called indo- parasites
Example: hookworms and tapeworms in mammals and fungal
parasites in plants
- Parasites that live on the surface or the skin is called endo-parasites
Example: Ticks on a animal, headlice on humans and mealy bugs
that live on the surface of green plants.

 Commensalism:
One organism benefits, the other is unaffected. Usually the smaller
benefits
Example: Barnacles attaching to whales. The barnacles performs
no service to the whale nor do they harm it yet the barnacles benefit
from the constant movement of water past the swimming whale
because the water carries food particles to them

 Mutualism:
two organisms of different species live in an intimate association
that offers some benefit to both
Example: Bees pollinating flowers, the flowers provide the insect
 with food and the form of nectar pollen or other substances, and the
insects help the flower with pollination

7. Explain How Ecosystems Are Self-Sustaining

 Ecological Succession:
Natural, gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area
over time.

o Primary succession: Begins in areas with no life (e.g., lava

flows).

o Secondary succession: Happens where ecosystems

previously existed but were disturbed (e.g., after a fire).

 Climax Community:
a relatively stable long lasting community reached at the end of a
successional series

Example rainforests grasslands seagrass beds

8. Explain the Process of Natural Selection and Adaptation to the

Environment

 Natural Selection:
The process where organisms with favourable traits survive and
reproduce more successfully than those without.

 Evolution:
The gradual change in a species over time due to accumulated
genetic changes.

 Adaptation:
Traits that increase an organism’s chance of survival and
reproduction.
Example: Camouflage in animals or drought resistance in desert
plants.

9. Determine Population Size Using Appropriate Sampling

Methods

 Population sampling is necessary because it is often impossible to

count every individual organism in a habitat.

 Sampling methods include:

 o Quadrats: A square frame (often 1m²) placed randomly or
systematically to count organisms within the area. Best for
non-moving organisms like plants. Eg Grasslands savannahs
seagrass beds, coral reefs

Steps in using the quadrant

- random or systematic points in the ecosystem are chosen

- quadrat is gently placed at each location
- the number of each plants or slow moving organisms within the
frame is counted
- process repeated as many times as desired

information that can be ascertained includes

- Percent coverage of each species in the area

- distribution of species
- density of each species
- Frequency of each species

o Transects: Lines laid across a habitat. Organisms are

recorded at regular intervals along the line. Useful for studying
gradients (e.g., across a shoreline).

Steps in using Transect

- Random location is chosen in the ecosystem

- Transect line is carefully secured
- at predetermined intervals any plans, stationary or slow-moving
organizing touching the line are recorded
- the process is repeated as desired

Information that can be ascertained includes

- Profile of ground [if the height of the ground below the line is
measured]
- frequency of species
- Distribution of species

o Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture: Used for moving

organisms like fish or insects. Organisms are captured,
marked harmlessly, released back, and later a second sample
is collected.
Population size can be estimated using:

10. Calculate Species Diversity

Species diversity (D) measures the variety and abundance of species in an

area. It is calculated by the formula:
Where:

 D = species diversity index

 N = total number of organisms of all species

 n = number of individuals of each species

A higher diversity index indicates a healthier, more stable ecosystem.

11. Analyse the Relationship Between Species Diversity and

Ecosystem Stability

 Diversity within species: Genetic variation ensures that

populations can adapt to changing conditions, promoting survival.

 Diversity between species: More species in an ecosystem mean a

variety of roles (producers, consumers, decomposers), supporting
system stability.

 Community and ecosystem stability: Ecosystems with high

species diversity are more resilient to disturbances like diseases,
climate change, or human impacts.

12. Identify Factors Affecting Population Growth in a Natural

Ecosystem

 Biotic Potential: The maximum reproductive capacity of a species

under ideal conditions.

 Exponential Population Growth: When a population increases

rapidly without any limiting factors (J-shaped curve).
  Environmental Resistance: Factors that slow population growth,
such as limited food, predation, disease, and competition.

13. Explain the Concept of Carrying Capacity

 Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a

species that an environment can support sustainably without
degradation.

 If a population exceeds the carrying capacity the population size

reaches an equilibrium, resources become depleted, and the
population declines due to starvation, disease, or migration.

14. Evaluate Human Interactions Within Natural Ecosystems

 Humans as Part of Ecosystems: Humans depend on ecosystems

for food, water, air purification, and climate regulation.

 Benefits of Natural Ecosystems:

o Provide biodiversity,

o Offer raw materials and medicines,

o Support cultural and recreational activities.

 Anthropogenic Impacts:

o Deforestation, pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, and

introduction of invasive species disrupt ecosystem functions.

 Need for Biodiversity Conservation:

o Maintaining biodiversity ensures ecosystem resilience,

continued ecosystem services, and genetic resources for
future generations.