Chapter One
Introduction
By Mr. Hadi H.
October, 2023
COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE
Outline
Logic gates and Boolean algebra
Combinational circuit
Flip flops
Sequential circuit
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 2
Logic gates
• The fundamental building block of all digital logic circuits is
the gate. Logical functions are implemented by the
interconnection of gates.
• A gate is an electronic circuit that produces an output signal
that is a simple Boolean operation on its input signals.
• The basic gates used in digital logic are AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, and XOR.
• Each gate are defined in three ways: graphic symbol,
algebraic notation, and truth table.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 3
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 4
Universal logic gates
Some Uses of NAND Gates Some Uses of NOR Gates
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 5
Boolean algebra
• The digital circuitry in digital computers and other digital
systems is designed, and its behavior is analyzed, with the
use of a mathematical discipline known as Boolean algebra
• Boolean algebra is a type of logical algebra in which
symbols represent logic levels.
• The digits (or symbols) 1 and 0 are related to the logic levels
in this algebra; in electrical circuits, logic 1 will represent a
closed switch, a high voltage, or a device’s “on” state.
• An open switch, low voltage, or “off” state of the device will
be represented by logic 0.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 6
Boolean operators
(a) Boolean Operators of Two Input Variables
(b) Boolean Operators Extended to More than Two Inputs (A, B . . .)
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 7
Basic identities of Boolean algebra
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 8
Combinational circuit
• output depends only upon present input.
• Speed is fast and designed easy.
• There is no feedback between input and output.
• time independent.
• Elementary building blocks: Logic gates
• Used for arithmetic as well as Boolean operations.
• don’t have capability to store any state.
• don’t have clock, they don’t require triggering.
• do not have any memory element.
• It is easy to use and handle.
Examples – Encoder, Decoder, Multiplexer, Demultiplexer
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 9
Combinational circuit 2
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 10
Flip-flops
• A flip-flop is a circuit that has two stable states and can be
used to store information.
• A flip-flop is a binary storage device capable of storing one
bit of information.
• A storage element in digital circuit can maintain a binary
state indefinitely until directed by an input signal to switch
state.
• Storage element that operate with signal level are called
latches and those operate with clock transition are called as
flip-flops.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 11
Sequential circuit
In this output depends upon present as well as past input.
Speed is slow.
It is designed tough as compared to combinational circuits.
There exists a feedback path between input and output.
This is time dependent.
Elementary building blocks: Flip-flops
Mainly used for storing data.
have capability to store any state or to retain earlier state.
clock dependent they need triggering.
have memory element.
It is not easy to use and handle.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 12
Sequential circuit 2
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 13
Integrated circuits (IC)
• Complex digital circuits are constructed with integrated
circuits. IC is a small silicon semiconductor crystal, called a
chip, containing the electronic components for the digital
gates.
• The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form
the required circuit.
• The chip is mounted in a ceramic or plastic container and the
connections are welded to the external pins to form an IC.
• The number of pins of IC varies from 14 to several thousand.
A unique number printed on its body identifies each pin.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 14
Categories of integrated circuits (IC)
• SSI (Small Scale Integration Device): It contains several
independent gates in a single package. The number of gates is
usually less than 10.
• MSI(Medium Scale Integration Device): It contains 10 to 200
gates in a single package.
• LSI(Large Scale Integration Device): It contains gates between
200 to few thousand in a single package.
• VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration Device): It contains
thousands of gates within a single package such as microcomputer
chip.
• ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration Device): It contains
hundred of thousands of gates within a single package such as
microcomputer chip.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 15
Decoder
• A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary
information from n coded inputs to 2^n outputs.
• Commercial decoders include one or more enable (E) inputs
to control the operation of circuit. The decoder is enabled
when E is equal to 1 and disabled when E is equal to 0.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 16
Multiplexer
• A multiplexer is a combinational circuit that receives binary
information from one of the 2^n input lines and directs it to a
single output line.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 17
Memory Unit
• A Memory Unit is a collection of storage cells together with
associated circuits needed to transfer information in and out
of storage.
• Word: The memory stores binary information(1's and
0's) in groups of bits called words.
• A memory word is a group of 1's and 0's and may represent a
number, an instruction code, one or more alphanumeric
characters, or any other binary coded information.
• Byte: A group of eight bits is called a byte.
• The capacity of memories in commercial computers is
usually stated as the total number of bytes that can be stored.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 18
Register
• Register is a very fast computer memory, used to store
data/instruction in-execution.
• A Register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop
capable of storing one bit of information.
• An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of
storing binary information of n-bits.
• Various types of registers are available commercially. The
simplest register is one that consists of only flip-flops with
no external gates.
• These day registers are also implemented as a register file.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 19
Question and Answer
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
10/21/2023 ARCHITECTURE 20