II.P.

One Engine Inoperative (OEI) Performance

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of OEI performance and the associated factors.

Key Elements 1. Left Engine is Critical

2. Never go below VMC
3. Maintain directional control (Fly the Airplane!)

Elements 1. OEI Aerodynamics

2. Performance & Limitations
3. Best Course of Action

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the differences between a single and multiengine airplane as well as
Standards the elements of an engine failure, the critical engine, performance & limitations, and VMC.
II.O. Pressurization

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Having an additional engine is helpful for better climb performance and greater speeds, but a failure of one of the
engines is very different from losing an engine in a single engine airplane. In this lesson you will learn which engine
has a more adverse effect on control and performance when lost and why, as well as what the minimum controllable
airspeed is, and the best course of action based on the phase of flight.

Why
In the case of an engine failure, it is essential that the pilot understands how it affects performance and therefore
control.

How:
1. OEI Aerodynamics [Link].P.K5
A. Critical Engine [Link].P.K5a
i. The engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or handling qualities of an aircraft
ii. In a conventional twin, with both props rotating clockwise, this is the LEFT engine
a. Other twins overcome the problem of a critical engine with counter-rotating propellers
iii. There are 4 factors responsible for the left engine being critical on a conventional twin
a. P-Factor
• The descending blade of each propeller produces more thrust than the
ascending blade
a Therefore, in a conventional twin, the center of thrust is offset to the
right of each engine
• There is a greater distance (arm) between the center of thrust and the
longitudinal axis on the right engine than on the left
a The greater the distance, or arm, the greater the leverage
• If the right engine fails, the leverage associated with P-Factor is not as great as if the left engine fails
• If the left engine fails, the yaw from P-Factor is most adverse, therefore the left engine is critical
b. Accelerated Slipstream
• Due to P-Factor, there is greater airflow (more lift) over the wings on the right side of each engine
• There is a greater distance (arm) between the excess lift and the longitudinal axis on the right engine
than on the left engine
a The greater the distance, or arm, the greater the leverage
• If the left engine fails, there is a stronger rolling action than if the right engine
fails, therefore the left engine is critical
c. Spiraling Slipstream
• Each propeller produces a spiraling slipstream of air behind it (picture)
• The left engine’s slipstream strikes the rudder on the left side creating a left turning tendency

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II.O. Pressurization

• The right engine’s slipstream has no affect on the aircraft

• If the right engine fails, the left engine’s slipstream will counteract some of the
yaw toward the dead engine
• If the left engine fails the airplane will yaw uninhibited toward the dead engine,
therefore the left engine is critical
d. Torque
• Torque is based on Newton’s 3rd law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
• When the propellers spin clockwise torque will cause the plane to roll
counterclockwise (CCW) (picture)
• If the right engine fails the plane will roll right, but the CCW torque will
offset some of the force
• If the left engine fails, the CCW torque will encourage the roll toward the left engine
• The left engine is critical since torque most adversely affects control when the left engine fails
B. VMC [Link].P.K5b
i. What is VMC?
a. Published VMC (in the POH): Speed at which the
rudder no longer has the authority to overcome the
yaw caused by the critical engine being inoperative,
under specific criteria mandated by the FAA
• FAA mandated criteria includes, among other
things, a max of 5o of bank into the operative
engine (we’ll return to this shortly)
b. Actual VMC varies based on conditions, configuration,
and pilot technique during the engine failure
ii. What Causes Minimum Controllable Airspeed [Link].P.K5d
a. With an engine failed, the operating engine (assume
full power) produces yaw toward the dead engine
• T x X in the graphic
b. Rudder counters the yaw to keep the plane straight
c. The amount of rudder force is based on airspeed
• R x Y in the graphic
• The slower the aircraft, the less airflow over the
rudder, and therefore the less force
d. As an aircraft slows, and the rudder’s force
decreases, the yawing force remains constant
e. There is an airspeed where the rudder’s force is equal
to the engine’s force
• This is VMC (T x X = R x Y) – also shown on the graph
f. If the aircraft slows beyond this speed, the rudder produces less force than the engine and the plane
yaws uncontrollably to the dead engine
iii. VMC Recovery
a. Reduce power (reduces yawing force) & lower the nose (increases airspeed & the rudder’s force)
b. Return to VYSE, coordinated flight (zero sideslip – discussed next), & max power
iv. VMC & Bank
a. VMC is highly sensitive to bank
• Horizontal component of lift associated with bank assists the rudder in maintaining control
a Reduces the rudder required to maintain control, lowering VMC

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II.O. Pressurization

• VMC may increase more than 3 knots for each degree of bank reduction between 5o & wings level
b. 5o maximum bank angle is a limit imposed to prevent unrealistically low VMC claims
• It doesn’t imply the best bank angle for OEI performance
• Best bank angle is what produces the zero sideslip (or single engine coordinated flight),
a Generally, 1-3o of bank – anything other than this degrades performance & can increase VMC
b Zero sideslip is discussed shortly
v. VMC & Stall Speed [Link].P.K6
a. VMC decreases with altitude, while stall speed remains the same
• The margin between VS and VMC decreases with altitude
b. There is an altitude where VMC and VS are the same
• Above this altitude, VMC will occur after a stall
c. The altitude where VMC = VS & above is extremely dangerous
• A stall with asymmetrical power will likely enter a spin
• The aircraft will spin in the direction of the failed engine
• Twins are not required to demonstrate spin recovery
d. Above this altitude, where a stall occurs before VMC, the
departure from controlled flight might be sudden
• Strong yawing and rolling tendencies inverting the
airplane and a spin entry
e. RM: Exceeding Critical AOA [Link].P.R1
• Essential that the pilot controls pitch and airspeed during an engine failure
• Know and establish the approximate pitch attitude for VYSE
• Maintain control - fly the airplane first!
C. Zero Side Slip [Link].P.K5c
i. Big Picture
a. Best single engine performance is obtained at VYSE with maximum power & minimum drag
b. A key element in minimizing drag is minimizing sideslip, or establishing zero sideslip (coordinated flight)
ii. Normal Flight – Both Engines Operating
a. Sideslip is eliminated when the ball of the turn coordinator is centered
• Airplane is presenting its smallest possible profile to the relative wind & drag is at a minimum
• This is zero sideslip
b. Zero sideslip can be visualized with a yaw string
• Piece of string or yarn (18-36”) taped to the base of the windshield
• In coordinated, zero sideslip flight, the relative wind aligns the string with the longitudinal axis
a Slips and skids move the string to either side of the longitudinal axis, displaying relative wind
iii. One Engine Inoperative Flight
a. Due to asymmetric thrust, the centered ball no longer indicates coordinated flight/zero sideslip
b. Use the POH published bank angle and ball position to establish zero sideslip and minimize drag
• Generally, 1-3o of bank and the ball displaced 1/3 to ½ toward the operating engine
• Re-aligns the yaw string with the longitudinal axis
• Centering the ball would move the yaw string off the longitudinal axis, increasing drag
c. Use the same ½ ball position for turning flight
iv. RM: Loss of Directional Control [Link].P.K5d, [Link].P.R2
a. Aileron and rudder are used in conjunction to establish the zero sideslip
• Using only aileron or rudder degrades performance & increases VMC
b. Rudder Only (Wings level, ball centered)
• Requires large rudder inputs toward the operating engine

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II.O. Pressurization

• Results in a moderate sideslip toward the operative engine

• Sideslip reduces climb performance
• With wings level, VMC is significantly higher than published (no horizontal lift to assist the rudder)

c. Ailerons Only (8-10o of bank, uncoordinated)

• Ball is displaced well toward the operative engine creating a large sideslip
• Climb performance is greatly reduced
• Increased VMC, and high risk of loss of control (should not be demonstrated)

d. Rudder & Aileron Together (1-3o bank & ½ ball into the operating engine)
• Zero sideslip & best performance (best climb performance or least rate of descent)
a Ability to climb depends on weight, density altitude, and pilot technique

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II.O. Pressurization

v. Any attitude other than zero sideslip increases drag and decreases performance
a. VMC may be higher than published and the pilot may unsuspectingly lose control
D. Single Engine Performance (not ACS required)
i. In general, an engine failure results in a loss of 50% of power but 70-80% of performance
a. Performance is the ability of the airplane to climb and is based on excess thrust
ii. Simple Example (meant to demonstrate the concepts, not necessarily technically accurate numbers)
a. Twin engine aircraft with two 200hp engines
b. Power
• 400hp total – if one engine is lost, power is reduced to 200hp, or a loss of 50%
c. Performance
• At the current airspeed, altitude, weight, etc., the aircraft requires 150hp to maintain level flight
• 400hp minus the 150hp required for level flight leaves 250 excess hp available for climb
• If an engine fails, 150hp to is still required for level flight, but now you only have 200hp total
a We’ll assume feathering and a zero sideslip evens out the level flight hp requirements
• 200hp minus the 150 required for level flight leaves 50hp available for a climb
a Reduction of 80%
2. Performance & Limitations
A. Be very familiar with performance & limitations to make informed multiengine decisions. Examples include:
i. Engine failure on takeoff
a. Can the airplane be stopped on the runway?
b. Can the airplane climb/clear obstacles at the density altitude and weight?
ii. Engine failure enroute
a. What altitude can the airplane maintain?
B. Multiengine Performance Terms
i. Accelerate-Stop Distance
a. Distance required to accelerated to VR, experience an engine failure, and bring come to a complete stop
ii. Accelerate-Go Distance
a. Horizontal distance required to continue a takeoff and climb to 50’ assuming an engine failure at VR

iii. Service Ceiling (both engines operating)

a. Highest altitude at which a 100-fpm steady climb can be maintained
iv. Absolute Service Ceiling: When climb is no longer possible
v. Single-Engine Service Ceiling
a. Can no longer maintain a 50 fpm climb with OEI
vi. Single-Engine Absolute Service Ceiling: When climb is no longer possible
a. If an engine failure occurs above the service ceiling, the aircraft will lose altitude
b. VYSE minimizes loss

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II.O. Pressurization

c. Actual altitude maintained depends on performance and pilot control/technique

vii. All these performance factor should be determined prior to every flight
C. Atmospheric Conditions & Performance [Link].P.K3
i. Atmospheric Pressure
a. Though air is light, it has mass and is affected by gravity and therefore it has a force
b. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted is approx. 14.7 lbs. per sq. in
c. Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded
d. Density of the air has significant effects on the airplane’s performance
• As the density of the air increases, airplane performance increases and vice versa
ii. What Changes Air Density (DA)?
a. Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Altitude, and Humidity all affect air density
• Density varies directly with pressure - As pressure increases, density increases and vice versa
• Density varies inversely with temperature – As temp increases, density decreases and vice versa
• Density varies inversely with altitude - As altitude increases, density decreases and vice versa
• Density varies inversely with humidity – As humidity increases, density decreases and vice versa
a For a given volume of air, as humidity increases some of the dry air is replaced by water vapor
1. The molecular weight of dry air is approximately 29 grams/mol, while the molecular weight
of water vapor (H20) is about 18 grams/mol
a. Grams/mol = Molar mass
b As the proportion of water in the atmosphere (humidity) increases, the density (weight/volume)
of the particular volume of air decreases
iii. How it affects Performance
a. As the air becomes less dense, it reduces:
• Power, since the engine takes in less air
• Thrust, since the propeller is less efficient in thin air (less air is being moved for every rotation)
• Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
iv. High altitude, high temperature airports may not allow safe operation
a. Always be aware of the density altitude and accompanying performance when planning a flight
b. If necessary, delay until the performance is attainable, or reduce weight to attain the performance
D. Performance Charts [Link].P.K1
i. POH Chapter 5 – Review the use of performance charts for single engine operations
a. Common OEI charts include: Accelerate Stop & Go, Single engine climb performance & Service ceiling(s)
ii. Consider weight & balance, performance (single/multiengine), runway length, slope, and contamination,
terrain and obstacles, weather conditions, and pilot proficiency
iii. RM: Terrain Avoidance (RM: Flying over terrain that exceeds the SE service ceiling) [Link].P.R3
a. Never plan to overfly terrain that exceeds the single engine service ceiling
• An engine failure could be fatal with no way to avoid the terrain
b. Never plan to takeoff/go-around if single-engine performance cannot clear the terrain & obstacles
E. Limitations (Chapter 2 of the POH) [Link].P.K2
i. Review aircraft limitations associated with OEI – Common limitations include:
a. VMC, VYSE, VSSE, Max weight, CG limits
ii. Limitations establish the boundaries in which the airplane can be safely operated
a. Effects can be hazardous and include overstressing the aircraft, loss of control, stall, etc.
F. Each Flight – Analyze OEI performance charts to ensure required performance in all phases [Link].P.K4
i. Calculate performance based on actual airplane & environmental conditions
a. Accelerate Go, Accelerate-Stop, Service Ceiling, Single-Engine service ceiling
ii. Know what you are going to do in the case of an engine failure (discussed next)

7
II.O. Pressurization

iii. Brief the performance-based engine failure information and procedures prior to takeoff
G. Specific to OEI performance & limitations, adverse effects can include [Link].P.K2
i. Attempting to takeoff without enough runway, or without the required OEI climb performance
ii. Attempting to clear an obstacle without the required OEI performance
iii. Inability to control the airplane
3. Engine Failure: Best Course of Action [Link].P.K7
A. Depends on phase of flight, and performance information
i. Based on runway and performance, brief the takeoff and emergency procedures
a. See XII.E. Engine Failure during Takeoff before VMC for takeoff brief
ii. Enroute, based on single engine service ceilings, surrounding terrain, weather, and divert options
B. Engine failure prior to rotation
i. Abort the takeoff: Close the throttles (stops the yaw) & stop straight ahead
ii. Accelerate-Stop distance should always be less than runway available
C. Engine failure after rotation, gear still down
i. Gear should remain down until there is no longer sufficient runway to land on
ii. Reduce power, maintain adequate airspeed, land on the remaining runway

D. Landing gear up, single engine climb performance inadequate

i. Avoid this situation – do not attempt takeoff if performance doesn’t support OEI climb
ii. Landing must be accomplished on whatever lies ahead
iii. A descent at VYSE is possible to extend the time before reaching the ground
iv. The greatest hazard is attempting to fly when it’s not within the performance capabilities – could be fatal

E. Landing gear up, single engine climb adequate

i. Control - Stop the yaw, Stay above VMC, Zero sideslip, VYSE
ii. Configuration - Full Power, Gear up, Flaps up, Identify, Verify, Feather
iii. Climb - Zero sideslip, VYSE
iv. Checklists (If time) – At a safe altitude, emergency, and regular checklists, as applicable
v. Circle & land

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II.O. Pressurization

F. Enroute
i. Control - Stop the yaw, Zero sideslip, VYSE as necessary (aircraft control is easier at cruise airspeeds)
ii. Configuration - Full Power, Gear up, Flaps up, Identify, Verify, Fix or Feather
iii. Climb - Zero sideslip, VYSE as required
iv. Checklists – Emergency and regular checklists, as applicable
a. RM: Fuel Management [Link].P.R4
• Crossfeed (and balance) fuel for extended single-engine operation
a Allows use of the fuel in the opposite tank and balances the weight
• If a suitable airport is close, there is no need to crossfeed
v. Land – Divert as required

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

9
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Select the aircraft systems lesson from the Navigation menu, or use the links below:

GENERIC
Generic Aircraft

BEECHCRAFT
Beechcraft Baron 58
Beechcraft Duchess 76

DIAMOND
Diamond DA42

PIPER
Piper Aztec F (PA-23-250)
Piper Seminole (PA-44-180)
Piper Seneca (PA-34-200T)

TECNAM
Tecnam P2006T

Email info@[Link] with suggestions for additional aircraft system lessons.

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

II.E. Generic Flight Controls & Systems

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the primary and secondary flight controls, and trim,
as well as the aircraft’s various systems and their operation.

Key Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls – Airflow and Pressure Distribution

2. Trim relieves control pressures
3. Flaps increase lift and induced drag

Elements 1. Terms 12. Propellers

2. Primary Flight Controls 13. Landing Gear & Brakes
3. Secondary Flight Controls 14. Fuel Systems
4. Trim Systems 15. Electrical Systems
5. Powerplant 16. Avionics
6. Ignition Systems 17. Flight Instruments
7. Induction Systems 18. Environmental Systems
8. Oil Systems 19. Deicing and Anti-Icing Systems
9. Cooling Systems 20. Oxygen Systems
10. Exhaust Systems 21. Autopilot
11. FADEC 22. Abnormalities & Failures
23. Flight Instruction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the operation of the flight controls and systems and has a
Standards foundation of knowledge in how the aircraft works and how it applies in real-life scenarios.
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the flight controls and aircraft systems; to develop a better understanding of what is what,
what is where, and why things work the way they do.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
How the airplane’s attitude is controlled using the primary flight controls. The effects and reasons for the secondary
flight controls and trim, as well as the primary operating systems found on most aircraft.

Why
Understanding how the airplane functions results in an understanding of how to control the airplane, and a much
more proficient pilot.

How:
1. Terms
A. Chord Line – An imaginary straight line drawn through an airfoil from the leading to the trailing edge
B. Camber – Characteristic curve of an airfoil’s upper & lower surfaces
i. Usually, the upper camber is more pronounced & lower
camber is relatively flat
a. Causes the velocity of the airflow immediately above the
wing to be higher than below
ii. The more curved the upper surface, the more lift is generated
2. Primary Flight Controls [Link].E.K1a
A. Primary flight controls are those required to safely control an
airplane during flight
i. Ailerons: Control roll about longitudinal axis
ii. Elevator: Controls pitch about the lateral axis
iii. Rudder: Controls yaw about the vertical axis
B. Ailerons
i. Control roll about the longitudinal axis
ii. Operated by cables, bell cranks, pulleys and/or push-pull tubes
connected to the control wheel or stick
iii. How they Work
a. Attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and
move in opposite direction from each other
• One goes up, the other goes down

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a In a right turn, the right aileron goes up and the left

goes down
b In a left turn, the left aileron goes up and the right
goes down
b. The upward deflected aileron decreases the camber of the
wing resulting in decreased lift causing the wing to lower
c. The downward deflected aileron increases the camber of the
wing and results in increased lift causing the wing to raise
d. The increased lift on one wing, and decreased lift on the other
wing cause the aircraft to roll
iv. Adverse Yaw
a. Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift, it
also produces more induced drag
• The added drag attempts to yaw the nose in the direction of the raised wing (Adverse Yaw)
b. Rudder must be used to counteract and maintain coordinated flight
• The amount needed is greatest at low speeds, high AOA, and with large aileron deflections
v. Types of Ailerons
a. Manufacturers have engineered four different types of ailerons to counter adverse yaw (additional drag
due to the raised wing producing more lift)
b. Differential Ailerons
• Normally, ailerons moving an equal amount up and
down during a turn
• Differential ailerons: upward moving aileron raises
higher than the downward moving aileron lowers
a Ex: With full deflection in one direction, the
upward aileron might move 15o, and the down
aileron would only move 10o
• Produces increased drag on the descending wing (raised aileron) to counter adverse yaw
a Reduces, but doesn’t eliminate, adverse yaw
c. Frise-Type Ailerons
• The raised aileron pivots on an offset hinge,
projecting the leading edge of the aileron into the
airflow which creates drag and reduces adverse yaw
• Also forms a slot so air flows smoothly over the
lowered aileron, making it more effective at high
angles of attack
• Reduces adverse yaw, but does not eliminate it
d. Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
• The ailerons and rudder are linked with interconnect
springs which automatically deflect the rudder at the
same time the ailerons are deflected
a Ex: When rolling left, the interconnect cable and
springs pull forward on the left rudder pedal just
enough to prevent right yaw
• Rudder springs can be overridden by the pilot, if
necessary
e. Flaperons

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Combine flaps and ailerons

• Control bank but can also be lowered together to
function like a dedicated set of flaps
a Separate controls for ailerons and flaps
b A mixer is used to combine the separate pilot
inputs into the single set of control surfaces
• Often mounted away from the wing to provide
undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack
and/or low airspeeds

C. Elevator
i. Controls pitch about the lateral axis
ii. Like ailerons, operated by a series of mechanical linkages
iii. How It Works
a. Pulling the controls backward deflects the trailing edge up
• Changes the camber of the horizontal stabilizer, creating a downward aerodynamic force
• The overall effect causes the tail to move down and the nose to move up (about the CG)
a Strength is determined by the distance
between the CG and horizontal tail surface
b. Moving the controls forward deflects the trailing
edge of the elevator surface down
• Changes the camber of the horizontal stabilizer,
creating an upward force
• Moves the tail upward, pitching the nose down
(also about the Center of Gravity)
iv. Types of Elevators
a. T-Tail
• Elevator is mounted at the high point of the
vertical stabilizer and is above most effects of
downwash from the propeller and airflow around
the fuselage and wings in normal flight
a Makes for consistent control movements in most flight regimes
• Popular on light, as well as large airplanes (removes elevator from exhaust), and sea planes
• Control Differences
a At slow speeds, the elevator must be moved through a larger number of degrees to raise the
nose a given amount as compared to a conventional tail aircraft

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

1. The conventional tail has the downwash from the propeller to assist in raising the nose
• The controls are rigged so that increased control force is required the farther the controls move
a It gets progressively more difficult to move the elevator
b. Design Considerations
• Since the weight of the horizontal stabilizer is at the top of the vertical stabilizer, the moment arm
created causes high loads on the vertical stabilizer that can result in flutter
a Engineers must compensate for this by increasing the design stiffness of the vertical stabilizer,
usually resulting in a weight penalty over conventional designs
• When flying at a very high angle of attack with a low
airspeed and aft center of gravity, the T-tail may be
more susceptible to a deep stall
a The wake of the wing impinges on the tail
surface and renders it almost ineffective
b The wing’s airflow, when fully stalled, creates a
wide wake of decelerated, turbulent air that
blankets the horizontal tail
1. Elevator control is reduced, or possibly
eliminated, making it difficult to recover
from the stall
c. Stabilator
• “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
• A one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point
a When the controls are pulled back, the stabilator’s trailing edge raises, rotating the nose up
b Pushing forward lowers the trailing edge and pitches the nose down
• Antiservo tabs on the trailing edge decrease sensitivity
a Because a stabilator pivots around a central
hinge point, it allows the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
1. Because they are easier to move, to be
certified an aircraft must show an increasing
resistance to increasing pilot input
2. To provide this resistance, stabilators on
small aircraft contain an anti-servo trim tab
that deflects in the same direction as the
stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input and making it less
prone to overcontrolling
v. Safety Systems
a. Since flight at high AOAs can be dangerous, many aircraft compensate for these situations
• Systems range from control stops to elevator down springs
a Control stops limit the movement of the elevator control
1. Some stops can adjust to allow more/less elevator control movement based on the situation
b Elevator down spring: assists in lowering the nose of the aircraft to prevent a stall caused by an
aft CG position
1. Produces a mechanical load on the elevator causing it to move toward the nose-down
position, if not otherwise balanced
• Stick pushers are commonly used on transport category jets

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a If the computers recognize an approaching or impending stall, they will automatically push
forward on the stick to prevent reaching a critical angle of attack
D. Rudder
i. Controls yaw about the vertical axis
a. Typically used to maintain coordination
ii. Often cable operated, but can be operated by various mechanisms
iii. How it Works
a. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal
force is exerted in the opposite direction
• Pushing the left pedal moves the rudder left
a Alters airflow around the vertical stabilizer creating a
sideward lift moving the tail right & nose left
1. Moving the rudder in either direction increases
the camber and therefore increases lift on one
side of the rudder. Additionally, pushing the
rudder into the relative wind creates a force which
moves the aircraft’s nose in the same direction
b. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed
• Large deflections may be necessary at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds
• In a propeller driven airplane, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases effectiveness
iv. V-Tail
a. Utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as a conventional elevator and rudder
• The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers
b. The movable portion of the V-tail, often called ruddervators, are connected through a special linkage
that allows the control wheel to move both surfaces simultaneously
• Moving the rudder pedals moves the surfaces
differentially, providing directional control
• When both the rudder and elevator are
moved, a control mixing mechanism moves
each surface the appropriate amount
c. Drawbacks
• More complex than for a conventional tail
• More susceptible to Dutch roll
• Total reduction in drag is minimal
3. Secondary Flight Controls [Link].E.K1b
A. Secondary control systems improve performance
characteristics or relieve excessive control forces
i. Flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers and trim systems
a. We’ll focus on the more common items – wing flaps, spoilers, and trim
B. Flaps
i. The most common high lift devices used on practically all airplanes
a. Attached to the trailing edge of each wing to increase induced drag and lift for any given AOA
b. Important Functions
• Increased lift allows the aircraft to get airborne at lower speeds, reducing the amount of runway
required, and improves climb performance
• The increased drag allows for steeper approaches
a A great example of this are military aircraft, specifically C-130s and C-17s, which can use flaps to

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

their advantage to perform steep approach and landings

• The lower landing speeds provide shorting landing distances
• Although many of these factors don’t have a huge impact on general aviation aircraft, these
functions make large differences for airliners which would otherwise need tremendous amounts of
runway to takeoff and land
ii. Plain Flaps
a. Simplest of the types
b. Increase wing camber, resulting in a significant increase
in the coefficient of lift at a given AOA
c. Drag is greatly increased, and the center of pressure
moves aft resulting in a nose down pitching moment
iii. Split Flaps
a. Deflect from the lower surface and produce a slightly
greater increase in lift than the plain flap
b. More drag is produced because of the turbulent airflow
behind the airfoil
iv. Slotted Flap
a. Most popular on airplanes today
b. Increase lift significantly more than plain and split flaps
c. When lowered, it forms a duct between the flap well in
the wing, and the flap’s leading edge
a High energy air from the lower surface is ducted
to the upper surface accelerating the upper
boundary layer and delaying airflow separation
d. Large aircraft have double- or even triple-slotted flaps
• Allows for maximum increase in drag without
destroying the flap’s added lift
v. Fowler Flaps
a. Type of slotted flap which changes the camber of the
wing and increases the wing area
b. Slides backward on tracks and then retracts downward
c. First portion of extension greatly increases lift with a
very small increase in drag
• As extension continues and the flap drops
downward, drag increases with little increase in lift
vi. Flap Control
a. Mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically operated
• Can also be a combination
a For example, many flaps are electrically powered and hydraulically actuated
b An electric switch activates the hydraulic pump(s) which physically move the flaps
b. Be aware of any flap operating speeds for your particular aircraft
C. Spoilers
i. High drag devices deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow over the wing, reducing lift and
increasing drag
ii. Uses
a. Reduce Airspeed
• Increased drag allows for a more rapid reduction of airspeed in flight, and decreases ground roll

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

during landing
a On landing, airspeed decreases due to the spoilers being raised, and the destruction of lift
transfers the weight from the wings to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness
b. Increased Rate of Descent
• The aircraft can descend at a faster rate without increasing airspeed
c. Roll control
• To turn, the spoiler on one of the wing’s is deployed destroying some of the lift and creating more
drag on that wing
a The wing with the spoiler deployed will drop and the aircraft banks and yaws in that direction
b Adverse yaw is eliminated
4. Trim Systems
A. Used to relieve the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls
B. Consist of flight deck controls and small hinged devices on the trailing edge of one or more primary control
surfaces
i. Minimize workload by aerodynamically assisting movement and the position of the controls
C. How a Trim Tab Works
i. The most common installation is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator
ii. Operation
a. Often operated manually through a small, vertically mounted control wheel (or trim crank)
b. The trim tab moves in the opposite direction of the elevator surface
c. Placing the trim in full nose-down moves the tab to its full up position (pictured, right)
• With the tab up, into the airstream, airflow over the tail forces the elevator down
a Causes the tail to move up and results in a nose-down pitch change
d. In the full nose-up position, the tab moves to its full
down position (pictured, right)
• Air flowing under the tail hits the tab forcing the
elevator up, reducing the elevator’s AOA
a Causes the tail to move down and results in a
nose-up pitch change
• Note: The bottom picture says “Tab up,” but
should say “Tab down”
D. Types of Trim Tabs
i. Balance Tabs
a. Look and function just like trim tabs, but the balance
tab is coupled to the control surface rod
• When the controls are deflected, the tab
automatically moves in the opposite direction
a Any time the control surface is deflected, the
tab moves the opposite direction
b Airflow against the tab counterbalances some
of the air pressure against the control surface
enabling the pilot to move the control more
easily and hold the control surface in position
b. If the linkage is adjustable from the flight deck, the tab acts as both a trim and balance tab
ii. Servo Tabs (primarily used in large aircraft)
a. Vey similar in operation and appearance to trim tabs and balance tabs
b. A servo tab is a small portion of a flight control that deploys in such a way that it helps to move the

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

entire flight control surface in the direction that the pilot wishes it to go
c. Aids in moving the control surface and holding it in the desired position
d. Only the servo tab moves in response to movement of the flight controls
• The force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the control surface
iii. Antiservo Tabs
a. Decrease stabilator sensitivity and act as a trim device
b. Operation
• Work the same as a balance tab, but it moves in the same
direction as the flight control (rather than opposite)
• When the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the
trailing edge of the tab moves up
iv. Ground Adjustable Tabs
a. Metal trim tab on the rudder bent in either direction while on
the ground to apply a trim force
• Displacement is found through trial and error
v. Adjustable Stabilizer
a. Instead of using a trim tab on the elevator, some aircraft can
adjust the entire stabilizer
• This is driven by a jackscrew (motor driven on large aircraft and cranked on small aircraft)
E. Using Trim Tabs
i. Establish the desired power, pitch attitude, and configuration, then trim to relieve pressures
ii. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, re-trim for the new condition
5. Powerplant – four-stroke, reciprocating engines [Link].E.K1c
A. General
i. Four stroke, reciprocating engine is the most common design used in general aviation
ii. The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating,
movement of the pistons
iii. Basic Operating Principle - Convert chemical energy (fuel) into
mechanical energy
a. Pistons produce the mechanical energy to accomplish
work
b. Occurs in the engine cylinders through combustion
B. Basic Components and Operation
i. Components
a. Cylinders
• Contain intake/exhaust valves, sparks plugs and
pistons
a Intake and exhaust valves allow the fuel-air
mixture to enter the combustion chamber of the
cylinder, and the burned gases to exit
b Spark plugs are used to ignite the fuel air mixture
1. Some engines do not have spark plugs, but use
high pressure to ignite the fuel-air mixture
c The pistons move up and down in the cylinder and
drive the crankshaft which drives the propeller
b. Crankcase
• Contains crankshaft, and connecting rods

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

aThe pistons are connected to the crankshaft via the connecting rods
bThe movement of the pistons through the connecting rods rotate the crankshaft
1. The connecting rods transfer the linear (up and down) motion of the cylinders to rotational
motion, or the spinning of the crankshaft
c The crankshaft is connected to the propeller
c. Accessory Housing
• Contains magnetos, if applicable
a Magnetos are the power source for the spark plugs
1. As mentioned above, some airplanes do not use spark plugs and rely on compression alone
2. More information in the next section, Ignition System
ii. Four-stroke operating cycle
a. Intake Stroke
• The fuel-air mixture is pulled into the combustion
chamber of the cylinder
a Piston moves to the bottom, increasing the
volume in the chamber
b The fuel air mixture enters the combustion
chamber
b. Compression Stroke
• The fuel-air mixture is compressed as the piston
moves up, decreasing the volume in the chamber
a Intake valve closes
b Piston moves to the top, compressing the fuel-
air mixture
c At the end of this stroke, a spark plug ignites the
mixture
c. Power Stroke
• The fuel-air mixture is ignited, increasing pressure
and forcing the piston back down
a Begins when the fuel-air mixture is ignited
resulting in a tremendous increase in pressure
1. Forces the piston back down, away from the
cylinder head
2. This creates the power that turns the
crankshaft which drives the propeller
d. Exhaust Stroke
• The burned gases are expelled
a The exhaust valve opens as the piston reaches the bottom
b As the piston moves back up, it pushes out the exhaust gases
C. Two Primary Engine Designs
i. Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition
a. Spark ignition (contains spark plugs/magnetos), has been the most popular choice for many years
b. In an effort to reduce costs, simplify design, and improve reliability, several manufacturers are turning to
compression ignition systems
• Compression systems can run on diesel or jet fuel
• Diamond DA42, for example
a Runs on jet fuel, and uses compression ignition

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

ii. Components
a. The main mechanical components of spark and compression systems are essentially the same
b. The main difference is the process of igniting the fuel
• Spark Ignition – uses a spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed fuel air mixture
• Compression Ignition – compresses the air in the cylinder, raising its temperature to a degree
necessary for automatic ignition when fuel is injected into the cylinder
a Higher pressure = higher temperatures
D. Horizontally Opposed Cylinder Arrangement
i. The most popular reciprocating engine for smaller aircraft
ii. Cylinders oppose each other
a. A cylinder on one side of the crankcase “opposes”
a cylinder on the other
b. For this reason, they always have an even number
of cylinders
iii. Generally air cooled and mounted in a horizontal
position
iv. Compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engine’s
frontal area and allows a streamlined installation
minimizing aerodynamic drag
v. High power-to-weight ratios
a. Due to comparatively small, lightweight crankcase
6. Ignition System
A. General
i. The ignition system provides a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders
B. Components
i. Magnetos
a. A self-contained, engine driven unit that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs; completely
independent of the airplane’s electrical system
• A permanent magnet is used to generate the electrical current
• If the airplane loses electrical power (alternator and battery failure), the magnetos continue
operating and the engine will continue to run
b. Normally there are two magnetos per engine (a left and a right)
ii. Spark Plugs
a. The device that delivers electric current from the magnetos to the combustion chamber to ignite the
fuel-air mixture
• Basically, takes the energy from the magneto and delivers it as a spark in the combustion chamber
iii. High-Tension Leads
a. The wires that connect the magnetos to the spark plugs
iv. Ignition Switch
a. Controls the operation of the magnetos
b. 5 position switch:
• Off
• R (right) - Only runs the R magneto
• L (left) - Only runs the L magneto
• Both - Runs on both magnetos
• Start - Engages the starter using battery power. The starter rotates the crankshaft

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a The ignition system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn
C. Operation

[Link] Operation
a. The system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn
• The starter and initial crankshaft rotation are powered by the battery
b. The rotation of the crankshaft activates the magnetos which generate high voltage to produce a spark
through the spark plugs in the combustion chamber
• The combustion in the chamber produces piston movement which rotates the crankshaft
c. Once the engine can move the pistons on its own, then engine is started and the starter is no longer
necessary
• The starter is disengaged and the system operates on its own
• As long as the crankshaft is rotating, the magnetos/ignition system continue to operate
• As long as the magnetos/ignition system continue to operate, the crankshaft continues rotating
• Battery power is no longer necessary for engine operation
ii. Dual Ignition System
a. Most general aviation aircraft use a dual ignition system containing two individual magnetos, separate
sets of wires, and two separate spark plugs in each cylinder
b. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder
• Firing two spark plugs in each cylinder improves combustion and results in a slightly higher power
output
• If one magneto were to fail, the other is unaffected and the engine continues to operate normally,
but with a slight decrease in power
a The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails
7. Induction Systems
A. General
i. Brings in air from the outside, mixes it with fuel, and delivers the fuel-air mixture to the cylinders

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a. Air enters through an intake on the front of the engine and then travels through an air filter to prevent
dust and debris from entering the engine
b. Since the filter may become clogged, an alternate air source must be available
• This alternate source of air usually comes from inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses the
filter
ii. Two types of induction systems
a. Fuel Injection System
• Mixes the fuel and air immediately before entry into each cylinder, or injects fuel directly into each
cylinder
b. Carburetor System
• Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before it enters the intake manifold
B. Carburetor System
i. General
a. Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before entering the intake manifold
b. Two categories of carburetors – Float-type and pressure-type
• Float-type are the most common
• Pressure-type are rarely found in small aircraft
• The basic difference is the delivery of fuel – the pressure type carburetor delivers fuel under
pressure by a fuel pump
ii. Float-type Carburetors
a. Operation
• Fuel is sent from the fuel tank(s) to the carburetor float chamber
• The float chamber stores and meters the fuel that will be mixed with the air and sent to the engine
a The float chamber consists of a float that rests on the fuel in the chamber and a needle which is
attached to the float
1. The needle opens and closes an opening at the bottom of the chamber. When opened, fuel
is sent through the carburetor
• Based on the position of the float and the needle, fuel is metered to the discharge nozzle where it
will be mixed with the air
a When the level of fuel in the float chamber forces the float to rise, the needle valve closes the
fuel opening and stops fuel to the carburetor.
b The needle valve opens again when the engine requires additional fuel
c The position of the mixture needle is controlled by the mixture control lever in the flight deck
• At the same time, outside air enters through an air filter
• The filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi (narrow throat in the carburetor)
a When the air flows through the venturi, a low-pressure area is created that forces fuel to flow
through a main fuel jet located at the throat
1. This is the fuel that was allowed into the carburetor when the needle valve opened
• The fuel and air are mixed and flow to the combustion chambers based on the position of the
throttle valve
a The throttle valve is controlled by the throttle
b Increasing power opens the valve, allowing more of the fuel-air mixture to the combustion
chambers

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

c Closing the throttle closes the valve, reducing the fuel-air mixture to the combustion chambers

b. Disadvantages
• Do not function well with abrupt maneuvers
• The discharge of fuel at low pressure leads to incomplete vaporization and difficulty in discharging
fuel into some types of supercharged systems
• Chief Disadvantage - Icing tendencies
c. Carburetor Icing
• Occurs due to the effect of fuel vaporization and the decrease in air pressure in the venturi, which
causes a sharp drop in temperature in the carburetor
a If water vapor in the air condenses when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice
can form on the internal surfaces of the carburetor, including the throttle valve
1. Ice generally forms in the vicinity of the throttle valve and in the venturi throat
• Carburetor icing restricts the flow of the fuel-air mixture and reduces power
a If enough ice builds up, the engine can stop operating
• Most likely to occur at temperatures below 70o F with relative humidity greater than 80%
a Due to the sudden cooling, icing can occur at temperatures as high as 100o F and humidity as
low as 50%
• The first indication of carburetor icing in an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller is a decrease in rpm,
which may be followed by engine roughness
a In an aircraft with a constant-speed propeller, carburetor icing is usually indicated by a decrease
in manifold pressure, but no reduction in rpm
1. In this case, the pitch is automatically adjusted to maintain rpm
• Carburetor heat is used to combat carburetor icing
d. Carburetor Heat

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Anti-icing system that preheats the air before it reaches the carburetor
a Intended to keep the fuel-air mixture above freezing
• Primary use is to prevent the formation of ice, but can be used to melt ice that has already formed,
if the accumulation is not too great
• The use of carb heat decreases engine power, sometimes up to 15%
a Heated air is less dense than the outside air that was being used leading to reduced
performance
1. Using carb heat enriches the mixture (same fuel with less dense air)
2. Because it reduces engine output, carb heat should not be used when full power is required.
Follow the POH
C. Fuel Injection System
i. General
a. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve
b. Advantages of Fuel Injection
• Reduction in evaporation icing
• Better fuel flow
• Faster throttle response
• Precise control of mixture
• Better fuel distribution
• Easier cold weather starts
c. Disadvantages of Fuel Injection
• Difficulty in starting a hot engine
• Vapor locks during ground operation on hot days
• Problems associated with restarting an engine that quits because of fuel starvation

ii. Components and Operation

a. Engine-driven fuel pump
• Provides fuel to the fuel-air control unit after the engine is started
b. Auxiliary fuel pump

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Provides fuel under pressure to the fuel-air control unit for engine starting and/or emergency use
(loss of the engine driven pump)
c. Fuel-air control unit
• Meters fuel based on the mixture control setting and sends it to the fuel manifold valve at a rate
controlled by the throttle
• Basically, replaces the carburetor
d. Fuel manifold (distributor)
• Distributes the fuel to the individual fuel discharge nozzles
e. Discharge nozzles
• Located in the cylinder heads, and inject the fuel-air mixture directly into each cylinder intake port
f. Fuel pressure/flow indicators
• Provide the pilot information in regard to the fuel system
8. Oil Systems
A. Functions of the Oil System
i. Lubricates the engine’s moving parts
ii. Cools the engine by reducing friction and removes heat from cylinders
iii. Provides a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
iv. Carries away contaminants
B. Types of Oil Systems
i. Wet-Sump System
a. Oil is in a sump that is an integral part of the engine (usually located at the base of the engine)
b. Operation
• The oil pump draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine
• After oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump
a Generally returned by gravity to the sump since the sump is located at the bottom of the engine
• In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil
onto portions of the engine

17
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

ii. Dry-Sump System

a. Oil is contained in a separate tank, outside of the engine, and circulated through the engine by pumps
b. Allows for a greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine (useful for large reciprocating engines)
c. Operation
• An oil pump supplies oil pressure to pump oil from the external oil tank through the engine
• After oil is route through the engine, it is pumped from various locations in the engine back to the
oil tank by scavenge pumps
C. Indications
i. Oil Pressure Gauge
a. Provides a direct indication of the oil system operation
b. Ensure the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine
ii. Oil Temperature Gauge
a. Measures the temperature of the oil
• Unlike oil pressure, temperature changes occur more slowly
b. High oil temperatures may signal:
• A plugged oil line
• Low oil quantity
• A blocked oil cooler
• A defective temperature gauge
c. Low oil temperatures may signal:
• Improper oil viscosity during cold weather operations
9. Cooling Systems
A. General
i. Why cooling is needed
a. The burning of fuel in the cylinders produces intense heat, most of which is expelled through the
exhaust system
b. Much of the remaining heat must be removed, or at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from
overheating
• Otherwise, the extremely high engine temperatures can lead to loss of power, excessive oil
consumption, detonation, and serious engine damage
c. The oil system is vital to the internal cooling of the engine, additional external cooling is necessary
ii. Types of engine cooling
a. Air Cooling
• Most small aircraft are air cooled – this is they system we’ll focus on
• Air flows into the engine compartment where it’s routed over the hottest parts of the engine and
expelled through the lower, aft portion of the cowling
b. Liquid Cooling
• Cooling liquid (usually water, ethylene glycol, or a combination of the two) is pumped around the
engine to cool the hot components
a Like the cooling system in your car
• Primary benefits: Less chance of shock cooling & the ability to direct coolant to specific, critical areas
• Negatives include added weight, and increased complexity (and increased cost)
B. Air Cooling
i. Operation

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a. Outside air enters the engine compartment where

baffles direct it to the hottest parts of the engine,
primarily the cylinders, which have fins that increase
the area exposed to the airflow
b. Air cooling is dependent on air flow, therefore it is
less effective during ground operations, takeoffs, go-
arounds, and other instances of high-power, low-
airspeed operation
• Conversely, high-speed descents provide excess
air and can shock cool the engine, subjecting it to
abrupt temperature fluctuations
ii. Monitoring and Controlling Engine Temperature
a. Monitoring Temperature
• The oil temperature gauge gives an indirect and
delayed indication of rising engine temperature
a Can be used for determining engine
temperature if this is the only means
available
• Cylinder head temperature (CHT) indicates a direct and immediate cylinder temperature change
b. Controlling Temperature
• To avoid excessive cylinder head temperatures:
a Increase airspeed,
b Enrich the fuel air mixture, and/or
c Reduce power
d Open cowl flaps (if installed)
10. Exhaust Systems
A. Operation and Uses
i. Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for the cabin, and
defrost the wind screen
ii. Operation
a. Engine Exhaust
• After combustion, the exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and
travel through the exhaust manifold/piping, and muffler to the atmosphere
b. Cabin Heat
• Outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
a The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases, and in turn heats the air around the muffler
• The heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
• Exhaust gases contain large amounts of carbon monoxide which is odorless and colorless, and
deadly
a To ensure exhaust gases are properly expelled, and not brought into the cabin through the
heating system, the exhaust must be in good condition and free of cracks
B. EGT
i. Some exhaust systems have an Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) probe
a. An EGT probe measures the temperature of the gases at the exhaust manifold
ii. The temperature of the gases varies based on the ratio of fuel to air entering the cylinders and can be used
as a basis for regulating the fuel-air mixture
a. The EGT gauge is highly accurate in indicating the correct fuel-air mixture setting

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

b. For specific procedures, reference the POH

11. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)
A. System consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control an aircraft’s engine and propeller
i. First used in turbine aircraft, they are increasingly being used in piston powered aircraft (ex. Diamond DA42)
B. What it does
i. Optimizes performance
a. The FADEC uses speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each cylinder
b. A digital computer calculates the ideal pulse for each injector, and adjusts ignition timing, and fuel flow
as necessary
• Generally, results in decreased fuel consumption and increased horsepower
ii. Simplifies the Systems
a. Eliminates need for magnetos, carburetor heat, mixture controls, propeller controls, and engine priming
b. A single throttle is characteristic of FADEC equipped aircraft
• The pilot simply sets the throttle position, and the computer does the rest
a There is no need to monitor or control the mixture setting, or propeller
C. Safety
i. The FADEC is an essential part of the engine and propeller controller. Losing this system could result in
complete loss of engine power
ii. To prevent a failure from resulting in engine failure,
a. There must be a backup electrical source available
b. Two separate and identical digital channels are incorporated for redundancy
• Each channel can provide all engine and propeller functions without limitations
c. In many aircraft, the FADEC uses power from a separate generator connected to the engine
12. Propeller [Link].E.K1c
A. General
i. A rotating airfoil
a. Subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles
ii. Engine power is used to rotate the propeller
a. Rotation generates thrust very similar to the way a wing produces lift
b. The amount of thrust depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack of the blade, and the rpm
iii. Prop is twisted – the blade angle changes from hub to tip
a. The greatest angle of incidence (highest pitch) is at the hub
b. The smallest angle of incidence (lowest pitch) is at the tip
c. The prop is twisted to provide uniform lift from the hub to the tip
• As the prop rotates, the tip of the blade
travels faster than the hub
a The tip travels a larger distance in the
same amount of time as the hub (like
overbanking tendency)
• A prop that wasn’t twisted would be
inefficient
a As airspeed increases, the portion near
the hub would have a negative AOA
while the tip would be stalled
iv. Installation
a. Mounted on a shaft, which may be an extension of the engine crankshaft
• If it is directly connected to the crankshaft, propeller rpm is the same as crankshaft rpm

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• On some engines, the propeller is mounted on a shaft that is geared to the engine crankshaft
a In this case, the rpm of the propeller is different than that of the engine
b For example, the Diamond DA42 is geared at a ratio of 1.69:1
1. The engine spins 1.69 rpm to every 1 prop rpm
B. Adjustable Pitch (Constant-speed propeller)
i. General
a. A controllable pitch propeller whose pitch is automatically varied in flight by a governor
• Governor maintains constant rpm despite varying air loads on the propeller
b. More efficient because it allows selection of the most efficient engine rpm for the given conditions
• Pitch can be adjusted for climb, cruise, and in between
ii. How it Works
a. Once a specific rpm is selected, the governor automatically adjusts blades to maintain the selected rpm
• For example, after setting the rpm, an increase in airspeed or decrease in propeller load causes the
governor to increase the propeller blade angle to maintain the selected rpm
a In this case, the propeller would normally accelerate, but the governor increases the blade angle
(bigger bites of air) to maintain the desired rpm
• A reduction in airspeed or increase in load causes the propeller blade to decrease
a This would slow down a fixed pitch propeller, but the governor decreases the blade angle
(smaller bites of air) to maintain the same rpm
b. As long as the propeller blade angle is within its rpm range, a constant rpm is maintained
• If the propeller blade reaches a pitch stop (i.e. the blade cannot rotate any farther higher or lower),
the engine rpm will then increase or decrease (like a fixed pitch propeller)
a For example, if airspeed decreases enough to rotate the propeller blades until they contact the
low pitch stop, any further decrease in airspeed will cause the engine rpm to decrease. The
same concept applies to the high pitch stop, but will result in an rpm increase
iii. Controls and Indications
a. 2 controls - Throttle and Propeller control
• Throttle controls power output
• Propeller control regulates propeller rpm through the governor
a Rpm is shown on the tachometer
b. Manifold Pressure Gauge
• Power output is controlled by the throttle and
indicated on the manifold pressure gauge
a Gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel-
air mixture in the intake manifold
• At a constant rpm and altitude, the amount of power
produced is directly related to the fuel-air mixture
being delivered to the combustion chamber
a As the throttle is increased, more fuel and air flows
to the engine and manifold pressure increases.
Pressure decreases if power is reduced
• For any given rpm there is a manifold pressure that should not be exceeded
a If manifold pressure is excessive for a given rpm, the pressure in the cylinders could be
exceeded, placing undue stress on the cylinders
1. If repeated too often, the stress can weaken the cylinder components and lead to engine
failure
• Always consult the manufacturer’s power/rpm settings in the POH

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

c. Adjusting power and rpm

• Decreasing power
a Reduce manifold pressure, then rpm (Lower power = Left to right – throttle, rpm)
b If rpm is reduced before manifold pressure, manifold pressure automatically increases,
potentially exceeding engine tolerances
• Increasing power
a Increase rpm, then manifold pressure (Raise power = Right to left – rpm, throttle)
C. Feathering Propellers
i. Stops propeller rotation at high blade angles, streamlined
to the relative wind, significantly decreasing drag
a. Greatly improves single engine performance
• Parasite drag is higher at the smaller/flat blade
angles
• Windmilling propeller can produce as much
parasitic drag as the entire airframe
ii. How it Works
a. Oil pressure from the propellor governor is used to
drive the blades toward low pitch, high rpm
• Oil pressure is working against counterweights
trying to drive the blades to high pitch, low rpm
b. If oil pressure is lost or the governor fails, the blades are forced to high pitch/feathered position
iii. Feathering the Propeller
a. Propeller control is brought fully aft
• Oil pressure is dumped, and the counterweights drive the blades toward feather
• Additional force is needed to go to the full feathered position
a Spring or high-pressure air forces the blades the rest of the way
b. Continue with securing the engine (fuel, ignition, alternator/generator off, cowl flaps closed)
iv. Unfeathering the Propeller
a. When the prop control is moved out of the feather position, an
unfeathering accumulator releases stored oil pressure
• Unfeathering Accumulator
a Stores high pressure oil
b Permits starting a feathered prop without using electric starter
• Drives the blades to high rpm/low pitch
b. Propeller starts to windmill and when combined with fuel & ignition,
the engine starts
• High oil pressure from the governor recharges the accumulator
right after engine start
c. If the accumulator fails, the electric starter can be engaged
v. Engine Shutdown & Feathering
a. Generally, propeller blades don’t feather during a normal shutdown
b. Below 800 RPM, an anti-feathering locking pin blocks the blades from
reaching the feathered position
• Reduced centrifugal force allows the locking pin to operate at the lower rotation

22
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a If the propeller is to be feathered during an engine failure, it must occur prior to 800 RPM

13. Landing Gear and Brakes (Hydraulics) [Link].E.K1d, [Link].E.K1e

A. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Types of Landing Gear
• Most common is wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water, or skis for landing
on snow
b. The landing gear on small aircraft consist of three wheels:
• Two main wheels, one on either side of the fuselage
• A third wheel positioned at the front or the rear of the airplane
a Conventional (tailwheel)
1. When the third wheel is positioned at the rear
b Tricycle
1. When the third wheel is positioned at the nose
c. Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
• Fixed
a Always remains extended
b Advantage of simplicity and low maintenance
• Retractable
a Designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear to be stowed inside the
structure during cruise flight
ii. Tricycle Landing Gear
a. Three advantages:
• Allows more forceful brake application during landings without causing the aircraft to nose over
• Permits better forward visibility during takeoff, landing, and taxiing
• Tends to prevent ground looping by providing more directional stability during ground operation
since the aircraft’s center of gravity is forward of the main wheels
a The forward center of gravity keeps the airplane moving forward in a straight line rather than
ground looping
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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

b. Nosewheel
• The nosewheel is either steerable or castering
a Steerable nosewheels are linked to the rudders by cables or rods
b Castering nosewheels are free to swivel
• In either case, the aircraft is steered using rudder pedals
a Castering nosewheels may require the combination of rudder pedals and brakes
iii. Tailwheel Landing Gear
a. Two main wheels attached to the airframe ahead of the center of gravity that support most of the
weight of the structure
• A tailwheel at the very back of the fuselage provides a third point of support
b. Advantages of the tailwheel:
• Adequate ground clearance for a larger propeller
• More desirable for operations on unimproved fields
c. Disadvantages of the tailwheel:
• With the CG located behind the main gear, directional control is more difficult while on the ground
a For example, if the pilot allows the airplane to swerve while rolling on the ground at a low
speed, there may not be sufficient rudder control and the center of gravity will attempt to get
ahead of the main gear, which may cause the airplane to ground loop
• Diminished forward visibility when the tailwheel is on or near the ground
B. Hydraulics
i. Standard Hydraulic Components:
a. Reservoir
b. Pump
c. Filter
d. Selector Valve
e. Relief Valve
f. Actuator or servo
ii. Operation
a. Hydraulic fluid is pumped from the reservoir
through a filter and then to an actuator or servo
• Servo – cylinder with a piston inside that turns
fluid power into work and creates the power
needed to move an aircraft system or flight
control
a Servos can be single-acting or double-
acting (fluid can be applied to one or both
sides of the servo)
b. The selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled
• For example, extension and retraction of the landing gear. The fluid has to work in two different
directions and the selector valve allows that based on the gear selector position in the flight deck
(extend or retract)
c. The relief valve provides an outlet for the system in the event of excessive fluid pressure
C. Brakes
i. Located on the main wheels
ii. Applied by either a hand control or foot pedal (most common)
a. Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential braking
b. Differential braking can supplement steering

24
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

14. Fuel Systems [Link].E.K1e

A. General
i. Designed to provide uninterrupted, clean fuel from the
tanks to the engine
ii. Fuel must be available under all conditions (engine power,
altitude, attitude, and approved flight maneuvers)
iii. Two common types of fuel systems in general aviation
aircraft
a. Gravity Feed
• Uses gravity to transfer fuel from the tank(s) to the
engine(s)
a Ex: On high-wing airplanes the fuel tanks are
installed in the wings
1. Fuel is above the carburetor and gravity fed
to it
b. Fuel-Pump System
• If gravity cannot transfer the fuel (low-wing
airplanes), fuel pumps are used
• Two fuel pumps per engine
a Engine driven pump
1. This is the main/primary fuel pump
2. Operates whenever the engine is operating
b Electrically-driven auxiliary pump
1. Used for engine start, and as a backup to
the main pump
B. Fuel Tank and Strainer
i. Fuel Tank(s)
a. Normally located in the wings of an airplane
b. Vented to the outside to maintain atmospheric
pressure in the tank
c. Include an overflow drain
• Allows fuel to expand with increased temperature and not damage the tank
ii. Strainer
a. After leaving the fuel tank, fuel passes through a strainer that removes any moisture (water) and other
sediments in the system
• Contaminants like these are heavier than aviation fuel and settle in a sump (low point in a fuel
system and/or fuel tank) at the bottom of the strainer
b. The strainer should be drained before each flight
• Use the drain tool to check for the proper type of fuel, as well as water and other contaminants in
the fuel
c. Water is the principal fuel contaminant
• Water can be hazardous because in cold weather it can freeze and block fuel lines
a In warm weather it can flow into the carburetor and stop the engine
• If water is present in the sump, it is likely that there is more water in the fuel tanks and they should
be drained until there is no evidence of water
• Water droplets can be identified by a cloudy appearance of the fuel, or by the clear separation of
water from the colored fuel

25
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

d. To prevent condensation, fuel tanks should be filled after each flight or after the last flight of the day
C. Fuel Selectors
i. Allows selection of fuel from various tanks, if installed
a. Common settings include, Left, Right, Both, Off
b. Selecting Left or Right allows fuel to feed only from the respective tank, while Both feeds fuel from both
tanks
• Left and Right may be used to balance the fuel remaining in each wing tank, or to isolate one tank
ii. Always monitor the fuel consumption and quantities in each tank
a. Many aircraft do not have a Both selection, and therefore the selector must be swapped between Left
and Right to maintain a balance
• Disregarding the fuel can lead to running an individual
tank dry, as well as unbalanced fuel loads
a Running a tank dry may allow air to enter the fuel
system and cause vapor lock, which makes it
difficult to restart the engine
b On fuel-injected engines, the fuel becomes so hot
it vaporizes in the fuel line, not allowing fuel to
reach the cylinders
D. Fuel Primer
i. Draws fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the
cylinders prior to starting the engine
a. Used in both gravity-feed, and fuel-pump systems
ii. During cold weather, when engines are difficult to start, the fuel primer helps because there is not enough
heat available to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor
iii. The primer should be locked in place when not in use
a. An unlocked primer can rattle lose out of flight and cause an excessively rich mixture
E. Fuel Gauges
i. Fuel Quantity Gauge(s)
a. Indicate the amount of fuel in each tank to the pilot
b. Aircraft certification rules only require accuracy in fuel gauges when they read “empty”
• Any reading other than empty should be verified
• Always visually check the fuel level in each tank during the preflight and compare it to the tank
quantity indications
ii. Fuel Pressure Gauge
a. If a fuel pump is installed, a fuel pressure gauge is included with it
b. Indicates the pressure in the fuel lines
• The POH can provide more detailed information in regard to the indications
15. Electrical Systems [Link].E.K1f
A. General
i. Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14 or 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system
ii. A basic electrical system consists of the following:
a. Alternator/generator
b. Battery
c. Master/battery switch
d. Alternator/generator switch
e. Bus bar, fuses, and/or circuit breakers
f. Voltage regulator
g. Ammeter/loadmeter
26
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

h. Electrical wiring
B. Power Generation
i. Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric current to the electrical system and also maintain a
sufficient charge in the battery
ii. Some DC generators do not produce sufficient power to operate the entire electrical system at low engine
rpm
a. In this case, the excess electrical needs will be drawn from the battery, which can quickly be depleted
iii. Alternators have several advantages over generators
a. Alternators produce sufficient current to operate the entire electrical system, even at low engine
speeds, by producing alternating current (AC), which is converted to DC
b. The electrical output of alternators is more constant through a wide range of engine speeds
iv. Voltage Regulator (contained in most systems)
a. Controls the rate of charge to the battery by stabilizing generator/alternator output
b. The generator/alternator voltage should be higher than the battery voltage
• Ex: a 12-volt battery would be fed by a generator/alternator system of approximately 14 volts
• The difference in voltage keeps the battery charged
C. Power Storage
i. Power is stored in batteries, primarily the main battery
a. Used as a source of electrical power for starting the engine, and a limited supply of electrical power for
use in the event the alternator or generator fails

27
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

D. Power Distribution

i.A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system to connect the main electrical system to the
equipment using electricity as a source of power
a. Distributes the power from the alternator/generator/battery to the components using the power
E. Protection
i. Fuses or circuit breakers are used to protect the circuits and equipment from electrical overload
a. Spare fuses should be carried
b. Circuit breakers have the same function as a fuse but can be manually reset, rather than replaced, if an
overload occurs
F. Indications
i. Ammeter
a. Monitors the performance of the aircraft electrical system
b. Shows if the alternator/generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical power and indicates if
the battery is receiving an electrical charge
28
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

c. Ammeter Indications
• Designed with the zero point in the center of the
face, a negative indication on the left, and a
positive indication on the right
a When the pointer is on the plus side, it shows
the charging rate of the battery
b When the pointer is on the minus side, it
shows the discharge rate of the battery
1. More current is being drawn from the
battery than is being replaced
• A full scale minus deflection indicates a malfunction of the alternator/generator
• A full scale plus deflection indicates a malfunction of the regulator
d. Not all aircraft are equipped with an ammeter, some only show a warning light that, when lighted,
indicates a discharge in the system as a generator/alternator malfunction
ii. Loadmeter
a. Shows the load being placed on the alternator/generator
• Reflects the total percentage of the load placed on the generating capacity of the electrical system
by the electrical accessories and battery
• When all electrical components are turned off, it reflects on the amount of charging current
demanded by the battery
16. Avionics [Link].E.K1g
A. Avionics can vary greatly, especially with the advent and large-scale acceptance of glass displays
i. Electronic instrument displays, GPS’s, autopilots, radios, traditional instruments (vacuum, gyro, etc.)
a. G1000, Avidyne, etc.
ii. Be familiar with the avionics displays and instruments associated with your aircraft and their use
a. Manage automation
b. Do not become distracted with the seemingly unlimited functionality of glass flight decks
c. Reference the avionics user manual(s)
B. Autopilot
i. Automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set course
a. Can be directed by the pilot or coupled to a radio navigation signal
ii. Reduces physical and mental demands on a pilot and increases safety
iii. Autopilots vary greatly in complexity
a. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos
connected to the flight control system
b. The number and location of the servos depends on the complexity of the system
• For example, a single-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal axis and a servo
actuates the ailerons
• A three-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes
a Three different servos actuate ailerons, elevator, and rudder
• More advanced systems often include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode
• Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids through a flight director
a These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems, GPS, and flight computers to control the
aircraft
iv. Most autopilot systems also incorporate a disconnect safety feature to disengage the system automatically
or manually
a. This allows the pilot to override an autopilot malfunction

29
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

C. Because avionics systems differ widely in their operation, refer to the manufacturer’s operating instructions
17. Flight Instruments [Link].E.K1h
A. Pitot-Static Flight Instruments
i. Combined system that utilizes the static air pressure (static ports) and dynamic pressure (pitot tube) due to
the motion of the aircraft through the air
a. Utilized for the operation of the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
ii. How it Works
a. Flight instruments depend on accurate sampling of the ambient atmospheric pressure
• This is used to determine the height and speed of movement of the aircraft through the air
b. Static Pressure (still air pressure) is measured at a flush port where air is not disturbed
• Pressure of the air that is still or not moving, measured perpendicular to the aircraft surface
c. Pitot Pressure (impact air pressure) is measured through a tube pointed into the relative wind
• Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed
d. The Pitot Tube connects to the Airspeed Indicator; the Static Port connects to all 3 instruments

iii. Sensitive Altimeter

a. An aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it as feet
above a selected pressure level
b. Principle of Operation
• The sensitive element is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules
a Air pressure tries to compress them, while natural springiness tries to expand them
b This results in their thickness changing as their air pressure changes
1. The change in thickness moves the gears/linkages to change the altitude displayed
• Contains an adjustable barometric scale (visible in the Kollsman window)
a This allows you to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured
b Rotating the knob changes the barometric scale: 1” Hg is equal to 1,000’

30
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

1. Standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000’

c Pressure altitude is when the Kollsman
window is set to 29.92” Hg
d When you want to display indicated altitude,
adjust to the local altimeter setting
1. This will indicate the height above the
existing sea level pressure
c. Errors (Mechanical and Inherent)
• Nonstandard Temperature
a When in warmer than standard air, air is less
dense and pressure levels are farther apart
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is higher
than it would be if the air were cooler
a. The pressure level for that alt is higher
than it would be at standard temp
b If air is colder than standard, it is denser, and
pressure levels are closer together
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is lower
than it would be if the air were warmer
a. The pressure level for that alt is higher than it would be at standard temp
• Nonstandard Pressure
a High pressure to Low pressure
1. As the pressure decreases, the altimeter reads it as though the airplane is climbing
a. The altimeter increases although the airplane is at the same altitude
i. To compensate for this the pilot will descend, therefore lowering true altitude and
putting the aircraft in a potentially dangerous position (lower than the altimeter
indicates)
b Opposite applies from low to high pressure
• REMEMBER: From hot to cold, or from high to low,
look out below!
iv. Vertical Speed Indicator
a. A rate-of-pressure change instrument giving an
indication of deviation from a constant pressure level
b. Principle of Operation
• Inside the instrument case is an aneroid
a Both the aneroid and the inside of the case are
vented to the static system
1. But the case is vented through a calibrated
orifice that causes the pressure inside to
change more slowly than that inside the
aneroid
• As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower (Descent is the opposite)
a The pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward
• When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes
a The pressure inside the case becomes the same as that inside the aneroid
v. Airspeed Indicator

31
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a. A differential pressure gauge measuring the

dynamic pressure of the air the aircraft is in
• Dynamic Pressure: the difference in ambient
static air pressure and the total, or ram,
pressure caused by the motion of the aircraft
through the air
b. Principle of Operation
• Consists of a thin, corrugated phosphor bronze
aneroid, or diaphragm, receiving its pressure
from the pitot tube
• The instrument is sealed and connected to the
static port(s)
• As pitot pressure increases/ static decreases,
the diaphragm expands and vice versa
a A rocking shaft and set of gears drives the
airspeed needle
vi. Electronic Flight Display
a. General
• Digital displays have become increasingly popular over the years, and although they display the
same, and more, information, the methods have changed
• Pitot-static information now comes from an Air Data Computer or ADC
b. Air Data Computer (ADC)
• EFDs utilize the same instrument inputs as traditional gauges (pitot/static inputs), however the
processing is different
• The pitot static inputs are received by an ADC
a The ADC computes the difference between the total pressure and the static pressure and
generates the information necessary to display the airspeed on the PFD
b Altitude information is derived from the static port just as an analogue system does; however,
the static pressure does not enter a diaphragm
1. The ADC computes the received barometric pressure and sends a digital signal to the PFD
(primary flight display) to display the proper altitude
B. Gyroscopic System (Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator)
i. How it Works
a. The 2 characteristics of gyroscopes: Rigidity and Precession
• Rigidity: Characteristic that prevents its axis or rotation tilting as the Earth rotates
• Precession: Characteristic that causes an applied force to be felt 90o from that point in the direction
of rotation
b. The instruments contain a gyro (small wheel with its weight concentrated around its periphery)
• When spun at a high speed, the wheel becomes rigid, resisting any attempt to tilt or turn in any
direction other than around its spin axis
a Attitude/Heading instruments operate on the principle of rigidity
1. The gyro remains rigid in its case and the aircraft rotates about it
• Rate indicators (turn indicators/turn coordinators) operate on the principle of precession
a The gyro precesses (or rolls over) proportionate to the rate the aircraft rotates about one or
more of its axes
c. Power Sources
• Electrical Systems

32
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Pneumatic (vacuum) Systems

a Driven by a jet of air impinging on buckets cut into the periphery of the wheel
• Venturi Tube Systems
a Air flows through venturi tubes mounted on the outside of the aircraft
1. The constricted part of the tube (low pressure) is connected to the instruments
a. This creates a suction
• Wet-Type Vacuum Systems
a Steel vane air pumps are used to evacuate the instrument cases
b The vanes in the pumps are lubricated with oil which is discharged with the air
c Excess air can be used inflate deicer boots
• Dry-Air Pump Systems
a At high altitudes, more air is needed in the instruments as the air is less dense
1. Air pumps that do not mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying
b Vanes are made of a special formulation of carbon which do not need lubricating
• Pressure Systems
a 2 dry air pumps are used with filters to filter anything that could damage the fragile carbon
vanes in the pump
b The discharge air from the pump flows through a regulator, where excess air is bled off to
maintain the pressure in the system at the desired level
c The regulated air then flows through inline filters to remove any contamination that could have
been picked up from the pump, and from there into a manifold check valve
d If either engine becomes inoperative, or if either pump fails, the check valve will isolate the
inoperative system and the instruments will be driven by air from the other system
e After passing through the instruments/driving the gyros, air is exhausted from the case
f The gyro pressure gauge measures the pressure drop across the instruments

ii. Attitude Indicator

a. Principle of Operation
• Its operating mechanism is a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis
a It is spun by either a stream of air on buckets cut into its periphery or an electric motor
• Mounted in a double gimbal which allows the aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro
a A type of mount in which the axes of the two gimbals are at right angles to the spin of the axis of
the gyro allowing free motion in two planes around the gyro
33
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it

remains in the same plane as the gyro
a The airplane pitches and rolls around the
horizon disk
• A small aircraft is put in the instrument case so it
appears to be flying relative to the horizon
a The aircraft can be raised or lowered
• To function properly, the gyro must remain
vertically upright while the aircraft pitches/rolls
a The bearings have a minimum of friction, but
even the small amount causes precession
1. To minimize tilting, an erection mechanism
applies a force any time the gyro tilts to
return it to the upright position
b. Errors
• Free from most errors, but…
a There may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and vice versa
b There is also the possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error after a 180o turn
iii. Heading Indicator
a. The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal axis in such a
way that its spin axis is horizontal
• Senses rotation about the vertical axis of the
airplane
b. Must be set to the appropriate heading by referring
to a magnetic compass
• Rigidity causes them to maintain this heading
indication
c. Air driven: air flows into the case, blowing against
buckets in the periphery of the wheel
d. The instrument should be checked every 15 minutes
to ensure it matches the magnetic compass
iv. Turn Indicators
a. General
• Two types of turn indicators: Turn-and-slip, and Turn coordinators
• Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality of turn (coordination)
a Turn-and-slip shows direction and rate of turn
b Turn coordinator (canted gyro) shows direction and rate of turn and rate of roll
• Provides a backup source of bank information if the attitude indicator fails
b. Operation
• Gyro is powered by air or an electric motor
• Small gyro mounted in a single gimbal
a Gyro rotates in the vertical axis, corresponding to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis
• Yawing produces a force in the horizontal plane
a Precession causes any yawing forces to tilt the gyro to the left or right
b A spring works to maintain the center position
c Spring also makes the indicator incapable of tumbling off its rotational axis
c. Turn-and-Slip Indicator

34
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Direction and rate of turn is displayed by the turn needle as yawing forces tilt the gyro

d. Turn Coordinator (more common in GA aircraft)

• Very similar to the turn-and-slip but the gimbal is canted so the gyro can sense both rate of roll as
well as rate of turn
a When rolling in/out of a turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction of the turn
b A rapid roll rate causes the mini aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate
c Only indicates rate and direction of turn; does not indicate angle of bank
• Used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn (3o per second)
a Align the wing of the mini aircraft with the turn index
v. Electronic Flight Display
a. In the electronic flight display, the gyroscopic instruments have been replaced by the AHRS
b. AHRS (Attitude & Heading Reference System)
• Electronic flight displays have replaced free-spinning gyros with sold-state laser systems that are
capable of flight at any attitude without tumbling
• The AHRS sends attitude information to the PFD to generate the pitch and bank information of the
attitude indicator
• The heading information is derived from a magnetometer that senses earth’s lines of magnetic flux
• All the information is processed and then sent to the PFD to be displayed
18. Environmental Systems [Link].E.K1i
A. Heating
i. There are many different types of aircraft heating systems depending on the type of aircraft
a. Fuel Fired Heaters
b. Exhaust Heating Systems
c. Combustion Heating Systems
d. Bleed Air Heating Systems
ii. Exhaust Heating Systems
a. The simplest type of aircraft heating system and are used on most light aircraft
b. The engine exhaust system is used as a heat source for the cabin and carburetor (if carbureted)
c. Operation
• Outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
a The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases, and in turn heats the air around the muffler
• The heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
d. Exhaust gases contain large amounts of carbon monoxide, which is odorless and colorless, and deadly

35
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• To ensure exhaust gases are properly expelled, and not brought into the cabin through the heating
system, the exhaust must be in good condition and free of cracks
iii. Fuel Fired Heaters
a. A small mounted or portable space-heating device
b. Operation
• Fuel is brough to the heater’s combustion chamber by using piping from a fuel tank, or taps in the
aircraft’s fuel system
• A fan blows air into the combustion chamber, and a spark plug, or ignition device ignites the fuel-air
mixture
• Outside the combustion chamber, a second, larger diameter tube conducts air around the
combustion tube’s outer surface, and a second fan blows the warmed air into tubing which takes it
to the aircraft cabin
c. Because gasoline heaters are required to be vented, special care must be made to ensure the vents do
not leak into the interior of the aircraft
iv. Combustion Heater Systems
a. Often used to heat larger, more expensive aircraft
b. Operation
• Burns the aircraft’s fuel in a combustion chamber or tube to develop required heat
• Air flowing around the tube is heated and ducted to the cabin
• The byproduct, carbon monoxide exits through the heater’s exhaust pipe
• The system is activated by the thermostat
a The thermostat turns on the fuel solenoid allowing fuel into the burner chamber where it is
burned
b As the thermostat reaches its preset/desired temperature, it turns off fuel into the burner
chamber, and the cycle continues
c. Very Safe
• Overheat switch – shuts off fuel in the case of a malfunction
• Unlikely for carbon monoxide poisoning to occur
a Low pressure in the combustion tube, high pressure outside the combustion tube
b If there were a leak, the high-pressure air outside the combustion tube would travel into the
chamber and exit the exhaust
v. Bleed Air Heating Systems
a. Used on turbine-engine aircraft
b. Operation
• Extremely hot, compressed bleed air is ducted into a chamber where it is mixed with ambient or re-
circulated air to cool it to a useable temperature, and then is ducted into the cabin
c. Safety Features
• Temperature sensors that prevent excessive heat from entering the cabin
• Check valves to prevent a loss of compressor bleed air when starting the engine and when full
power is required
• Engine sensors to eliminate the bleed system if the engine becomes inoperative
B. Pressurization
i. General
a. Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons:
• More efficient - Less fuel consumed for a given airspeed
• Bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by flying above the storms
b. To fly at high altitudes, the aircraft must be pressurized

36
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Pressurization is necessary to protect

occupants against hypoxia and the effects of
low atmospheric pressures on the body at high
altitudes
ii. How it Works
a. The cabin, flight and baggage compartments are
incorporated into a sealed unit capable of
containing air under a higher pressure than the
outside atmospheric pressure (Differential
Pressure)
• Differential Pressure – the difference in
pressure between the pressure acting on one
side of a wall and the pressure acting on the
other side of the wall (the difference between
the cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure)
b. Atmospheric air is compressed. Different aircraft
systems, compress the air in in different ways:
• Turbine powered aircraft – bleed air from the
engine compressor section is used to
pressurize the cabin
• Older model turbine-powered aircraft –
superchargers can be used to pump air into the
sealed fuselage
• Piston-powered aircraft – Often use air
supplied from each engine turbocharger
through a sonic venturi (flow limiter)
c. The compressed air is conditioned and sent into the cabin
d. Air is released from the fuselage through a device called an outflow valve
• By regulating the amount of air exiting the fuselage, the outflow valve:
a Allows for a constant inflow of air into the pressurized fuselage, and
b Maintains the proper differential pressure
• A typical cabin pressure altitude is 8,000’ at the maximum designed cruising altitude of the airplane
iii. Cabin Pressure Control System
a. Provides cabin pressure regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, the means for selecting the desired
cabin altitude, and the means to dump the cabin pressure
• A cabin pressure regulator, an outflow valve, and a safety valve are used to accomplish these
functions
b. Cabin Pressure Regulator – controls cabin pressure, and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential
value
• Differential control is used to prevent the maximum differential pressure, for which the fuselage
was designed, from being exceeded
• If we reach the maximum differential pressure, an increase in altitude outside will result in an
increase in cabin altitude
c. Outflow Valve
• Air is released from the fuselage by the outflow valve
• By regulating the air exit, the outflow valve allows for a constant inflow of air into the pressurized
area and the ability to maintain a specific differential pressure

37
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

d. Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve

• Combination of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
• The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined differential
pressure above ambient pressure
• The vacuum relief valve prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by allowing
external air to enter the cabin if ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure
• The dump valve dumps the cabin air into the atmosphere
a The cabin altitude will become equal to the atmospheric altitude
b Controlled by a switch in the flight deck (used for emergency situations)
iv. Instruments
a. Cabin differential pressure gauge
• Indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure
b. Cabin Altimeter
• Shows the altitude inside the airplane
• Differential pressure gauge and cabin altimeter can be combined into one instrument
c. Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent
• Shows how quickly the cabin altitude is changing during a climb or descent

19. Deice and Anti-Ice Systems [Link].E.K1j

A. General
i. Anti-icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice
ii. Deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed
iii. Protect numerous parts of the aircraft, including the leading edge of wing and tail surfaces, pitot and static
ports, fuel tank vents, stall warning devices, windshields, and propeller blades
iv. Most light aircraft only have a heated pitot tube and are not certified for flight in icing
a. We’ll discuss various common pieces of equipment that may not be included on your aircraft
B. Airfoil
i. Deicing Boots
a. Inflatable deicing boots consisting of a rubber sheet bonded to the leading edge of the air foil
b. Operation
• When ice builds up on the leading edge, an engine-driven pneumatic pump inflates the rubber boots
a Many turboprop aircraft divert engine bleed air into the wing to inflate the rubber boots

38
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Upon inflation, the ice is cracked and falls off the leading
edge of the wing
c. Controlled by a switch on the flight deck
• Can be operated in a single cycle, or allowed to cycle at
automatic, timed intervals
d. Instruments
• Many systems use a suction and pneumatic pressure
gauge to indicate proper boot operation
ii. Thermal Anti-Ice System
a. Heat provides one of the most effective methods for
preventing ice accumulation on an airfoil
b. Operation
• High performance turbine aircraft often direct hot air
from the compressor section of the engine to the
leading-edge surfaces
a The hot air heats the leading edge sufficiently to
prevent the formation of ice
• Should be activated prior to entering icing conditions
iii. Weeping Wing
a. Uses small holes in the leading edge of the wing
to prevent the formation and build-up of ice
b. Operation
• An antifreeze solution is pumped to the
leading edge of the wings and weeps out
through the small holes
c. Capable of deice and anti-ice
• When ice has accumulated on the leading
edges, the antifreeze solution chemically
breaks down the bond between the ice and
airframe, allowing aerodynamic force to remove the ice
C. Windscreen
i. Alcohol
a. Directs a flow of alcohol to the windscreen
b. If used early enough, the alcohol prevents ice from building up on the windscreen
ii. Electric Heat
a. Small wires or other conductive material is imbedded in the windscreen
b. Operation
• Turned on by a switch in the flight deck
• Causes an electric current to be passed across the shield through the wires to provide sufficient heat
to prevent the formation of ice on the windscreen
D. Propeller
i. Alcohol
a. Used to prevent ice from forming on the leading edge of the propellers
b. Alcohol is released from discharge nozzles and centrifugal force drives it down the leading edge of the
propeller blade
• There are also grooves in the propeller boots to help direct the flow of alcohol
ii. Electric Heat

39
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a. Propellers are fitted with anti-ice boots

b. The boots are imbedded with electrical wires that carry current for heating the propellers
20. Oxygen Systems [Link].E.K1l
A. Fixed vs Portable System
i. Most high-altitude aircraft come with a fixed installation
ii. Otherwise, portable is required – Generally consists of a
container, regulator, mask outlet, & pressure gauge
a. Usually stored between 1,800-2,200 psi – pressure will drop
with drops in ambient temperature
b. High pressure containers should be marked with the psi
tolerance before filling
B. Masks & Cannulas
i. Masks
a. Various designs
b. Ensure properly fitted with minimum leakage and a
microphone
• Can allow oxygen to be delivered under pressure (see
pressure-demand system below)
c. Passenger mask can be a simple rubber cup (like on airlines)
ii. Cannula (pictured right)
a. Ergonomic piece of plastic tubing running under the nose to
administer oxygen
b. More comfortable than a mask but not as efficient at
delivering oxygen
c. Current regs require aircraft with O2 systems and certified > 18,000’ to
have masks instead of cannulas
C. Types of Oxygen Systems
i. Continuous Flow (pictured right, blue mask)
a. Usually provided for passengers
b. Mix of oxygen and ambient air
c. Typically has a reservoir bag that collects oxygen from the system while
the user is exhaling
ii. Diluter Demand (useable to 40,000’)
a. Supplies oxygen only when the user inhales through the mask
b. Can provide 100% oxygen or mix the cabin air and oxygen based on the
user’s setting
iii. Pressure Demand (some regulators are safe above 40,000’)
a. Oxygen is supplied under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000’
• Allows the user’s lungs to be pressurized with oxygen
iv. Electric Pulse-Demand
a. Conserves oxygen, reducing oxygen needed by 50-85% compared to continuous flow systems
b. Detect the user’s inhalation and provides oxygen during the initial portion of inhalation
c. Most have an internal barometer to automatically increase the amount of oxygen as altitude increases
D. Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen (Introduction to Aviation Physiology document)
i. Min purity requirement of 99.5%, may not contain more than 0.005 mg of water vapor per liter
ii. Use Aviator’s oxygen - Different requirements exist for different types of oxygen and their uses
E. Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles
i. If required, portable oxygen equipment must be accessible in flight
40
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

ii. Be aware of the danger of fire when using oxygen

a. Thoroughly inspect/test all oxygen equipment before flight
b. Accomplish periodic inspections/servicing
21. Autopilot
A. Overview
i. Automatic flight control system to keep an aircraft in level flight or on a set course
a. Amount of automation varies based on the system
b. Reference POH/operator manual for full capabilities
ii. Reduces pilot physical and mental demands
B. RM: Managing & Monitoring Automation [Link].E.R3
i. Managing: Automation is only as good as the inputs it’s given
a. Understand the system’s capabilities
b. Ensure proper set up and programming
ii. Monitoring: Pilot must follow along with the automation
a. Ensure it’s doing what you intend it to do, when intended
22. RM: Abnormalities & Failures [Link].E.K2, [Link].E.R1
A. Automated Systems [Link].E.R3
i. Monitor associated indications and be familiar with expected operation, ranges & limitations, and warning
annunciations
ii. Reference the POH and/or take action if indications are out of range
a. Ex. Pressurization system not maintaining proper differential pressure
B. Recognizing Malfunctions or Failures
i. Specific to the aircraft and its operating systems, but common options include:
a. EFD Warning Annunciations
b. Caution & warning lights
c. Gauge indications
d. Abnormal operation (rough running engine, controls binding, etc.)
C. Managing a Failure (Airborne) [Link].E.R2
i. Maintain Aircraft Control
a. Fly the airplane - Get to a safe flight state (straight-and-level, etc.)
b. Trim and turn on automation, if possible
c. Maintain control throughout the malfunction
• Do not let the issue, checklists, etc. distract from flying the airplane
ii. Analyze the Situation
a. Indications, lights, sounds, visual (i.e., smoke, leaks, fire, etc.), smells, etc.
b. Use all available information to determine the issue
iii. Take the Proper Action
a. Apply any memory items
b. Use the appropriate checklist from the POH
iv. Land, as conditions require/permit
a. Based on the emergency, decide on a landing area (divert, field, ditching, etc.)
b. This may have to occur in conjunction with the checklist(s)
D. Managing a Failure (On the Ground)
i. Remain on the ground
ii. Analyze the situation: Same as above
iii. Take proper action: Run the appropriate checklist(s)
iv. Decide whether to continue the flight or return to park
a. Is the issue fixed? What are the chances of reoccurrence and the effects if it does, etc.
41
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

23. Flight Instruction (Unfamiliar Aircraft, Systems & Avionics) [Link].E.R4

A. Just because it’s legal, doesn’t mean it’s safe
B. Ensure proficiency in any aircraft you’re flying, let alone instructing in
i. Important for safety as well as the learner’s time, money, and education

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

The airplane’s attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls. When
deflected, these surfaces change the camber and AOA of the wing or stabilizer and thus change its lift and drag
characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures necessary, and flaps increase lift and induced drag
and create a compromise between a high cruise speed and low landing speed.

42
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

II.E. Beechcraft Baron 58

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the BE58 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. 6 cylinder, 285 hp, 12 quarts oil

2. 136 gallons usable fuel, 142 gallons total
3. 31’ 6” - Minimum Turning Radius

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the BE76 aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Duchess 76. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Primary Control Surfaces
i. All metal aircraft
ii. Operated through conventional cable systems and push-pull rods terminating in bell cranks
B. Trim - Rudder, Elevator, and Left Aileron trim tabs
i. Adjustable via controls mounted on the center console
a. The controls and trim tabs are connected via closed cable systems
b. Mechanical position indicators are integrated with the controls
ii. Elevator trim is controlled through either the electric or manual pitch trim system
a. Manual Elevator Trim
• Actuated by a handwheel
• Forward rotation = nose down, Aft rotation = nose up
b. Electric Elevator Trim
• Controlled by the ON-OFF switch (instrument panel), thumb switch (control wheel), and a circuit
breaker (left sidewall)
a Forward = nose down trim, Aft = nose up trim
• Emergency release button (pilot’s left handle) deactivates the system in case of malfunction
a System remains deactivated only while the button is being held down
iii. Left Aileron Trim Tab – Incorporates servo action in addition to its trimming purpose
2. Flaps
A. Controls
i. 3 position switch – UP, 15o (approach), DOWN (30o)
a. No intermediate positions
ii. Control switch and position indicator are located on the left side of the control console
a. Switch must be pulled out of the detent to change the flap position
3. Powerplant and Propeller

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II.E. Operation of Systems

A. Powerplant
i. Two Continental IO-520-C or IO-520-CB engines
ii. Specifics:
a. 6 cylinder
b. Direct drive
c. Horizontally Opposed
d. Fuel Injected
e. 285 hp @ 2700 RPM
iii. Controls
a. Propeller, Throttle, Mixture
• Friction knob, below/left of the controls, prevents creeping of the levers during operation
iv. Instrumentation
a. Primarily located in the center of the instrument panel (above engine controls)
• Tachometer
• Manifold Pressure
• Fuel Flow
• Load Meter (2)
• Fuel (2)
b. Other instruments are located on the right side of the instrument panel
• Gyro Pressure
• Anti-Ice, and Deice Pressure
• EGT
• CHT, Oil Temperature, Oil Pressure (2)
v. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Full pressure, wet sump oil system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 12-quart capacity
• The oil level can be measured via dipsticks attached to the filler caps. The dipsticks are not
interchangeable between engines
b. Oil Temperature Control
• Automatic thermostat bypass control
a Limits oil through the oil cooler when operating temperatures are below normal
b Permits the oil to bypass the cooler if it becomes blocked
vi. Cowl Flaps
a. Controlled by levers located on the lower center console
b. Closed with the lever in the up position, Open with the lever in the down position
B. Propeller
i. 2 or 3 blade propellers
ii. Constant speed, fully feathering
iii. The propeller control lever is used to adjust the desired propeller rpm
iv. Governor
a. RPM is controlled by the propeller governor which regulates oil pressure to the hub
• Engine oil under governor boosted pressure moves the blades toward high RPM (low pitch)
• Springs aided by counterweights, move the blades toward low RPM (high pitch)
v. Propeller Synchronizer

45
II.E. Operation of Systems

a. Designed to match RPM of both propellers (25 rpm range)

b. Operation
• Magnetic pickup in each governor transmits electric pulses to a control box
• Control box converts differences in the pulse rates into correction commands
• Correction commands are transmitted to the appropriate governor
c. Using the Synchronizer
• Operated via a toggle switch on the pedestal
• Synchronize the propellers normally, and turn the switch on
• When on, adjust both RPM controls at the same time
• If on, but unable to adjust RPM, synchronizer has reached its limit
a Turn off, synch manually, turn back on
vi. Propeller Synchroscope - Indicates synchronization of propellers
a. Located in the tachometer case, aids in manual synchronizing of propellers
b. Black and white cross pattern spins to indicate differing propeller RPM
• Clockwise rotation = Right propeller RPM is higher
• Counterclockwise rotation = Left propeller RPM is higher
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. May be electrically extended or retracted, and may be lowered manually
ii. Ground Control
a. The spring loaded linkage from the nose gear to the rudder pedals provides nose wheel steering
b. Minimum wing tip turning radius is 31’ 6” (uses partial braking action and differential power)
B. Controls and Indications
i. 2 position switch (Right side of panel) – must be pulled out of the safety detent before moving
ii. Position Indicator Lights
a. Located above the landing gear handle
b. 3 green lights (one for each gear) are illuminated whenever the gear is down and locked
c. Red light illuminates any time the landing gear is in transit or in any intermediate position
d. All lights extinguish when the gear is up and locked
e. Test switch (pilot’s floating instrument panel) illuminates warning lights and gear position lights
C. Manual Extension
i. Gear can be manually extended by operating the hand crank on the rear of the pilot’s seat
a. Gear handle must be in the down position and the MOTOR circuit breaker pulled
b. Follow the procedure outlined in the Emergency Procedures section of the POH
D. Safety Features
i. Safety Switch
a. Designed to prevent inadvertent gear retraction on the ground
b. A main strut safety switch opens the control circuit when the strut is compressed
ii. Warning Horn
a. If one or both throttles are retarded below an engine setting sufficient to sustain flight and the landing
gear is retracted, the landing gear horn will sound intermittently
• During single engine operations, silence the horn by advancing the throttle
E. Brakes
i. Wheel Brakes
a. Operated by applying toe pressure to the top of the rudder pedals
ii. Parking Brake
a. T-handle control is located just left of the elevator tab wheel

46
II.E. Operation of Systems

b. To set the brake, pull the control out and depress each toe pedal until firm
c. Push the control in to release the brakes
d. Install wheel chocks and release the parking brake if the aircraft is going to be left unattended
• Changes in temperature can cause the brakes to release or exert excessive pressures
iii. The brake fluid reservoir/dipstick is accessible through the nose baggage door
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. Standard Fuel System
• Total fuel: 142 gallons
• Usable fuel: 136 gallons
• Single fill point on each wing
b. Optional Fuel System:
• Total fuel: 172 gallons
• Usable fuel: 166 gallons
• Single fill point on each wing
c. Optional Fuel System + Wing Tip Tanks
• Total Fuel: 200 gallons
• Usable Fuel: 194 gallons
• One additional fill point on each wing
d. Minimum of 13 gallons is required in each wing system before takeoff
ii. Components
a. Fuel Selector Valves
• 3 position switch (Off, On, Crossfeed)
• Fuel selector panel is located on the floor forward of the front seats
b. Fuel Drains
• 6 drain locations
• Two additional (8) with the tip tanks installed
c. Quantity Indicators
• Quantity is measured by float transmitter units located in each wing
a With tip tanks: quantity will read full until fuel remaining is less than 75 gallons
• When installed, a visual fuel level sight gage in each wing leading edge can be used for partial filling
or off-loading fuel
d. Aux Fuel Pumps
• A two speed, electric auxiliary fuel pump for each engine
• Controlled by individual switches
• High pressure, Off, Low pressure
a High: Provides fuel before start, and a backup in case of engine driven pump failure
b Low: Used in any operating mode to eliminate pressure fluctuations
e. Crossfeed (one engine inoperative only)
• Normal operation: each engine’s fuel pumps draw fuel from its respective fuel tank
• Crossfeed allows either engine to use fuel from the opposite tank
a Provided for use during emergency conditions
b Cannot transfer fuel from one wing system to the other
c Follow the steps outlined in the Emergency Procedures section
d Cannot transfer fuel between tanks
iii. Fuel Schematic (200 gallon system)

47
II.E. Operation of Systems

a. 172 gallon system eliminates the wing tip tank (far left)
b. 142 gallon system eliminates the wing tip tank and outboard leading edge cell

B. Oil
i. See Lubrication in the Engine section
C. Hydraulic
i. Brakes are the only hydraulically operated system
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Alternators
a. Two 50- or 60-amp, 28 volt, gear driven alternators
b. Optional: Two 85- or 100-amp, 14 volt, belt driven alternators
ii. Operation
a. Alternators TH-773 through TH-1376
• Alternators are controlled by two voltage regulators
a Adjust alternator output to the required electrical load
• Only 1 regulator is operable at any one time
a The remaining regulator is used as an alternate or standby unit
b Regulator selection is provided by a switch on the pilot’s subpanel
• Alternators are protected by current limiters
b. Alternators TH-1377 and after
• 2 standard 60 amp alternators, or optional 100 amp alternators, are individually controlled by
alternator control units
a ACUs regulate voltage, balance load, provide overvoltage protection
iii. Indications
a. Individual alternator output is shown by two loadmeters on the instrument panel
• Loadmeters show a percentage reading of the load on the system
b. Warning Lights

48
II.E. Operation of Systems

• Two warning lights placarded Alternator-L-R (floating instrument panel)

a Illuminate when:
1. Respective alternator is disconnected from the bus by low voltage or over-voltage condition,
or the switch is Off
2. Serials TH-1194 and after: if the fuse on the alternator AUX terminal is blown
B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. Standard: One 24-volt, 15.5 amp hour, lead acid battery
b. Optional: Two 12-volt, 15 amp hour lead acid batteries connected in series
C. Power Distribution
i. Distributed through electrical buses
ii. Electrical Schematic

D. External Power
i. Used for engine starting or ground electrical system checks
a. Capable of delivering at least 300 amps for starting
ii. Power receptacle is located in the outboard side of the left nacelle
iii. Turn off electrical systems and avionics before connecting to external power to avoid damage
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, the standard avionics setup is shown below

49
II.E. Operation of Systems

i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc.) installed in your particular aircraft. Often times
avionics operation is difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessively detailed information, like which buttons to
push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in general, stick to
the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot System
a. General
• Provides a source of impact air for flight instrument operation (airspeed indicator)
• Pitot tube is located immediately left of the nose gear doors
a Optional pitot tube for the copilot’s instruments is located right of the nose gear doors
b. Pitot Heat
• Heating element located in the pitot mast used to retain proper operation of the flight instruments
in conditions of freezing precipitation
• Controlled by the Pitot Heat switches (pilot’s left subpanel)
a Individual, left and right pitot heat switches (if two pitot systems installed)
ii. Static System
a. General
• Two ports, one on each side of the aft fuselage
• Used for the Vertical Speed Indicator, Altimeter, and Airspeed Indicator
b. Emergency Static Source
• Should the exterior static ports become blocked, the emergency static source provides an alternate
source of pressure from inside the cabin
• Lever on the lower sidewall, adjacent to the pilot (Off, Normal, On Emergency)
• Refer to the Emergency Procedures for use
a Airspeed calibrations/Altimeter corrections are in the Performance section of the POH
B. Pressure System

50
II.E. Operation of Systems

i. Provides pressure for the flight instruments, deice boots, and autopilot (if installed)
ii. Operation
a. Two engine driven, dry, pressure pumps that are interconnected to form a single system
• If either pump fails, check valves close, and the remaining pump operates all instruments
• 2 filters per engine
a One filters intake air to the pressure pump, the other protects the instruments
iii. Indications
a. A pressure gauge on the instrument panel indicates pressure in inches of mercury
b. Two red buttons on the pressure gauge are system failure indicators for their respective side
C. Stall Warning
i. Electrically powered
ii. Horn is triggered by a sensing vane on the leading edge of the left wing
a. Effective in all flight attitudes, at all weights, and at all airspeeds
b. Irregular and intermittent at first, the horn will become steady approaching a complete stall
iii. Stall speeds increase with ice accumulation making the horn less accurate
a. Sensing vane is electrically heated, however ice near the vane can reduce its accuracy
b. In icing it’s advisable to maintain an extra margin of airspeed above the stall speed
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. General
a. Combustion heater in the nose cone supplies heated air to the cabin
b. Outlets located forward of the pilot/copilot seats, rear of the copilot’s seat/right passenger seat
• Additional outlet for windshield defrosting
ii. Components
a. Combustion air heater
b. Blower
c. Control switch (3 position switch – Blower, Off, Heater)
• In Heater/Blower positions, the blower will automatically turn off when gear is retracted, or the
cabin air control is pulled approximately halfway out
d. Push-Pull Control Knobs
• Defrost – controls the amount of air for windshield defrost
• Cabin Air – regulates the amount intake air (full forward = full open)
a If pulled aft more than halfway the heater will not operate
• Cabin Heat – Pull to raise temperature, Push to lower temperature
• Pilot Air/Copilot Air – Directs heated air onto the pilots/copilots’ feet
e. Protection
• Heater circuit breaker - In the case of dangerously high temperatures, a heat actuated circuit
breaker renders heater system (except blower) inoperative
B. Cabin Ventilation
i. General
a. Provides unheated air through the same outlets used for heating
b. Air intake is located on the right side of the nose compartment
ii. Pilot Operation
a. On the Ground
• Push the Cabin Air control forward
• Place the switch in Blower Only
b. In Flight

51
II.E. Operation of Systems

• Push the Cabin Air and Cabin Heat controls forward

c. Overhead Fresh Air Outlets
• Fresh air from an intake left of the dorsal fin is ducted to outlets above each seat
a Master control (overhead panel) adjusts the amount of air available to all outlets
b Rotate the outlet to control the amount of air flow
• An optional fresh air blower, if installed, is located in the aft fuselage and is designed for use during
ground operation – automatically shuts off in flight
C. Environmental Schematic

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Deice Boots
i. Designed to remove ice after it has accumulated
a. If accumulation is slow, the best results occur with ½ to 1” of ice accumulation
ii. Operation – engine-driven pump pressure
a. Compressed air passes through the pressure regulator and reaches the distributor valve
b. When not operating, the distributor valve applies vacuum pressure to hold the boots flat
c. When operating, the valve changes from vacuum to pressure, inflating the boots

52
II.E. Operation of Systems

d. After the cycle is completed, the valve returns to vacuum, holding the boots flat
iii. Controls
a. 3 position spring loaded switch
• Auto (up), Off (center), Man (down)
• Auto: Boots inflate for 5-6 seconds, the deflate (switch must be tripped for each cycle)
• Man: Boots inflate as long as the switch is held in Man
b. Wing Ice Lights – used to check for accumulation at night
B. Electric Anti-Ice (Propeller and Windshield)
i. General
a. Power from the electrical system heats portions of the propeller and windshield
b. System can be operated continuously in flight
ii. Propeller
a. Electrically heated deice boots bonded to each propeller blade
• Portions of the blades are heated in a sequence controlled by a timer
b. Controlled by an On/Off switch (pilot’s subpanel)
• When on, the system registers 7-12 amps (2 blade propeller), or 14-18 amps (3 blade)
iii. Windshield
a. Controlled by a switch located on the left subpanel
b. Should be applied prior to or at first encounter of icing
c. Will cause the standby compass to become erratic
• Turn off for 15 seconds to allow a stable reading of the standby compass
d. Aids in preventing frost and fogging as well
e. Ground use is limited to 10 minutes
C. Fluid Anti-Ice (Propeller and Windshield)
i. General
a. Designed to prevent formation of ice (use prior to entering icing conditions)
b. Icing is prevented by wetting the windshield/propeller with an anti-icing fluid
c. System will not function unless the propeller anti-ice switch is On
d. Combined system is operated by a 3-position switch (pilot’s subpanel)
ii. Propeller
a. Anti-ice pump delivers a constant flow of fluid to the propeller blades boots
b. Pump is controlled by an On/Off switch (pilot’s subpanel)
iii. Windshield
a. Receives anti-ice fluid from the same source as the propeller
b. For windshield only operation, the flow is controlled by an On-Off switch
iv. Indicator on the right side of instrument panel displays quantity
v. Endurance
a. Left & Right Windshield – 18 min
b. Prop Anti-Ice – 120 min
c. Prop, Left & Right Windshield – 16 min
D. Pitot Heat
i. Heating elements installed in the pitot mast(s)
ii. Controlled by Pitot Heat switch(es)
iii. Should remain off on the ground, except for testing or short intervals to remove ice/snow
E. Stall Warning Anti-Ice
i. Mounting pad and the stall warning vane are equipped with a heating element
ii. Operates whenever Pitot Heat is turned On

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II.E. Operation of Systems

F. Heated Fuel Vents

i. Fuel system vents (one under each wing outboard of the nacelle) are heated
ii. Controlled by the Fuel Vent switch (pilot’s subpanel)

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

54
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

II.E. Beechcraft Duchess 76

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the BE76 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Counter Rotating Engines/Propellers

2. 100 gallons usable fuel, 103 gallons total
3. 27’ 2” - Minimum Turning Radius

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the BE76 aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Duchess 76. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Primary Control Surfaces
i. All metal aircraft
ii. Supported and operated through conventional cable systems and push-pull rods terminating in bell cranks
B. Trim
i. Elevator and Rudder Trim
a. Adjustable via controls mounted on the lower center console
• The controls and trim tabs are connected via closed cable systems
• Mechanical position indicators are integrated with the controls
b. Elevator trim is controlled through either the electric or manual pitch trim system
• Manual Elevator Trim
a Actuated by a handwheel located between the pilot’s seats
b Position indicator is located adjacent to the handwheel
c Forward rotation = nose down, Aft rotation = nose up
• Electric Elevator Trim
a Controlled by the ON-OFF switch on the left subpanel and a thumb switch on the pilot’s control
wheel
1. Depress and move the thumb switch forward for nose down trim. Depress and move the
thumb switch aft for nose up trim
b An emergency release button is located on the left handle grip of the pilot’s control wheel to
deactivate the system in case of a malfunction in the system
1. The system will remain deactivated only while the button is being held down
ii. Aileron Trim
a. Located on the lower center console
b. Aileron displacement is maintained by cable loads imposed by the trimmer
2. Flaps

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II.E. Operation of Systems

A. Controls
i. 3 position switch – UP, OFF, DOWN
a. Must be pulled out of the detent before it can be repositioned
b. Intermittent flap positions can be obtained by placing the switch in the OFF position during extension or
retraction
B. Indications
i. A dial-type indicator located adjacent to the flap switch has position markings for UP, 10o, 20o, and DN (35o)
ii. When the flaps are extended beyond 16o, the landing gear warning horn will sound if the landing gear is not
down and locked
C. Effects
i. Lowering the flaps in flight will produce the following effects:
a. Attitude: Nose Down
b. Airspeed: Reduced
c. Stall Speed: Lowered
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Avco Lycoming O-360-A1G6D (clockwise rotating) on the left wing
ii. Avco Lycoming LO-360-A1G6D (counterclockwise rotating) on the right wing
iii. Specifics:
a. 4 cylinder
b. Direct drive
c. Horizontally Opposed
d. Carbureted
e. 180 hp @ 2700 RPM
iv. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, Mixture
• Friction knob, to the right of the control levers, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers during
operation
v. Instrumentation
a. Primarily located in the center of the instrument panel
• Fuel Quantity (Left and Right)
• Fuel Pressure
• Oil Pressure
• Oil Temperature
• Cylinder Head Temperature
• Loadmeters
b. Other instruments are located above the left subpanel
• Dual Indicating Manifold Pressure Gauge
a Indicates the pressure of the fuel/air mixture entering the engine cylinders of each engine
b Calibrated in inches of mercury
• Dual Indicating Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator
a Provides for a sensitive and rapid indication of exhaust gas temperature to assist in adjusting the
fuel/air mixtures during cruise
• Tachometers
vi. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Wet sump, pressure-type oil system

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II.E. Operation of Systems

a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 8-quart capacity
• The oil level can be measured via dipsticks attached to the filler caps. The dipsticks are not
interchangeable between engines
b. Oil Temperature Control
• Automatic thermostat bypass control
a Limits the flow of oil through the oil cooler when operating temperatures are below normal
b Permits the oil to bypass the cooler if it becomes blocked
vii. Carb Heat
a. Levers are located just below the center console on the pedestal
b. Two positions: ON and OFF
• In the OFF position: cold, filtered air enters the induction system
a Filtered ram air enters from above the engine inside the nacelle area
• In the ON position: heated, unfiltered air enters the induction system to alleviate the possibility of
carburetor ice
viii. Cowl Flaps
a. Controlled by levers located just below the carburetor heat controls on the pedestal
b. Each lever has three positions: CLOSE, HALF, and OPEN
• Cowl flap position is adjusted to maintain the desired cylinder head temperatures
• Open = more airflow
B. Propeller
i. Two Hartzell, 76” diameter, constant speed, fully feathering, two blade propellers
ii. The propeller control lever is used to adjust the desired propeller rpm
iii. Governor
a. RPM is controlled by the engine driven propeller governor which regulates hydraulic oil pressure to the
hub
• Engine oil under governor boosted pressure moves the blades to the high RPM (low pitch) position
• Springs and dome air pressure, aided by counterweights, move the blades toward low RPM (high
pitch)
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Fully retractable, Hydraulically operated, Electrically powered
ii. May be hydraulically extended or retracted, and may be lowered manually
iii. Ground Control
a. The spring-loaded linkage from the nose gear to the rudder pedals allows for nose wheel steering
b. Minimum wing tip turning radius is 27’ 2” and is accomplished by using full steering (full rudder), one
brake (the inboard brake), and differential power (the outside engine)
B. Controls and Indications
i. Two position switch – must be pulled out of the safety detent before it can be moved
ii. Position Indicator Lights
a. Located above the landing gear handle
b. 3 green lights (one for each gear) are illuminated whenever the gear is down and locked
c. The red light illuminates any time the landing gear is in transit or in any intermediate position
d. All lights extinguish when the gear is up
e. Pressing the face of each gear position indicator light will verify the landing gear lights are functional
C. Emergency Extension

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II.E. Operation of Systems

i. The landing gear can be manually extended by turning the hydraulic pressure bypass valve 90o clockwise
a. Releases the system pressure allowing the gear to fall into the down and locked position
b. Follow the emergency gear extension procedure in the emergency procedures section of the POH
D. Safety Features
i. Safety Retraction Switch
a. Designed to prevent inadvertent gear retraction on the ground
b. A safety pressure switch in the pitot system deactivates the hydraulic pressure pump circuit when air
pressure is below about 60 knots (59-63 knots per the POH)
ii. Warning Horn
a. If one or both throttles are retarded below an engine setting sufficient to sustain flight and the landing
gear is retracted, the landing gear horn will sound intermittently
b. If the flaps are extended beyond approximately 16o, the warning horn will sound if the landing gear is
not down and locked, regardless of throttle position
c. “Q” Switch (optional)
• Available to prevent the gear warning horn from sounding with the throttles retarded and the
landing gear up
a For the Q switch to interrupt the warning horn, the airspeed must be above 99-106 KIAS and the
flaps must be retracted above approximately 16o
d. Warning Horn Silence Button (optional)
• Located next to the landing gear control switch and labeled Gear Horn Silence
• Allows the pilot to manually silence the warning horn with either throttle retarded, the landing gear
retracted, and the flaps retracted above approximately 16o.
a When either throttle is retarded sufficiently to activate the gear warning horn, the horn may be
silenced with the button. If the other throttle is then retarded, the warning horn will sound
again and cannot be silenced
1. After a single throttle has been retarded and the resulting warning horn silenced, re-
advancing the throttle resets the warning horn allowing it to sound again when either
throttle is retarded
a. The warning horn is also reset when the landing gear are lowered
b When the flaps are extended beyond about 16o, the button will not silence the warning horn
• A red light illuminates when the gear horn silence system is activated
iii. Time Delay Relay
a. Gear retraction is protected by a time delay relay which disengages electrical power to the hydraulic
pump motor after 30 seconds of continuous pump operation
b. If the gear in-transit light remains illuminated, it indicates improper response of the landing gear
• The time delay switch can be reset by moving the gear handle to the down position
• The gear and retract system should be checked before the next flight
iv. Circuit Breaker
a. Gear Motor and Gear Control circuit breakers
b. Circuit breakers will pop under overload conditions
E. Brakes
i. Wheel Brakes
a. Operated by applying toe pressure to the top of the rudder pedals
ii. Parking Brake
a. To set the brake, pull the control out and pump both toe pedals until solid resistance is felt
b. Push the control in to release the brakes
c. Install wheel chocks and release the parking brake if the aircraft is going to be left unattended

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II.E. Operation of Systems

• Changes in temperature can cause the brakes to release or exert excessive pressures
iii. The brake fluid reservoir is located on the left side of the forward cabin bulkhead
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. One tank in each wing – 51.5-gallon capacity, total capacity of 103 gallons (100 gallons usable)
• The filler neck of each tank contains a visual measuring tab which allows for partial fueling of the
system
a When the fuel level reaches the bottom of the tab, it indicates 30 gallons (28.5 usable)
b When the fuel level reaches the center mark, it indicates 40 gallons (38.5 usable)
c The top mark indicates a full tank (51.5 gallons/50 usable)
ii. Components
a. Fuel Selector Valves
• 3 position switch (On, Crossfeed, Off)
a Each position has a detent
• The valves are in each nacelle on the outboard side, just forward of the leading edge of the wing and
are operated by a push-pull cable
• The fuel selector valves also function as a preflight drain, and the firewall fuel shutoff point
a The lower portion of the valve serves as a sediment bowl and contains the fuel strainer screen
b. Fuel Drains
• Eight drain locations, four on each wing
a One drain for the fuel selector valve
1. Actuated manually by pushing up on the lower portion of the drain
2. All other drains are flush type, and require the fuel drain/emergency landing gear tool
a. These drains can be locked open for fuel offloading/draining the fuel tanks
b One drain outboard of each nacelle
c Two drains inboard of the main gear for draining the crossfeed fuel lines
c. Quantity Indicators
• Quantity is measured by two float operated sensors located in each wing tank
a The sensors transmit electrical signals to the individual indicators on the instrument panel
d. Aux Fuel Pumps
• One electric auxiliary fuel pump for each engine
a Controlled by individual switches
• Provide pressure for priming, starting, taxiing, takeoff, and landing, as well as for continued engine
operation in the case the engine driven fuel pump is inoperative
e. Crossfeed
• During normal engine operation each engine uses its own fuel pumps to draw fuel from its
respective fuel tank
• The fuel lines for the engines are interconnected allowing either engine to consume fuel from either
tank
• Restrictions
a Provided for use during level flight, emergency conditions only
b Cannot transfer fuel between tanks

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II.E. Operation of Systems

iii. Fuel Schematic

B. Oil
i. See Lubrication in the Engine section
C. Hydraulic
i. See part 4, Landing Gear
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Alternators
a. Two 55-amp, 28 volt, belt driven alternators (ME 183 and after), or
b. Two 60-amp, 14 volt, belt driven alternators (ME-1 thru ME-182)
ii. Operation
a. Each alternator output is controlled by its own, separate voltage regulator
• The regulators automatically maintain the bus voltage
• The regulators maintain approximately equal load sharing between the alternators
b. Self-Excitation Load Capability
• In general, a self-excited alternator produces the initial energy to excite the field coils and increase
voltage (to start the alternator)
• The self-excitation feature of this alternator will not come on until approximately 1200-1400 RPM,
with a load capability of approximately 50%. However, it will remain on as engine speed is reduced
to approximately 850-1000 RPM
• Max load capability of approximately 80% should be obtainable at approximately 2300 RPM
c. Each alternator system is separate except for the following:
• The Bus Tie Fuse (ME 103 and after)
• The mutual tie to the battery bus through two bus isolation circuit breakers

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II.E. Operation of Systems

• The paralleling circuit between the regulators

iii. Indications
a. Alternator output is shown on the two loadmeters on the instrument panel
• Loadmeters show a percentage reading of the load on the system
b. Warning Lights
• Two pairs of Alternator-Out warning lights
a Illuminates when:
1. Either alternator voltage is 4 ± .1 volts (28-volt system), or 2 ± .1 volts (14 volt system) below
the bus voltage
2. The corresponding overvoltage relay is actuated
a. The overvoltage relay opens the affected alternator field, and the affected alternator
voltage will drop to zero
3. The battery is turned on and the alternators are off
b The Alternator-Out warning lights can be tested by pressing the Test switch adjacent to the
lamps
B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. One 24-volt, 15.5 amp hour, lead acid battery (ME 183 and after), or
b. One 12-volt, 35 amp hour, lead acid battery (ME-1 thru ME-182)
c. Two 12-volt, 25 amp hour lead acid batteries electrically connected in series is an option for ME 183 and
after
C. Power Distribution
i. Distributed through electrical buses
ii. Electrical Schematic

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II.E. Operation of Systems

D. External Power
i. Used for engine starting or ground electrical system checks
ii. Power receptacle is located:
a. ME-1 thru ME-440: Right side of the fuselage, just aft of the cabin area
b. ME-441 and after: Left side of the fuselage, just aft of the cabin area
iii. Requirements
a. 14-volt system (ME-1 thru ME-182) require a power setting of 14 volts ± .2 volts
• Turn Off the alternator switches, all electrical and avionics switches, and turn On the battery switch
before connecting the auxiliary power
b. 28-volt system (ME-183 and after) require a power setting of 28 volts ± .2 volts
• Turn on the battery switch only, with all other switches (including avionics switches) off before
connecting the auxiliary power

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II.E. Operation of Systems

iv. Operation
a. Connect the clamps of the power cable to the remote power source (ensure proper polarity)
b. Turn Off the ALT switches and ensure that all avionics equipment is Off
c. Turn on the BATT switch
d. Insert the power cable plug into the receptacle, and turn on the auxiliary power unit
e. Start the engine using the normal starting procedures
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel consists of flight, navigation, and engine
instrument on the left, and an avionics section on the right
i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc.) installed in your particular aircraft. Often avionics
operation is difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like which
buttons to push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in
general, stick to the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot System
a. General
• Provides a source of impact air for the operation of the flight instruments (airspeed indicator)
• Located on the outboard leading edge of the left wing
a Optional pitot tube for the copilot’s instruments. If installed, it is located on the outboard
leading edge of the right wing
b. Pitot Heat
• Heating element located in the pitot mast used to retain proper operation of the flight instruments
in conditions of freezing precipitation
• Controlled by the Pitot Heat switch in the cockpit
a Controls the heat for both pitot masts (if two are installed)
• Should remain off during ground operations except for testing or short intervals of time to remove
ice or snow from the mast
ii. Static System
a. General
• Two ports, one on each side of the aft fuselage
• Used for the Vertical Speed Indicator, Altimeter, and Airspeed Indicator
b. Alternate Static Source
• Should the exterior static ports become blocked, the alternate static source is designed to provide
an alternate source of pressure from inside the cabin
• Controlled by a lever on the lower sidewall, adjacent to the pilot
• Potential Uses:
a Used for conditions where the normal static source has been obstructed
1. Examples include, when the aircraft has been exposed to moisture and/or icing conditions
(especially on the ground)
2. Partial obstruction can result in the rate-of-climb indication being sluggish
a. Verification of a suspected obstruction can be made by switching to the alternate air
source and noting a sudden sustained change in the rate of climb
• Differences in the pressure between the outside of the aircraft, where the static ports are located,
and the inside of the aircraft, where the alternate air source is located, can result in errors in the
instrument readings when using alternate air
a Refer to the Performance section of the POH for airspeed calibration and altimeter correction

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II.E. Operation of Systems

when using the alternate air source

B. Vacuum System
i. Operation
a. Two engine driven, dry, pressure pumps that are interconnected to form a single system
• If either pump fails, check valves automatically close, and the remaining pump continues to operate
all gyro instruments
• A central filter protects the instruments
ii. Indications
a. A pressure gauge on the pilot’s subpanel indicates pressure in inches of mercury
b. Two red buttons on the pressure gauge serve as failure indicators for their respective side of the system
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. General
a. 45,000 Btu-per-hour combustion air heater
b. Located on the right side in the nose compartment
ii. Components
a. Combustion air heater
b. Control switch (3 positions)
• Heater – On
• Blower Only
• Off
c. Push-Pull Control Knobs (3)
• Defrost – controls the amount of air for windshield defrost
• Cabin Air – controls the amount of air entering the cabin from the heater
a Pulling the knob more than half closed deactivates the heater to prevent heater over temp
• Cabin Temp – controls the temperature of the air entering the cabin
a Pulling aft increases the temperature
d. Combustion air blower
e. Ventilation air blower
f. Duct thermostat
g. Protection
• Heater circuit breaker
• Manual reset limit (overheat) switch
a Located on the heater (inaccessible in flight)
b Shuts off the system in case the discharge temperatures reach 300o F
iii. System Operation
a. Fuel for the combustion heater is routed from the right-wing fuel system to the heater fuel pump and
into the combustion chamber of the heater
• Fuel consumption is approximately 2/3 gallons per hour
a Take this into account during flight planning
b. Distribution
• Three outlets located in the cabin to distribute heat
a One on the lower forward cabin bulkhead to provide heat for the pilot and copilot compartment
b One between the pilot and copilot seats to provide heated air to the aft cabin
c One to the windshield outlet for windshield defrosting (defrost duct)
iv. Pilot Operation
a. Turn the switch to On

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II.E. Operation of Systems

b. Adjust the push-pull knobs as desired for airflow

B. Cabin Ventilation
i. General
a. Provides unheated air through the same outlets used for heating
b. Air intake is located on the right side of the nose compartment
ii. Pilot Operation
a. On the Ground
• Push the Cabin Air control forward
• Place the switch in Blower Only
a Blower Only position is for ground operation only. The blower will shut off when the gear is
retracted
b. In Flight
• Push the Cabin Air and Cabin Temp controls forward
• Fresh ram air is also provided through outlets located on each side of the instrument panel
a The air for these outlets enters through two vents located immediately forward of the
windshield. Rotate the outlets to control the air flow
• Overhead Fresh Air Outlets
a Fresh air from the intake on the left side of the dorsal fin is ducted to individual outlets located
above each seat
1. Rotate the outlet to control the amount of air flow
b An optional fresh air blower, if installed, is located in the aft fuselage and is designed for use
during ground operation and climb out. It should be turned off during cruise
iii. Exhaust Vent
a. A fixed cabin exhaust vent is located on the left side of the aft fuselage and provides for flow-through
ventilation
C. Environmental Schematic

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II.E. Operation of Systems

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Flight in icing conditions is prohibited in Section 2, Limitations of the POH. Deicing and anti-icing equipment is
very limited. See the previous discussions in this lesson plans about the following deicing/anti-icing equipment.
i. Carb Heat
ii. Pitot Heat
iii. Windshield Defrost

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Diamond DA42

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the DA42 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Semi-monocoque Construction

2. Thielert TAE 125-01 Diesel Engines
3. ECU’s/FADEC

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel System
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static System
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the DA42 aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the DA42. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant, propeller,
landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the environmental
system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons
i. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic/Carbon FRP Sandwich
ii. Actuated via push rods
iii. Attached with stainless steel and aluminum hinges
B. Elevator (GFRP)
i. Actuated via push rods
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
iii. Trim
a. Mechanical (wheel on center console) & Electrical (rocker switch) Systems
b. Two actuating Levers
• Left Lever
a Connects to long flexible cable that is adjusted by the pilot to adjust trim
• Right Lever
a Friction Damper to prevent fluttering if mechanical failure of the trim cable
iv. Variable Elevator Stop
a. Limits elevator up movement when:
• Both engines exceed 20%, AND
• Flaps are set to landing
b. Used to prevent over rotation during a go around
• Apparently, there was an excessive left turning tendency they wanted to limit
C. Rudder
i. Actuated via control cables
ii. Trim
a. Controlled with black wheel on center console

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Flexible cable connects it to trim tab

iii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
2. Flaps
A. GFRP/CFRP Sandwich
B. 2 section construction
i. Outer Flap: 6 hinges
ii. Inner Flap: 4 hinges
iii. Each section has its own push rod (4 total)
iv. Fail Safe Construction: Inner & outer are connected which prevents a split flap condition
a. If one push rod breaks on either side all flaps will still deploy (no split flap)
C. Driven by an electric motor
i. Electric flap actuator is protected by a circuit breaker (5 Amp)
a. Located on the R side of the instrument panel and can be manually tripped to disable the system
D. Controlled by 3 position flap operating switch on the instrument panel
i. Top position – Up – 0o (Green Light)
ii. Middle Position – Cruise – 20o (Yellow Light) - 137 knots
iii. Bottom Position – Landing – 42o (Yellow Light) -111 knots
iv. When two lights are illuminated at the same time, the flaps are in-between positions
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Thielert Diesel TAE 125-01 engines
a. 135 hp @ 2300 rpm
b. 4 cylinder
c. 4 stroke
d. Liquid Cooled
e. Turbocharged
f. Reduction gear to Propeller
g. Wet Sump Oil system
ii. Diesel Engine
a. Typically turbocharged to ensure compression/temperatures in combustion chamber
• No spark plugs, air/fuel mixture combusts due to high pressure and temperature
b. Diesel/Jet A fuel contains more energy than avgas
• More fuel efficient/cleaner
iii. Common Rail Injection
a. High pressure reservoir of fuel which feeds injectors
iv. Turbocharged
a. Ensures air is properly compressed for combustion
• Air is compressed in the compressor, then sent to the intercooler
a Intercooler cools the hot compressed air
1. Cooling further compresses the air for more power
• Then it is sent to the combustion chambers
• The exhaust is ducted back to spin the compressor
b. Compressor
• Engine exhaust air is used to run the compressor
• Wastegate
a Gate that opens or closes to allow more of less exhaust gas to run the compressor
1. More air = More compression

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

2. Less air = Less Compression

b Adjusts to maintain engine manifold pressure based on altitude
B. Propeller
i. General
a. Wood covered in GFRP
b. Constant Speed, Fully Feathering
ii. Gearbox
a. Ratio of 1.69:1
• Engine spins 1.69 rpm to every 1 prop rpm
b. Gearbox has its own oil system (separate from engine)
iii. Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
a. Since there’s no RPM lever the CSU adjusts prop pitch for you
b. Oil pressure is used to move a piston which in turn adjusts the pitch of the blades
• Increasing oil pressure = more fine pitch (flatter blade angle)
• Decreasing oil pressure= higher pitch
• If oil pressure is lost the props will auto feather
a This happens only when RPM is > 1300
b If below 1300 RPM (like on normal shutdown) the Coarse Pitch Stop will prevent feathering
1. Props won’t feather on normal shutdown
iv. Accumulator
a. Stores pressure at 290 psi (nitrogen and oil charge)
• Uses pressure to unfeather prop when restarting in air
• Maintaining RPM as engine slows
a To keep a constant rpm as engine slows (in a climb, etc.) the blade angle needs to get finer
(more oil pressure is needed on piston). If it cannot accomplish this under normal circumstances
the accumulator will use its stored oil pressure to further decrease blade angle
C. Engine Cooling
i. Water based with antifreeze
ii. Two circuit system
a. Main circuit cools engine
b. Bypass circuit for when engine temperature is cold
D. Engine Control Unit
i. Heart of the FADEC – Monitors, controls and regulates all important parameters
ii. 2 ECU’s per engine, an A & B ECU
a. A is used for normal operation, B is backup
iii. Electrically powered
a. Electricity is necessary to run engines
iv. Redundant
a. Both ECUs are always operational, only one is active
• If A is not 100% it auto switches to B
E. Engine Master Switches
i. Powers
a. Engine ECUs
b. Engine Preheat (flow plugs)
c. Unfeathering Accumulator
d. Enables starter
e. Connects alternators to excitation batteries

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

F. Oil System
i. One oil system for the engine, one for propeller gear box
ii. Engine Oil = Wet Sump System
a. Means engine oil is stored in the engine
b. Dry sump = oil reservoir is outside of the engine and pumped in
G. Alternate Air
i. Air is drawn from engine compartment
ii. One lever opens alternate air for both engines
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Fully retractable, Hydraulically operated, Electrically powered
B. Main Gear
i. Trailing Link Design
ii. Tubular strut with a trailing link at the bottom
a. Wheel attaches to trailing link
b. Gas/Oil filled damper attaches to rear of tubular steel strut
and trailing link
C. Nose Gear
i. Steel strut w gas/oil damper to absorb shock
ii. Steering
a. Obtained by rudder control via steering linkage
b. Spring assembly centers gear when deflected
• Nose wheel retracts straight after takeoff
D. Hydraulic Supply & Control
i. Hydraulic Control Block
a. Electric Motor
b. Hydraulic Pump and Pressure Switch
• Pumps hydraulic pressure to extend/retract gear
• Pressure switch maintains pressure in system
a Turns on at 1400 psi and off at 1650 psi
c. Hydraulic Reservoir
• Stores excess hydraulic fluid
d. Hydraulic Accumulator
E. Gear Operation
i. System is always pressurized
ii. Electrically operated valves provide hydraulic pressure to move actuators
iii. Main gear retracts inboard, Nose gear retracts forward
iv. Hydraulic pressure on actuators keeps gear retracted
a. No up locks, if hydraulic pressure fails, gear will extend
v. If electrical system fails, gear will extend automatically
a. Hydraulic pressure will fail without electric power
F. Emergency Extension
i. Releases hydraulic pressure allowing gear to fall by gravity
G. Safety Features
i. Squat Switch
a. Left main gear leg
• Prevents gear from retracting on ground

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ii. Gear Warning Horn

a. Either power lever below 25%, or
b. Flaps in Landing Position
H. Wheel Brakes
i. Hydraulically operated disc brakes
ii. Operated individually using toe-brake pedals
I. Parking Brake
i. Repeated pushing of the toe-brake pedals will build up the required brake
pressure, which will remain in effect until the brake is released
5. Fuel System
A. Fuel
i. 2 main aluminum fuel tanks
a. Each tank has 3 chambers joined by hoses
b. 25 gallons per tank
ii. Auxiliary Tanks
a. 2 (optional) 13.2 useable gallon tanks
• 26.4 Gallons total + 50 Gallon mains= 76.4 useable gallons
b. Located in rear of engine nacelle
c. Fuel is transferred from Aux to main tanks via pump switch on rear center console
iii. Components
a. Fuel Selector
• Each engine has one
• Settings
a On – Normal fuel flow
b X-Feed – Engine draws fuel from opposite fuel tank
c Off – Turns off fuel to engine
b. Indicators
• Inner and Outer chamber of main fuel tanks have level sensors
a Not necessary to have one in middle chamber
• Low level sensor
a Operates at 3-4 USG in tank
c. Fuel Cooler
• Uses heat exchanger to cool fuel before returning it to tank
• 2-3 times more fuel than is necessary for injectors flows through common rail
a Common rail is under tremendous pressure so fuel gets very hot
b Excess fuel is returned to engine, but cooled first
1. Prevents vapor lock
iv. Operation
a. 2 fuel pumps
• Booster Pump
a Sends fuel to high pressure pump
• High Pressure Pump
a Pumps fuel to common rail
b. Normal Operation
• Fuel is drawn from tank into engine, the unused fuel is returned to the tank via fuel cooler
c. X-Feed
• Fuel is drawn from opposite tank into engine, unused fuel is returned to original tank

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a Prevents over filling the opposite tank

6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Two 28V DC, 60 Amp Alternators
ii. Belt drive, located on bottom left of each engine
iii. Controlled by separate on/off switches on instrument panel
• Alternator can never actually be turned off, just disconnected from system
a Alternator is directly connected to ECU buses, always want power to ECUs
iv. Alternator Control Unit
a. Balances load between the two alternators based on temperature
• Colder alternator gets more load
v. Excitation Batteries
a. Two 12 V, 1.3 amp-hr. lead acid batteries
b. Used to get alternators started
c. Also used to sustain the alternator if it cannot generate a magnetic field
B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. 24 V, 10 A-hr., lead acid battery
b. Located rear-right side of front baggage compartment
ii. Emergency Power Pack
a. 10 non-rechargeable dry lithium manganese batteries
b. 3 V, 1300 mA-hr.
c. Runs backup AI and flood light for at least 1.5 hrs.
• In the case of electrical failure and main battery failure
d. Controlled by emergency switch
iii. ECU Backup Batteries
a. In the case of total electrical failure, the ECU backup batteries will provide power to the ECUs to keep
the engines running
C. Power Distribution
i. Main Battery connects to Battery bus
a. Battery bus connects to LH/RH main bus
ii. LH Main Bus
a. Connects to L Alternator
b. LH ECU Bus
iii. RH Main Bus
a. Connects to R Alternator
b. RH ECU Bus
c. Avionic Bus
7. Avionics
A. G1000: G1000 info can be found in the user’s manual
B. PFD: Contains primary instruments
C. MFD: Navigation and Engine instruments
8. Pitot-Static System
A. Pitot-Static
i. Pitot pressure is measured on the leading edge of a calibrated probe below the left wing
ii. Static pressure is measured by the same probe
iii. Instruments
a. G1000 takes input from the pitot & static pressure probe and converts it digitally

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Cabin Heat is ducted from heat exchanger in the right engine nacelle
ii. Defrost is ducted from heat exchanger in the left engine nacelle
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. General
i. Weeping wing protection
a. Distributes a thin film of deicing fluid over wing, vertical stabilizer, horizontal stabilizer, propeller, and
canopy
ii. Components
a. Tank
• Holds 7.9 Gallons
• Low level sensor (45 min)
• Located in Nose
b. Pumps
• 2 main pumps
a Used for Wings, Stabilizers and Props
• 2 Windshield pumps
iii. Modes
a. Normal
• Operates with switch to Norm
• Both main pumps operated simultaneously
• Use prior to accumulation
• Pumps cycle: On for 30 sec, Off for 90 sec
• Max Duration: 2.5 hrs.
b. High
• Operates with switch to High
• One pump runs continuously
• Use when ice has accumulated
• Max Duration: 1 hr.
c. Max
• Operates by Max button
• Both pumps run continuously
• Used in severe icing conditions
• Runs both pumps for two minutes
• Max duration 30 min
iv. Windshield Push Button
a. Activates selected pump for 5 seconds (even if main system switch is off)
v. Alternate Switch
a. If LH Main Bus is lost (Ice system is on LH Main Bus)
• Flip Alternate switch to connect system to RH main bus
a Operation only works in high mode

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Piper Aztec F (PA-23-250)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the PA-23 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Standard: 68.6 gallons usable fuel/72 gallons total

2. Extended: 108.6 gallons usable fuel/112 gallons total
3. Stabilator / Anti-servo trim tab

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the PA-23 aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Aztec. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. General
i. Fuselage is composed of 4 basic units:
a. Nose – Sheet metal and fiberglass
b. Cabin – Sheet metal
c. Tail Cone – Sheet metal
d. Tubular steel structure extending from the nose to the tail cone – strengthen the center section of the
airplane, where heavier loads are imposed
ii. Extremities (nose cone, engine cowling, nose bowls, wing tips) are constructed of dent resistant reinforced
fiberglass
B. Empennage
i. Horizontal tail (stabilator)
a. What is a Stabilator?
• Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
• Because the entire stab (vs just the elevator) moves, a stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
• Because stabilators are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance
to increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
b. PA-23 stabilator is of the all movable slab type
c. Contains an anti-servo trim tab on the trailing edge
• This provides a more efficient control surface and prevents overcontrolling from the pilot
• It also acts as a longitudinal trim tab for nose up or down trim correction
d. Controlled by the crank on the trim control
• Trim position is shown on the indicators in the overhead panel

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ii. Rudder
a. The vertical tail is fitted with a rudder which incorporates a combination rudder trim and servo trim tab
• The trim tab moves opposite the direction of the rudder and lessons pedal forces necessary to move
the rudder
b. Controlled by a knob on the trim control
• Trim position is shown on the indicators in the overhead panel
2. Flaps
A. Adjustable from 0-50o of flap
i. Position is shown on the indicator located to the right of the flap control lever
B. Flaps may be set at any position between full extension/retraction
i. If the control is left in the up or down position, the flaps will automatically extend or retract to their full
travel
a. The lever will then automatically return to the neutral position
C. The right flap may be used as a step, but only when fully retracted
D. Flaps are moved with the hydraulic system
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Engines
a. Normally Aspirated
• 2 Lycoming IO-540-C4B5
a 6 cylinder
b Direct drive
c Horizontally opposed
d Fuel Injected
e 250 hp @ 2575 RPM
f Air cooled
b. Turbo Charged
• 2 Lycoming TIO-540-C1A
• 250 hp @ 2575 RPM
• TEO659 Turbocharger on each engine
a Increases power output and efficiency by supplying compressed air to the engine intake
manifold. Allows operation at peak power at much higher altitudes than with the normally
aspirated engine
ii. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, Mixture control levers for each engine
• Throttle – Adjusts the engine manifold pressure
a Contains switches for gear up warning horn and light
• Prop – Adjust propeller speed from high RPM (low pitch) to feather (high pitch)
• Mixture – Adjust the air to fuel ratio
b. Friction knob, to the right of the control levers, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers or to lock
them in a selected position
iii. Induction
a. Normal Operation
• Air enters through two dry type air filters
b. Alternate Air
• In the case ice or other obstructions block an air filter, the alternate air door will open automatically
• Manual controls are located on the control pedestal beneath the control lever quadrant

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aAllows the pilot to manually select alternate engine induction air in case the automatic system
fails, or prior to entering icing conditions which may block the primary air source
• Since alternate air is unfiltered, it should not be used during ground operations when dust or other
contaminants could enter the system
iv. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Wet sump, pressure-type oil system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 12-quart capacity
b. Oil Cooler
• Maintains proper oil temperature
• Aluminum oil cooler is mounted on a rear baffle of each engine
v. Cowl Flaps
a. Provide additional cooling during ground operations, high temperature conditions, climbs, high cylinder
head/oil temperatures, or the alternator is heavily loaded
b. Two cowl flaps for each engine (on the underside of the nacelle. One inboard, one outboard)
c. Manually operated by push-pull controls on the fuel control panel
• Can be locked in various intermediate settings between fully open and fully closed
B. Propeller
i. General
a. 2 Hartzell HC-E2YR-2 propellers
b. Constant speed
c. Controllable pitch
d. Full feathering
ii. Components
a. Propeller Control Lever
• Adjusts propeller speed from high RPM to low RPM/feather
• Forward = higher RPM
• Aft = lower RPM
• Fully aft, through the low RPM detent, into the feather position feathers the propeller
a Takes approximately 3-10 seconds
b Moving the propeller control forward and engaging the starter will unfeather a propeller
b. Governor
• One governor on each engine
• Uses engine oil to vary the pitch of the propeller based on control lever inputs
• Supplies engine oil through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM (i.e. to adjust propeller
pitch)
a Increased oil pressure and back-up springs decrease the pitch of the blades
b Decreased oil pressure allows compressed air in the cylinder dome to increase the pitch of the
blades
c An absence of oil pressure allows the compressed air to feather the propeller
c. Propeller Synchrophaser (optional)
• Maintains both propellers at the same RPM and at a selected phase angle
a Eliminates the propeller “beat’ effect and minimizes vibration
• Left engine is the master engine and the right engine automatically maintains RPM with the left
engine RPM

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

• Operation
a Two settings – Manual and Prop Sync
b Must be in manual for taxi, takeoff, and landing
c During cruise, manually synch the propellers to within 10 rpm and select Prop Sync
1. Normally takes a few seconds, can take up to a full minute
d When changing power settings, return to Manual for 30 seconds before changing power and
then repeat the process
e If the RPM difference exceeds 50, place the switch to manual for 30-40 seconds, then the
propellers can be re-synced and returned to Prop Sync
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Electrically powered, hydraulically actuated, fully retractable, tricycle landing gear
ii. Air-oil struts
B. Extension and Retraction Components
i. Gear Selector
a. Two position switch to select gear up or down
b. Located on the control pedestal
ii. Indicators
a. Four lights located on the control pedestal
b. When the 3 green lights are on, all 3 legs are down and locked
c. When the amber light is on, the gear is fully retracted
d. When no light is on, the gear is in transit
e. Each light incorporates a press-to-test feature, and may be dimmed or brightened individually by turning
the light right or left
C. Operation
i. Nose gear retracts aft into the nose section
ii. Main gear retracts forward into the engine nacelles
iii. Gear doors completely cover the gear when retracted
D. Indications
i. Down and Locked
a. Three green lights directly above the gear selector illuminate to indicate each of the three landing gears
is down and locked
b. Return of the control lever to the neutral position is a secondary indication that the gear has reached
the selected position
ii. Gear is not in the correct position
a. If the gear is neither full up or full down, a red Warn Gear Unsafe annunciator illuminates
b. If any number of green lights do not illuminate with the selector in the down position, any of the
following conditions could exist:
• Gear is not down and locked
• A bulb is burned out
a To check the bulbs, the square indicator lights can be pulled out and interchanged
• There is a malfunction in the indicating system
E. Safety Components
i. Backup Emergency Gear Extension
a. Independent of the hydraulic system/hydraulic fluid
b. Powered by a CO2 cylinder
• Pressurized CO2 gas flows into the gear actuating cylinders, extending the landing gear
c. Control is located beneath a small plate under the pilot’s seat

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• When the control is pulled, the gear selector must be in the down position
ii. Inadvertent Gear Retraction on the Ground
a. To guard against inadvertent retraction, a mechanical latch, located just above the gear control lever,
must be operated before the landing gear lever can be moved
b. There is also an anti-retraction valve, located in the left main gear, which prevents the retraction system
from building hydraulic pressure while on the ground (weight on wheels switch)
• When the gear strut is extended (as in flight), the anti-retraction valve closes, and the gear can be
retracted
iii. Gear Warning Light and Horn
a. Red light in the landing gear control knob flashed when the gear is up and either throttle lever is pulled
back
b. Warning horn will sound when either throttle is pulled back beyond approximately 12” of manifold
pressure
iv. Additional Gear Indicators
a. Visual confirmation can be made from the cockpit
b. The nose gear can be observed through a mirror on the inboard side of the left nacelle
F. Ground Operation/Taxiing
i. Nose Wheel Operation
a. The nose gear is steerable with rudder pedals and brakes through 30o on either side of center
b. As the nose gear retracts, the steering linkage disconnects so that rudder pedal action is not impeded by
nose gear operation
ii. Brakes
a. Self-adjusting, single-disc, double housing and double piston brake assemblies
• Actuated by toe brake pedals mounted on the pilot and copilot’s rudder pedals
b. A brake system hydraulic reservoir, independent of the landing gear and flap hydraulic reservoir
actuates the main wheel brakes
c. Parking Brake
• Engaged by applying pressure to the toe brakes, while pulling out on the parking brake handle on
the lower left side of the instrument panel
• Released when pressure is applied to the toe brakes while the parking brake handle is pushed in
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Four wing-mounted fuel tanks (2 in each wing)
• Each tank holds 36 gallons
• 34.3 gallons usable fuel per tank
• 68.6 gallons total usable fuel
b. Optional - twenty-gallon bladder fuel cells in the wing tips
• Connect via hose to the main tanks allowing both tanks to function as one
• All 20 gallons are usable
• 108.6 gallons total usable with optional fuel tanks
ii. Components
a. Fuel tanks
b. Fuel Pumps
• 2 engine driven fuel pumps provide the normal supply of fuel to the engines
a One pump on each engine
• 2 electric auxiliary fuel pumps serve as a back-up to the engine driven pumps, and are also used

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

during takeoff and landing

c. Crossfeed System
• Extends single engine cruise range
• The two sides are connected to allow fuel from one side to be sent to the engine on the opposite
side
a Fuel can be supplied from any tank to either engine
d. Gauges
• Location of gauges will vary based on aircraft setup (i.e. traditional, G1000, etc.)
• Fuel quantity gauges normally located on the engine gauge cluster mounted along the upper portion
of the right instrument panel
a One quantity gauge for each side
• Fuel flow gauge is normally located on the inboard side of the right instrument panel
a Dual gauge which simultaneously monitors both engines
e. Drains
a Fuel drains are provided each fuel tank, each fuel strainer, and for the crossfeed system
1. Fuel drains and strainer drains are located inside access doors under each nacelle
• During preflight, fuel must be drained to ensure that any accumulation of moisture or sediment is
removed from the fuel system
a Drains are the low points in the fuel system, causing water and sediment to accumulate there
f. Controls
• Located on the console between the crew seats
• 2 fuel selectors – one for each side
a Used to select the inboard or outboard tank or shut off fuel to that side
b Crossfeed lever is located between the fuel selector controls
• Normal Operation
a Each engine draws fuel from its respective tank (i.e. the left engine uses the left tank)
• Cross Feed Operation
a Inoperative Engine Settings:
1. Fuel selector in either the inboard or outboard position
2. Electric fuel pump On
b Operative Engine Settings:
1. Fuel selector in the shutoff position
2. Electric fuel pump Off
iii. Operation
a. Fuel tank Selector Valve Strainer Elec Pump (if on) Engine Pump Fuel Injector
iv. Fuel Schematic

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B. Oil
i. See Section 3, Powerplant, above
C. Hydraulic
i. General
a. Used for extension and retraction of the landing gear and flaps
b. Pressure for the hydraulic system is supplied by either one or two engine driven pumps depending on
the aircraft
ii. Components
a. Gear and Flap cockpit controls
b. Engine drive pump(s)
c. Hydraulic control unit – directs fluid based on system demand
• Hydraulic reservoir (part of the control unit)
d. Actuating cylinders – hydraulic pressure on the cylinder moves the gear or flaps
e. Hydraulic Filter
f. Numerous valves

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

g. Hand operated hydraulic pump – in case the engine driven pump(s) malfunction
iii. Operation
a. Movement of the gear or flaps occurs when hydraulic pressure is routed to the actuating cylinders
directly connected to the gear or flaps
b. When the gear or flap selector is in the off, or neutral, position, hydraulic fluid flows through selector
ports and circulates freely between the engine-driven pump(s) and the control unit
c. When either of the selectors is moved to extend or retract the gear or flaps, the selector then ports
hydraulic fluid to the proper actuating cylinder
d. Once the component reaches full extension or retraction, hydraulic pressure in the control unit forces
the selector back to the neutral position, allowing hydraulic fluid to resume free circulation
• When the gear or flaps have reached their selected position, the actuating cylinders and their
associated lines are isolated from the hydraulic fluid supply. This feature, along with a system of
check valves, insures the retention of sufficient fluid under pressure to operate the landing gear in
the event of a leak
iv. Emergency Systems
a. Emergency Hydraulic Hand Pump
• Used to obtain hydraulic pressure should the engine driven pump(s) malfunction
a Certain serial numbers all required the hand pump to be used if the left engine is inoperative
• Operation – the handle should be pulled aft to its full extension and the gear or flap selector
positioned as desired
a Approximately 50 strokes are required to raise or lower the landing gear
b At altitudes above 10,000’, the hand pump becomes increasingly inefficient

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6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Two 28-volt, 70 amp alternators. One on each engine
a. Each alternator is controlled independently by its own voltage regulator
b. The voltage regulators are interconnected electrically to provide parallel output from their associated
alternators within normal operating RPM ranges
B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. 24-volt battery
• Provides:
a Current for starting
b Power for the electrical equipment when the engines aren’t running
c Limited electrical power in case the alternators fail
1. If both alternators fail in flight, the battery is the inly source of electrical power. All
unnecessary electrical equipment should be turned off and the flight terminated as soon as

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possible
• Kept charged by the alternators
• Located in the nose section
C. Indications and Annunciations
i. Ammeter
a. The knob under the ammeter allows display of either the alternator output lead or the battery
b. If an alternator is not producing a voltage, its associated Inop warning light, below and to either side of
the ammeter will illuminate
• When the Master switch is turned on before engine start, these lights should illuminate
• If the engines are operating at a high differential RPM, the Inop light for the alternator on the slower
engine may come on
D. Protection
i. Circuit Breakers
a. In the event of equipment malfunction or a surge of current, a circuit breaker can trip automatically,
removing power from the component
b. Continued popping of a circuit breaker indicates a need for corrective action
E. External Power (optional)
i. Receptacle is located on the lower right side of the nose
ii. Used for engine start in the case the battery is depleted, or to power the aircraft on the ground (training,
maintenance, etc.)
a. Refer to the POH for detailed external power procedures
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel is shown below
i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc.) installed in your aircraft. Often avionics operation is
difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like which buttons to
push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in general, stick to
the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments

A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot and static pressure are picked up by the pitot head on the bottom of the left wing
a. Pitot and Static Pressure – Airspeed Indicator
b. Static Pressure – Altimeter, vertical speed indicator
ii. An optional pitot-static system can be installed on the right side of the airplane when the copilot
instruments are installed
iii. Pitot Heat
a. Used to help alleviate problems with icing or heavy rain
b. Pitot heat switch is located on the electrical switch panel to the right of the engine controls
iv. Alternate Static Source (optional)
a. In the case the static source is blocked or unreliable, an alternate source is available
• Located on the control pedestal, below the hydraulic hand pump
• When in the alternate position, the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator will
use cabin air for static pressure

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a When in use, instrument readings may vary from normal instrument readings using exterior
static information
B. Vacuum System
i. Operates the air-driven attitude gyro instrument
a. Directional gyro
b. Gyro horizon
ii. Components
a. Two engine driven pneumatic pumps
• Either pneumatic pump can operate the entire system if the other fails
b. Air filters - to protect the gyros
c. Manifold check valve
d. Plumbing
e. Gauges and Indications
• Suction Gauge
a Indicates the amount of vacuum produced by the engine driven pumps
b Normal pressure is 4.8 to 5.1 inches of mercury
1. Higher pressures will damage the gyros
2. Lower pressures will make the gyros unreliable
c Left instrument panel, just inboard of the control column
• Red Failure Button
a Should either side of the system fail, a red button will protrude from the corresponding side of
the vacuum gauge
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. General
a. Two separate airflow systems, with a combustion heater
• 35,000 BTU Janitrol combustion heater
a Gas powered to heat the cabin
• System 1: inducts air through a scoop at the bottom of the nose section
a Used for heating, ventilating and defrost
b Controlled by 5 cabin air controls at the bottom of the control pedestal
• System 2: Inducts fresh air through inlets in the fairing, forward of the vertical tail
a Used for ventilation only
b Controlled by 2 ventilation knobs on the forward cockpit ceiling and individual outlets at each
seat
b. Cabin air is exhausted through the floor in the aft baggage compartment
ii. Combustion Heater
a. General
• Heated air for the cabin and windshield defrosting is provided by a 35,000 BTU Janitrol combustion
heater in the nose section
• The heater uses gas from the left side of the fuel system when crossfeed is off, and both sides of the
fuel system when crossfeed is on
a Fuel consumption does not significantly affect the airplane’s range
b. Operation
• Controlled by a three-position switch located on the instrument panel
a Positions: Heat, Fan, Off
1. When off, all air entering the cabin will be cool outside air

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2. Fan position activates the fan in the combustion heater without igniting the heater
a. Allows cool air to be circulated while the airplane is at rest on the ground
3. Heat position ignites the heater as required to maintain the selected temperature
c. Safety
• The heater features an overheat lockout switch which automatically turns off the heater is a
malfunction causes excessively high heater temperature
a Reset button on the heater shroud
iii. Airflow System 1
a. Pilot Operation - Airflow and temperature are controlled by five push-pull knobs
• Far left knob regulates airflow through the bulkhead to the front seat
• Second knob from the left: regulates airflow through the floor vents to the rear seats
• Center knob: regulates the combustion heater thermostat
a Out increase heat, In reduces heat
• Second knob from the right: controls airflow to the windshield through the defroster vents. Airflow
to the windshield increases as the knob is pulled out (windshield defrost)
• Far right knob: Supplies cold outside air directly from the nose scoop to the front seat, bypassing the
heater
iv. System 2
a. Pilot Operation
• The two master control knobs for the overhead ventilating system and located just above the
windshield
a Turning a knob counterclockwise regulates airflow to the respective side of the system
b Ventilation may then be controlled individually with the outlets at each seat
• Cabin temperature and air circulation may be maintained within a comfortable range by using
ventilation and heat controls in various combinations
B. Schematic

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Surface Deicing System (optional)
i. Pneumatic surface deicers (deicer boots)
ii. Installed on the leading edge of the wings, stabilator, and vertical tail
iii. Air pressure is supplied by the engine driven pneumatic pumps
iv. Operation
a. Normal Operation: Suction is applied to the boots providing a streamlined leading edge
b. Deice Operation:
• The deicers are controlled by a “momentary on” switch labeled “Surface Deice”
a When activated, the boots complete one inflation cycle
1. Pneumatic pressure inflates the boots for 7.5 seconds
2. Air is then exhausted overboard, and suction is again applied to the boots
b The switch must be re-actuated for each additional cycle
• The deicers are most effective with ¼ to ½ inch of ice accumulation
v. Indicator

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a. A blue indicator light (right side panel) illuminates when pressure in the boots is more than 10 psi
• During the inflation cycle, the light should illuminate
• When the cycle is complete, it should extinguish
B. Propeller Deicing (optional)
i. Electrically heated deicer pads are bonded to the leading edges of the propeller blades
a. 2 separate heating elements – one for the inboard half and one for the outboard half
ii. Operation
a. On/Off switch on the electric switch panel labeled Prop Deice
b. The heat of the deice pads reduces the adhesion of the ice, and the centrifugal force of the propeller
cause the ice to be thrown from the blades in very small pieces
c. The system timer controls the heating of the deice pads as follows:
• Right engine, outboard halves: 30 seconds
• Right engine, inboard halves: 30 seconds
• Left engine, outboard halves: 30 seconds
• Left engine, inboard halves: 30 seconds
iii. Indications
a. Propeller Deicer Ammeter (right side panel)
• When the propeller deice system is on, the ammeter should indicate in the green arc
iv. Schematic

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C. Heated Windshield Panel (optional)

i. Electrically heated glass panel may be installed on the exterior of the pilot’s windshield to allow visibility in
icing conditions
ii. Operation
a. Switch labeled “Windshield Heat”
b. Unless in flight or there is ice accumulated on the windshield, the unit should not be turned on for more
than 30 seconds
D. Accessory Deice and Anti-Ice
i. Additional ice protection, as previously discussed:
a. Pitot Heat
b. Windshield Defrost

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Piper Seminole (PA-44-180)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the PA-44 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Counter Rotating Engines/Propellers

2. 108 gallons usable fuel, 110 gallons total
3. Stabilator / Anti-servo trim tab

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the PA-44 aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Seminole. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. General
i. All metal aircraft
ii. The control surfaces are actuated through a cable system
B. Empennage
i. Horizontal tail (stabilator)
a. What is a Stabilator?
• Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
• Because the entire stab (vs just the elevator) moves, a stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
• Because stabilators are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance
to increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
b. PA-44 stabilator is of the all movable slab type
c. Contains an anti-servo trim tab on the trailing edge
• This prevents overcontrolling from the pilot
• It also acts as a longitudinal trim tab which can be actuated by the control on the console between
the front seats
ii. Rudder
a. The vertical tail is fitted with a rudder which incorporates a combination rudder trim and anti-servo trim
tab
b. The rudder trim is controlled from the console between the seats
2. Flaps
A. General
i. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the retracted position

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ii. 4 position handle – Up, 10o, 25o, 40o

iii. An over-center lock holds the right flap when it is in the up position so that it may be used as a step
a. The right flap will only support weight in the up position. When loading/unloading make sure the flaps
are up
B. Operation
i. To extend the flaps, pull the handle to the desired position
ii. To retract the flaps, depress the button on the end of the handle and lower the control
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Engines
a. 2 counter-rotating Lycoming engines (Left = 0-360-A1H6, Right = L0-360-A1H6)
• 4 cylinder
• Direct drive
• Horizontally opposed
• Carbureted
• 180 hp @ 2700 RPM
• Air cooled
• Counter rotating (L engine = clockwise, R engine = counterclockwise)
a Eliminates asymmetric thrust during takeoff and climb and eliminates the critical engine
ii. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, Mixture
• Throttle – Adjusts the engine manifold pressure
• Prop – Adjust propeller speed from high RPM (low pitch) to feather (high pitch)
• Mixture – Adjust the air to fuel ratio
b. Friction knob, to the right of the control levers, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers or to lock
them in a selected position
iii. Air Induction/Carb Heat
a. Induction air is selected via a manually operated two way valve
• Induction air through the air filter, or
• Heated air which bypasses the filter
a Heated air is used for:
1. Carb heat, in the case of carburetor icing
2. An alternate source of air in the event that the induction air source, or filter becomes
blocked
b This air is unfiltered and should not be used during ground ops
c Carb heat control is located on the control quadrant just below the engine control levers
iv. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Wet sump, pressure-type oil system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 8 quart capacity
v. Cowl Flaps
a. Regulate cooling air for the engines
b. Three positions – Full Open, Full Close, Intermediate
c. Operation
• A lock in each control lever locks the cowl flap in the selected position

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• Depress the lock and move the lever toward the desired setting
• Release the lock after initial movement and continue to the desired setting. The control will stop
and lock into place at the next setting
B. Propeller
i. General
a. 2 counter-rotating Hartzell propellers
b. Two blade
c. Constant speed
d. Controllable pitch
e. Feathering
ii. Components
a. Propeller Control Lever
• Adjusts propeller speed from high RPM to low RPM/feather
• Forward = higher RPM
• Aft = lower RPM
• Fully aft, through the low RPM detent, into the feather position feathers the propeller
b. Governor
• One governor on each engine
• Uses engine oil to vary the pitch of the propeller based on control lever inputs
• Supplies engine oil through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM (i.e. to adjust propeller
pitch)
c. Accumulators
• Store engine oil under pressure to move the propeller out of feather
iii. Controlling Propeller Pitch
a. Pitch is controlled by oil and nitrogen pressure
• As the control lever is moved forward, oil pressure sends the propeller toward high RPM
(unfeathered)
• As the control lever is moved aft, nitrogen pressure and a large spring send the propeller toward low
RPM (feathered) and also prevent overspeeding
iv. Feathering and Unfeathering
a. How it Works
• As mentioned, feathering is accomplished by moving the propeller control fully aft, through the low
RPM detent, and into the Feather position
a Oil pressure is reduced while nitrogen pressure and the large spring move the prop to the
feather position
• Unfeathering is accomplished by moving the propeller control lever forward
a This releases oil pressure from the accumulator and sends it to the governor moving the
propeller out of the feather position, and toward a higher rpm position
v. Feathering Lock
a. A centrifugal lock which prevents feathering below 950 RPM
• If the pilot wishes to feather a propeller to save an engine, it must be done before the engine speed
drops below 950 RPM
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Electrically powered, hydraulically actuated, fully retractable, tricycle landing gear
ii. Oleo struts (air-oil assemblies)
B. Extension and Retraction Components

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i. Gear Selector – Two position switch to select gear up or down

a. Must be pulled out before moved to the up or down position
ii. Electrically powered, reversible hydraulic pump
iii. Hydraulic Reservoir – where the hydraulic fluid is stored
C. Operation
i. General
a. Moving the gear switch to the up or down position actuates the hydraulic pump
• When the pressure is exerted in one direction the gear is retracted, when the pressure is exerted in
the other direction, it is extended
b. When the gear is fully retracted or extended, electrical limit switches stop the flow of current to the
hydraulic pump motor
ii. Retraction
a. When the gear is retracted, the main wheels retract inboard into the wings and the nose wheel retracts
aft into the nose
b. Retract the gear prior to 109 KIAS
iii. Extension
a. Springs assist the hydraulic pressure in gear extension and in locking the gear in the down position
b. Once the gear is down, downlock hooks engage. Springs maintain force on each hook to keep them
locked until hydraulic pressure is used to release them to retract the gear
c. The gear may be lowered at any speed up to 140 KIAS
D. Indications
i. Down and Locked
a. Three green lights directly above the gear selector illuminate to indicate each of the three landing gears
is down and locked
ii. Gear is not in the correct position
a. If the gear is neither full up or full down, a red Warn Gear Unsafe annunciator illuminates
b. If any number of green lights do no illuminate with the selector in the down position, any of the
following conditions could exist:
• Gear is not down and locked
• A bulb is burned out
a To check the bulbs, the square indicator lights can be pulled out and interchanged
• There is a malfunction in the indicating system
iii. Brightness
a. The lights are automatically dimmed when the navigation lights are turned on
• If the nav lights are on in the daytime, it is difficult to see the gear lights
b. On aircraft equipped with a day/night dimmer switch, the switch must be in the day position for full
intensity of the gear indicator lights during day flying
• At night, the switch should be in night
E. Safety Components
i. Warning Horn – 90 beeps per minute sound
a. A warning horn will sound if the gear is retracted, and:
• The manifold pressure has fallen below 14” on either one or both engines
• The gear selector is in the up position when the aircraft is on the ground
• The gear selector is in the up position and wing flaps are extended to the second or third notch
position
b. Warning Horn Mute Switch
• Located directly above the pilot’s attitude indicator

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• Silences the gear warning horn only if it was triggered by the power lever position
• When activated, the mute switch will illuminate. The function may be cancelled by extending the
gear or advancing the power levers
ii. Safety Switch
a. A squat switch (weight on wheels switch) prevents inadvertent gear retraction when the aircraft is on
the ground
• The squat switch prevents the hydraulic pump from actuating
b. On takeoff, when the landing gear oleo strut drops, the safety switch closes to complete the circuit,
allowing the gear to be retracted
iii. Emergency Extension
a. The gear is held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure. Should the hydraulic system fail, gravity
will allow the gear to extend
b. To extend and lock the gear after hydraulic failure, it is only necessary to relieve hydraulic pressure
c. Use the emergency gear extension knob to relieve hydraulic pressure
• Located below and to the left of the gear selector switch
• Before pulling the emergency extension knob, put the landing gear selector switch in the down
position to prevent the pump from trying to raise the gear. Follow the checklist!
F. Ground Operation/Taxiing
i. Nose Wheel Operation
a. The nose gear is steerable with rudder pedals and brakes through 30o on either side of center
b. A gear centering spring prevents shimmy tendencies
c. A bungee assembly reduces ground steering effort and dampens shocks and bumps during taxi
d. When the nose gear is retracted, the nose wheel centers as it enters the wheel well and the steering
linkage disengages to reduce pedal loads in flight
ii. Brakes
a. Two single-disc double puck brake assemblies, one on each main gear
• Actuated by toe brake pedals mounted on the pilot and copilot’s rudder pedals
b. A brake system hydraulic reservoir, independent of the landing gear hydraulic reservoir actuates the
main wheel brakes
c. Parking Brake
• Engaged by depressing the toe brake pedals and pulling out the parking brake knob on the lower
instrument panel below the left control column
• Released by depressing the toe brake pedals and pushing the parking brake knob
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Two tanks. 55 gallons each. 1 gallon unusable in each. 108 usable gallons, 110 total gallons.
ii. Components
a. Two tanks
b. Fuel Pumps
• 2 engine driven fuel pumps provide the normal supply of fuel to the engines
• 2 electric auxiliary fuel pumps serves as a back-up to the engine driven pumps
a Located in the wing
b Are also used:
1. During takeoff and landing
2. By the electric primer system
c. Electric Primer System

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• Used to provide fuel to the engine during start

• Aux fuel pumps must be on to provide fuel pressure for the electric fuel primers
a Primes the intake of the number 1, 2, and 4 cylinders
d. Gauges
• Location of gauges will vary based on aircraft setup (i.e. traditional, G1000, etc.)
• Separate quantity gauge for each tank
a A calibrated fuel dipstick is provided to visually check the quantity of fuel in the tank
1. Insert the dipstick to the bottom of the tank, close the protruding end with a finger,
withdraw the dipstick and read the fuel level
a. Most accurate on level ground
• Pressure gauge
a The line to the pressure gauges connects just before the carburetor (see schematic below)
e. Drains
• A fuel drain is provided for each half of the fuel system,
a The drains are located on the right side of the fuselage, just forward of the entrance step
• Fuel must be drained to ensure that any accumulation of moisture or sediment is removed from the
fuel system
a Drains are the low points in the fuel system, causing water and sediment to accumulate there
f. Controls
• Located on the console between the front seats
• 2 control levers – one for each engine. On, Off, and X-Feed selections
• Normal Operation – On
a Each engine draws fuel from its respective tank (i.e. the left engine uses the left tank)
• Cross Feed Operation – X-Feed
a The engine in X-Feed will draw fuel from the opposite tank
b With an inoperative engine and the operating engine set to X-Feed, the inoperative selector
must be Off
c Do not operate with both engines in X-Feed
d Do not takeoff or land in X-Feed
• Abnormal/Emergency Operation - Off
a Shuts off the fuel to that engine
iii. Operation
a. Fuel tank Selector Valve Filter & Sump Elec Pump (if on) Engine Pump Carburetor
b. If priming the engine, fuel follows the same path to the electric fuel pump but then flows to the primer
solenoid valve and then to cylinders 1, 2, and 4
c. The heater’s fuel line normally runs off the left side of the fuel system (see schematic below)
iv. Fuel Schematic

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B. Oil
i. See Part 3, Powerplant, above
C. Hydraulic
i. See Part 4, Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Two belt driven, 14 volt, 70 amp alternators. One on each engine
a. The alternator provides full power output even at low engine RPM
ii. Voltage Regulators
a. Each alternator is protected by an ACU (alternator control unit) which incorporates a voltage regulator
and an overvoltage relay
b. Purpose:
• Maintain load sharing
• Regulate electrical system bus voltage to 14 volts
• Takes the alternator offline if output exceeds 17 volts
a Protects electrical and avionics equipment from damage
B. Power Storage

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i. Main Battery
a. 35 amp hour, 12 volt battery
• Provides:
a Current for starting
b Power for the electrical equipment when the engines aren’t running
c Limited electrical power in case the alternators fail
• Kept charged by the alternators
• Located in the nose section
C. Power Distribution
i. Battery Bus (hot)
a. Provides continuous power to the clock, engine hourmeter, flight time hourmeter, and the heater
hourmeter
• Power is supplied even when the Battery master is off (it’s a hot bus – always powered)
ii. Battery Master On – battery solenoid contactor closes sending power to the tie bus (and the starter
contactors)
a. Tie Bus
• Main Bus
a Current is fed from the tie bus to the main bus by two conductors
b Diodes prevent reverse flow to the tie bus
c Protected by two 60 amp circuit breakers
• Avionics Bus (2)
a Current from the tie bus is also fed toward the avionics buses. When the radio master is turned
On, power flows to both avionics buses
b Each avionics bus is protected by a 40 amp circuit breaker
c If necessary, either avionics bus can be isolated by pulling out the AV BUS TIE circuit breaker and
the appropriate tie bus avionics circuit breaker
• Non Essential Bus
a Also fed from the tie bus
b Protected by the NON ESS 40 amp circuit breaker
iii. Electric Schematic

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D. Indications and Annunciations

i. Two ammeters
a. Indicate the load of each alternator
ii. Two amber ALT annunciators
a. Annunciate when an alternator fails, or is selected off
iii. Red LO BUS annunciator
a. Illuminates when the system drops from bus voltage (14 V) to battery voltage (12.5 V)
E. Protection
i. Circuit Breakers
a. In the event of equipment malfunction or a surge of current, a circuit breaker can trip automatically,
removing power from the component
ii. Fuse
a. A fuse provides overload protection for the voltage monitor
F. External Power
i. Receptacle is located on the lower right side of the nose
a. Power is supplied directly to the electrical bus
ii. Used for engine start in the case the battery is depleted, or to power the aircraft on the ground (training,
maintenance, etc.)
a. Refer to the POH for detailed external power procedures
7. Avionics

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A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel consists of flight, navigation, and engine
instrument on the left, and an avionics section on the right
i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc. ) installed in your particular aircraft. Often times
avionics operation is difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like
which buttons to push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in
general, stick to the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot and static pressure are picked up by the pitot head on the bottom of the left wing
a. Pitot and Static Pressure – Airspeed Indicator
b. Static Pressure – Altimeter, vertical speed indicator, blind encoder, autopilot
ii. Pitot Heat
a. Used to help alleviate problems with icing or heavy rain
b. Pitot heat switch is located on the switch panel above the circuit breakers
c. Has its own circuit breaker labeled PITOT HEAT
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. In the case the static source is blocked or unreliable, an alternate source is available
• The control valve is located below the left side of the instrument panel
• When in the alternate position, the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, blind encoder, autopilot and
airspeed indicator will use cabin air for static pressure
a The storm window and cabin vents must be closed, and the cabin heater and defroster must be
on during alternate static source operation
b Altimeter error is less than 50’ unless placarded otherwise
B. Vacuum System
i. Operates the air-driven attitude gyro instrument (attitude indicator)
ii. Components
a. Two engine driven, dry vacuum pumps
b. Two vacuum regulator valves with filters
• Provided to protect the gyros
• Normal pressure is 48 to 5.2 inches of mercury
a Higher pressures will damage the gyros
b Lower pressures will make the gyros unreliable
c. Manifold check valve
d. Plumbing
e. Gauges and Indications
• Two red flow buttons provide information regarding operation of the vacuum system
a When both pumps are working properly, neither flow button is visible
b If vacuum is lost from either pump or from any other malfunction, the manifold check valve
automatically closes and vacuum is supplied by one pump
1. The left flow button protrudes if the left pump fails, and the right flow button protrudes if
the right pump fails
• VAC annunciator light
a Illuminates should the system vacuum fall below a specified pressure
b Consistently decreased pressure may indicate a dirty filter, dirty screens, a sticking vacuum
regulator, or leak in the system
c Zero pressure could indicate:
1. Sheared pump drives

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2. Defective pumps
3. Defective gauge
4. Collapsed line
iii. Vacuum System Schematic

9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heater
a. Heated air for the cabin and windshield defrosting is provided by a combustion heater located in the
forward fuselage
• Instant starting and no priming required – heat should be felt within a few seconds
• When the desired temperature is reached, ignition of the heater cycles to maintain the selected
temperature
b. Fuel comes from the aircraft fuel system
• An electric pump draws fuel at a rate of approximately ½ gallon an hour
• Consider heater fuel burn when flight planning
ii. Pilot Operation
a. Heater operation is controlled by a three position switch located on the instrument panel

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b. Airflow and temperature are controlled by three levers to the right of the switch
c. For cabin heat:
• Air Intake lever must be partially or fully open and the switch set to Cabin Heat
a This starts fuel flow and ignites the heater
b During ground operation, it also activates the ventilation blower
d. For Defrost:
• Same as above, but use the defrost lever to direct warm air to the windshield
e. Controls

iii. Protection
a. Safety Switches
• Two safety switches
a One prevents fan and heater operation when the air intake lever is closed
b The second turns off the ventilator blower once airborne so that cabin air is circulated by ram air
pressure only when in flight
1. Controlled by a micro switch which actuates when the gear is retracted
b. Overheat Switch and Annunciator
• Acts as a safety device to turn off the heater in the case of an overheat
• Heater Over Temp annunciator will illuminate if the heater is deactivated by this switch

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• To prevent activation of the overheat switch upon normal heater shutdown during ground
operation, turn the switch to Fan for two minutes with the air intake open before turning the switch
to Off
a During flight, leave the air intake lever open for 15 seconds min after turning the switch to Off
B. Ventilation
i. During ground operation, place the three-position switch in Fan and the ventilation fan will blow fresh air
a. A fresh air blower is installed in the overhead ventilation system to provide additional air for ground ops
• The blower is operated by a three-position switch located on the instrument panel (shown above)
ii. During flight, the air intake should be open and the heater off
a. Ram air enters the system and can be individually regulated at each floor outlet
b. Overhead outlets also supply fresh air for ventilation
C. Schematic

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. The Piper Seminole is only permitted for flight in non-icing conditions in Section 2, Limitations of the POH.
Deicing and anti-icing equipment is very limited. See the previous discussions in this lesson plans about the
following deicing/anti-icing equipment.
i. Carb Heat
ii. Pitot Heat
iii. Windshield Defrost

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

II.E. Piper Seneca II (PA-34-200T)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the PA-34-200T systems and
their operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Counter Rotating Engines/Propellers

2. 93 (or 123) gallons usable fuel, 98 (or 128) gallons total.
3. Stabilator / Anti-servo trim tab

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the PA-34-200T aircraft.
Standards

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Seminole. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. General
i. The basic airframe is made of aluminum alloy
a. Steel engine mounts and landing gear
b. Fiberglass nose cone and cowling nose bowls
c. ABS thermoplastic extremities (tips of wings, tail fin, rudder, and stabilator)
ii. Fuselage is a semi monocoque structure
a. A monocoque structure uses its outer shell to support stresses and loads applied to it, whereas a semi-
monocoque structure has an internal skeleton of supports and braces to keep its shape rigid and strong
iii. Dual flight controls actuate control surfaces through a cable system
B. Wings and Ailerons
i. Wings
a. Conventional design
b. Main spar ends bolt into the spar box carry through structure providing in effect a continuous main spar
• Main spar is located at approximately 40% of the chord aft of the leading edge
c. Auxiliary front and rear spars in addition to the main spar help with torque and drag loads
• Rear spar also serves as a mount for flaps and ailerons
ii. Ailerons
a. Frise type ailerons – allows the leading edge of the aileron to extend into the airstream to provide
increased drag and improved roll control
b. The differential deflection in ailerons tends to eliminate adverse yaw in turning maneuvers to reduce
the amount of coordination required in normal turns
C. Empennage
i. Made up of a vertical stabilizer and an all movable horizontal stabilator
a. What is a Stabilator?
• Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer

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• Because the entire stab (vs just the elevator) moves, a stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
• Because stabilators are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance
to increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
b. Horizontal Stabilizer
• Anti-servo trim tab to improve longitudinal stability and provide longitudinal trim
a The tab moves in the same direction as the stabilator, but with increased travel
c. Vertical Stabilizer
• Rudder effectiveness is increased with an anti-servo trim tab on the rudder
• Trim tab is located on the control console between the front seats
2. Flaps
A. General
i. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the retracted position
ii. 4 position handle – Up, 10o, 25o, 40o
iii. A lock holds the right flap when it is in the up position so that it may be used as a step
a. The right flap will only support weight in the up position. When loading/unloading make sure the flaps
are up
B. Operation
i. A button on the end of the lever must be depressed before the control can be moved
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Engines
a. 2 Teledyne Continental Engines
• Left: TSIO-360E or EB
• Right: LTSIO 360E or EB
a L – Left turning
b TS – Turbo super charged
c I – Fuel injected
d O – Horizontally opposed
e 360 – Displacement in cubic inches
f E or EB - Model
• 6 cylinder
• Direct drive
• Horizontally opposed
• Counter rotating
• Turbocharged
• Air cooled
• Fuel injected
• 200 hp @ 2575 RPM
ii. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, Mixture
• Throttle – Adjusts the engine manifold pressure
a Equipped with a gear warning horn switch which is activated at low power settings
• Prop – Adjust propeller speed from high RPM (low pitch) to feather (high pitch)
• Mixture – Adjust the air to fuel ratio

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b. Friction knob, to the right of the control levers, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers or to lock
them in a selected position
iii. Air Induction
a. Intake filter box incorporates a manually operated two way valve designed to allow induction air either
to pass into the compressor through the filter or to bypass the filter and supply heated air directly to the
turbocharger
b. There is a suck in door which opens in the event that the primary air source becomes blocked
c. Alternate Air
• Ensures air for the engine should the filter become blocked
• Since the air is heated, the alternate air system offers protection against induction system blockage
caused by snow, ice, or other frozen contaminants
• Alternate air is unfiltered and should not be used during ground operations or takeoff
• Controls
a Located on the control quadrant just below the engine control levers
b In the up position (off), the engine operates on filtered air
c IN the down position (on), the engine operates on unfiltered, heated air
d Should the primary source become blocked, the suck in door will automatically select unfiltered
heated air
iv. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Wet sump, pressure-type oil system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 8 quart capacity
v. Turbocharger
a. Ray-Jay Turbocharger
b. Operation
• Operated by exhaust gases
a Exhaust gases rotate a turbine wheel which drives an air compressor
b The induction air is compressed and sent to the engine air manifold
c The exhaust gases which drive the compressor are vented overboard
c. Supplies pressurized air in operation from sea level to the maximum operating altitude
d. Pressure relief valve protects the engine from exceeding 42” Hg
vi. Cowl Flaps
a. Regulate cooling air for the engines
b. Three positions – Full Open, Full Close, Intermediate
c. Operation
• A lock in each control lever locks the cowl flap in the selected position
• Depress the lock and move the lever toward the desired setting
• Release the lock after initial movement and continue to the desired setting. The control will stop
and lock into place at the next setting
B. Propeller
i. General
a. 2 counter-rotating Hartzell propellers
b. Two blade
c. Constant speed
d. Controllable pitch

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e. Feathering
f. Mount directly to the engine crankshafts
ii. Components
a. Propeller Control Lever
• Adjusts propeller speed from high RPM to low RPM/feather
• Forward = higher RPM
• Aft = lower RPM
• Fully aft, through the low RPM detent, into the Feather position feathers the propeller
a Feathering takes approximately 6 seconds
b. Governor
• One governor on each engine
• Supplies engine oil through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM (i.e. to adjust propeller
pitch)
a Uses engine oil to vary the pitch of the propeller based on control lever inputs
iii. Controlling Propeller Pitch
a. Pitch is controlled by oil and nitrogen pressure
• As the control lever is moved forward, oil pressure sends the propeller toward high RPM
(unfeathered)
• As the control lever is moved aft, nitrogen pressure sends the propeller toward low RPM (feathered)
and also prevents over speeding
iv. Feathering Lock
a. A centrifugal lock which prevents feathering below 800 RPM
• If the pilot wishes to feather a propeller to save an engine, it must be done before the engine speed
drops below 800 RPM
v. Optional Equipment
a. Three blade McCauley propellers
• Constant speed
• Controllable pitch
• Feathering
• Pitch is controlled by oil pressure and compression spring force
a Oil pressure sends the propeller toward the high RPM or unfeathered position
b Spring force sends the propeller toward the low RPM or feathered position and prevents
propeller overspeed
b. Propeller Synchrophaser
• Maintains both propellers at the same RPM and at a selected phase angle
a Eliminates the propeller “beat’ effect and minimizes vibration
• Left engine is the master engine and the right engine automatically maintains RPM with the left
engine RPM
• Two types:
a Fixed Phase Angle
1. Two settings – Manual and Auto Sync
2. Must be in manual for taxi, takeoff, landing, and single engine operations
3. During cruise, manually synch the propellers to within 30 rpm and select Auto Sync
a. Normally takes a few seconds, can take up to a full minute
4. When changing power settings, return to Manual for 30 seconds before changing power and
then repeat the process
b Adjustable Phase Angle

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1. Two settings – Off and Phase Adjustment

2. Must by Off for taxi, takeoff, landing, and single engine operations
3. Sync the propellers to within 40 RPM, then select Phase Adjustment
a. May take up to 30 seconds
b. The phase angle of the propellers may then be adjusted by rotating the switch within
the Phase Adjustment range to obtain the smoothest operation
c. Select Off for 30 seconds before changing power settings, then reestablish syncrophaser
operation using the same procedures

4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Electrically powered, hydraulically actuated, fully retractable, tricycle landing gear
ii. Oleo Struts (air-oil) landing gear struts
B. Extension and Retraction Components
i. Gear Selector – Two position switch to select gear up or down
a. Must be pulled out before moved to the up or down position
ii. Electrically powered, reversible hydraulic pump
iii. Hydraulic Reservoir – where the hydraulic fluid is stored
C. Operation
i. General
a. Moving the gear switch to the up or down position actuates the hydraulic pump
• When the pressure is exerted in one direction the gear is retracted, when the pressure is exerted in
the other direction, it is extended
• Extension normally takes 6-7 seconds
ii. Retraction
a. When the gear is retracted, the main wheels retract inboard into the wings and the nose wheel retracts
forward into the nose
b. Gear is held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure
c. Retract the gear prior to 107 KIAS
iii. Extension
a. Once the nose has started toward the down position, the airstream assists in moving it to the down and
locked position
b. Once the gear is down, downlock hooks engage. Springs maintain force on each hook to keep them
locked until hydraulic pressure is used to release them to retract the gear
c. The gear may be lowered at any speed up to 129 KIAS
iv. Gear Schematic:

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D. Indications
i. Down and Locked
a. Three green lights directly above the gear selector illuminate to indicate each of the three landing gears
is down and locked
b. A convex mirror on the left engine nacelle serves as a taxi aid and allows the pilot to visually confirm the
condition of the nose gear
ii. Gear is not in the correct position
a. If the gear is neither full up or full down, a red warning light illuminates
b. If one or two of the green lights do not illuminate with the selector in the down position, any of the
following conditions could exist:
• Gear is not down and locked
• A bulb is burned out
a To check the bulbs, the square indicator lights can be pulled out and interchanged
• There is a malfunction in the indicating system

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iii. Brightness
a. The lights are automatically dimmed when the navigation lights are turned on
• If the nav lights are on in the daytime, it is difficult to see the gear lights
• If the gear lights are not observed after the landing gear selector switch is placed in the down
position, the first thing to check is the nav lights switch
E. Safety Components
i. Warning Horn – 90 beeps per minute sound
a. If the throttle is placed in a low setting (as for landing approach) with the gear retracted, a warning horn
sounds to alert the pilot the gear is retracted
b. A micro-switch in the throttle quadrant activates the horn under the following conditions
• Gear is not down and locked and the manifold pressure has fallen below 14” on one or both engine
• The gear selector is in the Up position when the airplane is on the ground
ii. Safety Switch
a. A squat switch (weight on wheels switch) located on the left main gear prevents inadvertent gear
retraction when the aircraft is on the ground
• The squat switch prevents the hydraulic pump from actuating
b. On takeoff, when the landing gear oleo strut drops, the safety switch closes to complete the circuit,
allowing the gear to be retracted
iii. Emergency Extension
a. The gear is held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure. Should the hydraulic system fail, gravity
will allow the gear to extend
b. To extend and lock the gear after hydraulic failure, it is only necessary to relieve hydraulic pressure
c. Use the emergency gear extension knob to relieve hydraulic pressure
• Located directly beneath the gear selector switch
• Pulling the knob releases hydraulic pressure and allows the gear to free fall
• Emergency extension must not be attempted at speeds in excess of 84 KIAS
iv. Landing Gear Controls and Indications:

F. Ground Operation/Taxiing
i. Nose Wheel Operation
a. The nose gear is steerable with rudder pedals and brakes through 27o on either side of center

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b. A gear centering spring prevents shimmy tendencies

c. A bungee assembly reduces ground steering effort and dampens shocks and bumps during taxi
d. When the nose gear is retracted, the nose wheel centers as it enters the wheel well and the steering
linkage disengages to reduce pedal loads in flight
ii. Brakes
a. Two single-disc double puck brake assemblies, one on each main gear
• Actuated by:
a Toe brake pedals mounted on the pilot and copilot’s rudder pedals
b By a hand-operated brake lever located below and behind the left center of the instrument
panel
b. A brake system hydraulic reservoir, independent of the landing gear hydraulic reservoir actuates the
main wheel brakes
c. Parking Brake
• Engaged by pulling back on the hand brake lever and depressing the button on the left of the handle
• Released by pulling back on the handle without touching the button and allowing the handle to
swing forward
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Each wing contains two interconnected tanks which function as a single tank
• Tanks are filled through the outboard tank
• As fuel is consumed from the inner tank, it is replenished by fuel in the outer tank
b. 93 total gallons usable fuel. 123 gallons usable fuel with the extended tanks installed
• 2.5 gallons unusable in each wing
ii. Components
a. Two tanks
b. Fuel Pumps
• 2 engine driven fuel pumps provide the normal supply of fuel to the engines
a Engine driven pumps operate when the engine is running. No controls in the cockpit
• 2 electric auxiliary fuel pumps serves as a back-up to the engine driven pumps
a Supply fuel to the engines:
1. Engine drive fuel pump shaft failure or malfunction
a. In case of a failed engine driven pump, the aux pump can supply adequate fuel flow for
up to approximately 75% power
2. Ground and inflight engine starting
3. Vapor suppression
b Operation
1. Three position rocker switch – Lo, Hi, and Off positions
a. Low pressure may be used during normal operation both on the ground and inflight for
vapor suppression, if necessary. Evidenced by unstable engine operation or fluctuating
fuel flow indications
c Separate spring loaded Off primer button switches, located adjacent to the starter switches are
used to select Hi auxiliary fuel pump operation for priming, irrespective of other switch positions
1. These primer buttons may be used for both hot or cold engine starts
c. Controls
• Located on the console between the front seats
• 2 control levers – one for each engine. On, Off, and X-Feed selections

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• Normal Operation – On
a Each engine draws fuel from its respective tank (i.e. the left engine uses the left tank)
b The two tanks are interconnected by crossfeed lines
• Cross Feed Operation – X-Feed
a The engine in X-Feed will draw fuel from the opposite tank
b With an inoperative engine and the operating engine set to X-Feed, the inoperative selector
must be Off
c Do not operate with both engines in X-Feed
d Do not takeoff or land in X-Feed
• Abnormal/Emergency Operation - Off
a Shuts off the fuel to that engine
d. Drains
• Fuel drains are provided for each fuel filter (2), each fuel tank (4), and each crossfeed line (2)
a Filter drains are located on the outboard underside of each nacelle
b Tank drains are located on the underside of each wing
c Crossfeed drains are located at the lowest point in the fuel system, on the underside of the
fuselage, just inboard of the trailing edge of the right wing flap
• Before each flight, fuel must be drained from low points in the fuel system to ensure any moisture
or sediment is removed from the system
iii. Operation
a. Fuel tank Selector Valve Filter & Drain Elec Pump (if on) Engine Pump Fuel Metering Unit
Fuel Nozzles
b. Continuous Flow fuel injection system
• Utilizes a vapor return line leading back to the fuel tanks
a Provides a return for vapor laden fuel
iv. Fuel Schematic:

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B. Oil
i. See Part 3, Powerplant, above
C. Hydraulic
i. See Part 4, Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
a. Two 65 ampere alternators, one mounted on each engine
b. Approximately 2000 RPM is required to obtain full alternator output of 65 amperes
c. A single alternator is capable of supporting a continued flight in most conditions
• However, with deicing equipment and other high loads, care must be exercised to prevent the loads
from exceeding the 65 ampere rating
ii. Voltage Regulators
a. Two solid state voltage regulators maintain effective load sharing while regulating electrical system bus
voltage to 14-volts
• An overvoltage relay in each alternator circuit prevents damage to electrical and avionics equipment
by taking an alternator off line if voltage exceeds 14 volts

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a Alternator light on the annunciator panel will illuminate

B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. 35 amp hour, 12 volt battery
• Provides:
a Current for starting
b Power for the electrical equipment when the engines aren’t running
c Limited electrical power in case the alternators fail
• Kept charged by the alternators
• Located in the nose section
b. If both alternators fail, the battery is the only source of electrical power – all unnecessary electrical
equipment should be turned off
• The length of time the battery will last depends on the current drained by the equipment, the time it
took for the pilot to notice the dual failure and execute the procedures, and the condition of the
battery
C. Indications and Annunciations
i. Two ammeters
a. Indicate the output of each alternator
b. If indicating much higher than expected, it should be suspected of a malfunction and turned off
• In this event, the remaining alternator’s ammeter should show a normal indication after one minute
c. A zero ammeter reading indicates an alternator is not producing current and should be accompanied by
the ALT annunciator light
d. When all electrical equipment is turned off (other than the master), the ammeters will indicate current
being used to charge the battery and operate the instruments
• If the sum of the two readings is significant, this is an indication that the battery has a low charge
(consider having the battery/electrical system checked if the reason for this is unknown)
ii. ALT annunciator lights
a. Annunciates when an alternator fails, or is selected off
D. Protection
i. Circuit Breakers
a. Circuit breaker panel is located on the right side of the instrument panel
b. In the event of equipment malfunction or a surge of current, a circuit breaker can trip automatically,
removing power from the component
E. Cabin Courtesy Light System (optional)
i. Front and a rear entrance light operated individually
ii. The courtesy lights can be operated irrespective of the position of the master switch
a. Unless the engines are running, the courtesy lights should not be left on for extended time periods since
they can deplete the battery (like leaving the lights on in your car)
F. Piper External Power (optional)
i. Accessible through a receptacle located on the lower left side of the nose section
ii. An external battery can be connected to the socket, allowing the operator to crank the engine without
having to gain access to the aircraft’s battery
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel consists of flight, navigation, and engine
instrument on the left, and an avionics section on the right
i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc. ) installed in your particular aircraft. Often times
avionics operation is difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like

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which buttons to push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in
general, stick to the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot pressure is picked up by the pitot head on the bottom of the left wing
a. Used for the airspeed indicator
b. Pitot Heat (optional)
• Used to help alleviate problems with icing or heavy rain
ii. Static pressure is sensed by two static source pads, one on each side of the rear fuselage forward of the
stabilator
a. Two static sources connect to a single line leading to the instruments
• The two pickups balance the differences in static pressure caused by slips or skids
b. Used for the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
c. Static sources have been demonstrated to be non-icing; however, in the event icing does occur,
selecting the alternate static source will alleviate the problem
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. In the case the static source is blocked or unreliable, an alternate source is available
• The control valve is located below the instrument panel, to the right of the control quadrant
• When in the alternate position, the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator will
use cabin air for static pressure
a During alternate static source operation, these instruments may give slightly different readings,
depending on the conditions in the cabin
1. Airspeed, heating and ventilation, or the storm windows can influence cabin air pressure
b To determine the effects of the alternate static source, the pilot can switch from standard to
alternate sources at different airspeeds, heating, and ventilation configurations
iv. Pitot Static Schematic:

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B. Vacuum System
i. The directional gyros and attitude indicators are driven by the vacuum system
ii. Components
a. Pressure pump on each engine
b. Pressure Regulators
• Maintain constant pressure to prevent damage to the instruments
• Normal pressure is 4.5 to 5.2 inches of mercury
a Higher pressures will damage the gyros
b Lower pressures will make the gyros unreliable
c. Air filters on each side
d. Manifold check valve
• Check valves close to allow pressure instruments to function during single engine operation or in the
event of malfunction of one of the pressure pumps
e. Plumbing
f. Gauges and Indications
• Operation of the gyro pressure system can be monitored through a pressure gauge on the left of the

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copilot’s control wheel

• Two warning indicators on the gauge alert the pilot if one of the engines is not producing sufficient
pressure to operate the gyro instruments
• Additional warning of a possible malfunction in the gyro pressure system is provided by a light in the
annunciator panel
iii. Vacuum System Schematic

9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heater
a. Heated air for the cabin and windshield defrosting is provided by a Janitrol combustion heater located in
the aft fuselage, behind the cabin baggage compartment close-off
• Instant starting and no priming required – heat should be felt within a few seconds
• When the desired temperature is reached, ignition of the heater cycles to maintain the selected
temperature
b. Fuel comes from the aircraft fuel system
• An electric pump draws fuel from the left tank at a rate of approximately ½ gallon per hour
• Consider heater fuel burn when flight planning

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ii. Pilot Operation

a. Heater operation is controlled by a three position switch located on the control console
• Three settings: Fan, Off, Heater
b. Airflow and temperature are controlled by two levers on the console
• Right hand lever – regulates air intake
• Left hand lever – regulates cabin temperature
• Passengers have secondary control over heat output by adjustable outlets at each seat
c. For cabin heat:
• Air Intake lever must be partially or fully open and the switch set to Heater
a This starts fuel flow and ignites the heater
b During ground operation, it also activates the ventilation blower
d. For Defrost:
• When the heater controls are used for either cabin heat or ventilation, air is automatically ducted to
the windshield area for defrosting
• The flow of defrost air can by increased by activation of a defroster fan
a The fan is controlled by a defroster switch located on the control console between the two front
seats
e. Controls:

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iii. Protection
a. Safety Switches
• Two safety switches
a Prevent both fan and heater operation when the air intake lever is closed
b Turns off the ventilator blower once airborne so that cabin air is circulated by ram air pressure
only when in flight
1. Controlled by a micro switch which actuates when the gear is retracted
b. Overheat Switch and Annunciator
• Acts as a safety device to turn off the heater in the case of an overheat
• Overheat light will illuminate if the heater is deactivated by this switch
• To prevent activation of the overheat switch upon normal heater shutdown during ground
operation, turn the switch to Fan for two minutes with the air intake open before turning the switch
to Off
a During flight, leave the air intake lever open for a minimum of 15 seconds after turning the
switch to Off
B. Ventilation
i. An optional fresh air blower may be installed in the overhead ventilation system to provide additional fresh
air flow during ground operations
ii. During flight, the air intake should be open and the heater off
a. Ram air enters the system and can be individually regulated at each floor outlet
b. Overhead outlets also supply fresh air for ventilation

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C. Schematic:

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Optional Ice Protection System
i. Components
a. Pneumatic wing and empennage boots
• Installed on the leading edge of the wings, the vertical stabilizer, and the horizontal stabilizer
a During normal operation, when the deicer system is turned off, the engine driven pumps apply a
constant suction to the deicer boots to provide smooth, streamlined leading edges
• Operation
a Deicer boots are inflated by a momentary “ON”-type “Surface De-ice” switch located on the
instrument panel
1. Actuation of the surface deice switch activates a system cycle timer which energizes the
pneumatic pressure control valves for six seconds
2. The boot solenoid valves are activated and air pressure is released to the boots, inflating all
surface deicers on the airplane
a. A Wing-Tail Deicer indicator light illuminates when the surface deicer boots inflate

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3. When the cycle is complete, the deicer solenoid valves permit automatic overboard
exhaustion of pressurized air – suction is then reapplied to the boots
b Protected by Wing-Tail De-icers circuit breaker on the circuit breaker panel
b. Wing ice detection light
• Ice conditions can be detected during night flight by use of an ice detection light installed in the
outboard side of the left engine nacelle
• Controlled by the Ice Light switch on the instrument panel
• Protected by an Ice Light circuit breaker
c. Electrothermal propeller deice pads
• Each deicer pad has two separate heaters, one for the outboard half of the propeller and one for the
inboard half
a The heat and centrifugal force cause ice to be thrown from the propellers in very small pieces
• Powered by the airplane’s electrical system
• Protected by a Prop-Deice circuit breaker
• Operation
a Controlled by an on/off Prop Deice switch
b Deice is accomplished by heating the outboard half and then the inboard half of the deicer pads
in a timer controlled sequence
1. Power is applied to a timer through the Prop Deicer ammeter
a. Ammeter monitors the current through the propeller deicing system
b. When on, the ammeter should indicate within the shaded portion for a normal reading
2. Heating sequence is as follows:
a. Outboard halves on the right engine
b. Inboard halves on the right engine
c. Outboard halves on the left engine
d. Inboard halves on the left engine
3. The optional McCauley propellers are heated as follows:
a. Entire deice pad on the right engine for 90 seconds
b. Entire deice pad on the left engine for 90 seconds
c Preflight – Turn on the prop deice switch and feel the propeller deice pads for the proper
heating sequence
d. Electric windshield panel
• Heated by electrical current and controlled by an On-Off switch on the right hand side of the de-ice
panel
• Ops check – Turn on the heated windshield for no more than 30 seconds. The glass should be warm
to the touch
e. Pitot Heat and Heated lift detectors
• Heated Pitot switch (on switch panel to the left of the pilot) turns the system on
• Pitot Heat
a Alleviates ice accumulation from blocking the pitot intake
b Protected by Pitot Heat circuit breaker
• Lift Detectors
a Installed to prevent icing conditions from interfering with the operation of the stall warning
transmitters
b Protected by a Stall Warn Heat circuit breaker
c Stall warning system should not be depended on when there is ice on the wing

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•
Preflight – with the Heated Pitot switch on, check the pitot head and lift detector for proper heating
a Both can become very hot, be careful
B. Deice Schematic:

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Piper Seneca II (PA-34-200T)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the PA-34-200T systems and
their operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. Counter Rotating Engines/Propellers

2. 93 (or 123) gallons usable fuel, 98 (or 128) gallons total.
3. Stabilator / Anti-servo trim tab

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the PA-34-200T aircraft.
Standards
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Seminole. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. General
i. The basic airframe is made of aluminum alloy
a. Steel engine mounts and landing gear
b. Fiberglass nose cone and cowling nose bowls
c. ABS thermoplastic extremities (tips of wings, tail fin, rudder, and stabilator)
ii. Fuselage is a semi monocoque structure
a. A monocoque structure uses its outer shell to support stresses and loads applied to it, whereas a semi-
monocoque structure has an internal skeleton of supports and braces to keep its shape rigid and strong
iii. Dual flight controls actuate control surfaces through a cable system
B. Wings and Ailerons
i. Wings
a. Conventional design
b. Main spar ends bolt into the spar box carry through structure providing in effect a continuous main spar
• Main spar is located at approximately 40% of the chord aft of the leading edge
c. Auxiliary front and rear spars in addition to the main spar help with torque and drag loads
• Rear spar also serves as a mount for flaps and ailerons
ii. Ailerons
a. Frise type ailerons – allows the leading edge of the aileron to extend into the airstream to provide
increased drag and improved roll control
b. The differential deflection in ailerons tends to eliminate adverse yaw in turning maneuvers to reduce
the amount of coordination required in normal turns
C. Empennage
i. Made up of a vertical stabilizer and an all movable horizontal stabilator
a. What is a Stabilator?
• Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer

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• Because the entire stab (vs just the elevator) moves, a stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
• Because stabilators are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance
to increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
b. Horizontal Stabilizer
• Anti-servo trim tab to improve longitudinal stability and provide longitudinal trim
a The tab moves in the same direction as the stabilator, but with increased travel
c. Vertical Stabilizer
• Rudder effectiveness is increased with an anti-servo trim tab on the rudder
• Trim tab is located on the control console between the front seats
2. Flaps
A. General
i. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the retracted position
ii. 4 position handle – Up, 10o, 25o, 40o
iii. A lock holds the right flap when it is in the up position so that it may be used as a step
a. The right flap will only support weight in the up position. When loading/unloading make sure the flaps
are up
B. Operation
i. A button on the end of the lever must be depressed before the control can be moved
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Engines
a. 2 Teledyne Continental Engines
• Left: TSIO-360E or EB
• Right: LTSIO 360E or EB
a L – Left turning
b TS – Turbo super charged
c I – Fuel injected
d O – Horizontally opposed
e 360 – Displacement in cubic inches
f E or EB - Model
• 6 cylinder
• Direct drive
• Horizontally opposed
• Counter rotating
• Turbocharged
• Air cooled
• Fuel injected
• 200 hp @ 2575 RPM
ii. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, Mixture
• Throttle – Adjusts the engine manifold pressure
a Equipped with a gear warning horn switch which is activated at low power settings
• Prop – Adjust propeller speed from high RPM (low pitch) to feather (high pitch)
• Mixture – Adjust the air to fuel ratio

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b. Friction knob, to the right of the control levers, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers or to lock
them in a selected position
iii. Air Induction
a. Intake filter box incorporates a manually operated two-way valve designed to allow induction air either
to pass into the compressor through the filter or to bypass the filter and supply heated air directly to the
turbocharger
b. There is a suck in door which opens if the primary air source becomes blocked
c. Alternate Air
• Ensures air for the engine should the filter become blocked
• Since the air is heated, the alternate air system offers protection against induction system blockage
caused by snow, ice, or other frozen contaminants
• Alternate air is unfiltered and should not be used during ground operations or takeoff
• Controls
a Located on the control quadrant just below the engine control levers
b In the up position (off), the engine operates on filtered air
c IN the down position (on), the engine operates on unfiltered, heated air
d Should the primary source become blocked, the suck in door will automatically select unfiltered
heated air
iv. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Wet sump, pressure-type oil system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• 8-quart capacity
v. Turbocharger
a. Ray-Jay Turbocharger
b. Operation
• Operated by exhaust gases
a Exhaust gases rotate a turbine wheel which drives an air compressor
b The induction air is compressed and sent to the engine air manifold
c The exhaust gases which drive the compressor are vented overboard
c. Supplies pressurized air in operation from sea level to the maximum operating altitude
d. Pressure relief valve protects the engine from exceeding 42” Hg
vi. Cowl Flaps
a. Regulate cooling air for the engines
b. Three positions – Full Open, Full Close, Intermediate
c. Operation
• A lock in each control lever locks the cowl flap in the selected position
• Depress the lock and move the lever toward the desired setting
• Release the lock after initial movement and continue to the desired setting. The control will stop
and lock into place at the next setting
B. Propeller
i. General
a. 2 counter rotating Hartzell propellers
b. Two blade
c. Constant speed
d. Controllable pitch

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e. Feathering
f. Mount directly to the engine crankshafts
ii. Components
a. Propeller Control Lever
• Adjusts propeller speed from high RPM to low RPM/feather
• Forward = higher RPM
• Aft = lower RPM
• Fully aft, through the low RPM detent, into the Feather position feathers the propeller
a Feathering takes approximately 6 seconds
b. Governor
• One governor on each engine
• Supplies engine oil through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM (i.e. to adjust propeller
pitch)
a Uses engine oil to vary the pitch of the propeller based on control lever inputs
iii. Controlling Propeller Pitch
a. Pitch is controlled by oil and nitrogen pressure
• As the control lever is moved forward, oil pressure sends the propeller toward high RPM
(unfeathered)
• As the control lever is moved aft, nitrogen pressure sends the propeller toward low RPM (feathered)
and prevents over speeding
iv. Feathering Lock
a. A centrifugal lock which prevents feathering below 800 RPM
• If the pilot wishes to feather a propeller to save an engine, it must be done before the engine speed
drops below 800 RPM
v. Optional Equipment
a. Three blade McCauley propellers
• Constant speed
• Controllable pitch
• Feathering
• Pitch is controlled by oil pressure and compression spring force
a Oil pressure sends the propeller toward the high RPM or unfeathered position
b Spring force sends the propeller toward the low RPM or feathered position and prevents
propeller overspeed
b. Propeller Synchrophaser
• Maintains both propellers at the same RPM and at a selected phase angle
a Eliminates the propeller “beat’ effect and minimizes vibration
• Left engine is the master engine and the right engine automatically maintains RPM with the left
engine RPM
• Two types:
a Fixed Phase Angle
1. Two settings – Manual and Auto Sync
2. Must be in manual for taxi, takeoff, landing, and single engine operations
3. During cruise, manually synch the propellers to within 30 rpm and select Auto Sync
a. Normally takes a few seconds, can take up to a full minute
4. When changing power settings, return to Manual for 30 seconds before changing power and
then repeat the process
b Adjustable Phase Angle

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1. Two settings – Off and Phase Adjustment

2. Must by Off for taxi, takeoff, landing, and single engine operations
3. Sync the propellers to within 40 RPM, then select Phase Adjustment
a. May take up to 30 seconds
b. The phase angle of the propellers may then be adjusted by rotating the switch within
the Phase Adjustment range to obtain the smoothest operation
c. Select Off for 30 seconds before changing power settings, then reestablish syncrophaser
operation using the same procedures

4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Electrically powered, hydraulically actuated, fully retractable, tricycle landing gear
ii. Oleo Struts (air-oil) landing gear struts
B. Extension and Retraction Components
i. Gear Selector – Two position switch to select gear up or down
a. Must be pulled out before moved to the up or down position
ii. Electrically powered, reversible hydraulic pump
iii. Hydraulic Reservoir – where the hydraulic fluid is stored
C. Operation
i. General
a. Moving the gear switch to the up or down position actuates the hydraulic pump
• When the pressure is exerted in one direction the gear is retracted, when the pressure is exerted in
the other direction, it is extended
• Extension normally takes 6-7 seconds
ii. Retraction
a. When the gear is retracted, the main wheels retract inboard into the wings and the nose wheel retracts
forward into the nose
b. Gear is held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure
c. Retract the gear prior to 107 KIAS
iii. Extension
a. Once the nose has started toward the down position, the airstream assists in moving it to the down and
locked position
b. Once the gear is down, downlock hooks engage. Springs maintain force on each hook to keep them
locked until hydraulic pressure is used to release them to retract the gear
c. The gear may be lowered at any speed up to 129 KIAS
iv. Gear Schematic:

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D. Indications
i. Down and Locked
a. Three green lights directly above the gear selector illuminate to indicate each of the three landing gears
is down and locked
b. A convex mirror on the left engine nacelle serves as a taxi aid and allows the pilot to visually confirm the
condition of the nose gear
ii. Gear is not in the correct position
a. If the gear is neither full up or full down, a red warning light illuminates
b. If one or two of the green lights do not illuminate with the selector in the down position, any of the
following conditions could exist:
• Gear is not down and locked
• A bulb is burned out
a To check the bulbs, the square indicator lights can be pulled out and interchanged
• There is a malfunction in the indicating system

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iii. Brightness
a. The lights are automatically dimmed when the navigation lights are turned on
• If the nav lights are on in the daytime, it is difficult to see the gear lights
• If the gear lights are not observed after the landing gear selector switch is placed in the down
position, the first thing to check is the nav lights switch
E. Safety Components
i. Warning Horn – 90 beeps per minute sound
a. If the throttle is placed in a low setting (as for landing approach) with the gear retracted, a warning horn
sounds to alert the pilot the gear is retracted
b. A micro-switch in the throttle quadrant activates the horn under the following conditions
• Gear is not down and locked and the manifold pressure has fallen below 14” on one or both engine
• The gear selector is in the Up position when the airplane is on the ground
ii. Safety Switch
a. A squat switch (weight on wheels switch) located on the left main gear prevents inadvertent gear
retraction when the aircraft is on the ground
• The squat switch prevents the hydraulic pump from actuating
b. On takeoff, when the landing gear oleo strut drops, the safety switch closes to complete the circuit,
allowing the gear to be retracted
iii. Emergency Extension
a. The gear is held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure. Should the hydraulic system fail, gravity
will allow the gear to extend
b. To extend and lock the gear after hydraulic failure, it is only necessary to relieve hydraulic pressure
c. Use the emergency gear extension knob to relieve hydraulic pressure
• Located directly beneath the gear selector switch
• Pulling the knob releases hydraulic pressure and allows the gear to free fall
• Emergency extension must not be attempted at speeds in excess of 84 KIAS
iv. Landing Gear Controls and Indications:

F. Ground Operation/Taxiing
i. Nose Wheel Operation
a. The nose gear is steerable with rudder pedals and brakes through 27o on either side of center

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b. A gear centering spring prevents shimmy tendencies

c. A bungee assembly reduces ground steering effort and dampens shocks and bumps during taxi
d. When the nose gear is retracted, the nose wheel centers as it enters the wheel well and the steering
linkage disengages to reduce pedal loads in flight
ii. Brakes
a. Two single-disc double puck brake assemblies, one on each main gear
• Actuated by:
a Toe brake pedals mounted on the pilot and copilot’s rudder pedals
b By a hand-operated brake lever located below and behind the left center of the instrument
panel
b. A brake system hydraulic reservoir, independent of the landing gear hydraulic reservoir actuates the
main wheel brakes
c. Parking Brake
• Engaged by pulling back on the hand brake lever and depressing the button on the left of the handle
• Released by pulling back on the handle without touching the button and allowing the handle to
swing forward
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Each wing contains two interconnected tanks which function as a single tank
• Tanks are filled through the outboard tank
• As fuel is consumed from the inner tank, it is replenished by fuel in the outer tank
b. 93 total gallons of usable fuel. 123 gallons usable fuel with the extended tanks installed
• 2.5 gallons unusable in each wing
ii. Components
a. Two tanks
b. Fuel Pumps
• 2 engine driven fuel pumps provide the normal supply of fuel to the engines
a Engine driven pumps operate when the engine is running. No controls in the cockpit
• 2 electric auxiliary fuel pumps serve as a back-up to the engine driven pumps
a Supply fuel to the engines:
1. Engine drive fuel pump shaft failure or malfunction
a. In case of a failed engine driven pump, the aux pump can supply adequate fuel flow for
up to approximately 75% power
2. Ground and inflight engine starting
3. Vapor suppression
b Operation
1. Three position rocker switch – Lo, Hi, and Off positions
a. Low pressure may be used during normal operation both on the ground and inflight for
vapor suppression, if necessary. Evidenced by unstable engine operation or fluctuating
fuel flow indications
c Separate spring loaded Off primer button switches, located adjacent to the starter switches are
used to select Hi auxiliary fuel pump operation for priming, irrespective of other switch positions
1. These primer buttons may be used for both hot and cold engine starts
c. Controls
• Located on the console between the front seats
• 2 control levers – one for each engine. On, Off, and X-Feed selections

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• Normal Operation – On
a Each engine draws fuel from its respective tank (i.e. the left engine uses the left tank)
b The two tanks are interconnected by crossfeed lines
• Cross Feed Operation – X-Feed
a The engine in X-Feed will draw fuel from the opposite tank
b With an inoperative engine and the operating engine set to X-Feed, the inoperative selector
must be Off
c Do not operate with both engines in X-Feed
d Do not takeoff or land in X-Feed
• Abnormal/Emergency Operation - Off
a Shuts off the fuel to that engine
d. Drains
• Fuel drains are provided for each fuel filter (2), each fuel tank (4), and each crossfeed line (2)
a Filter drains are located on the outboard underside of each nacelle
b Tank drains are located on the underside of each wing
c Crossfeed drains are located at the lowest point in the fuel system, on the underside of the
fuselage, just inboard of the trailing edge of the right-wing flap
• Before each flight, fuel must be drained from low points in the fuel system to ensure any moisture
or sediment is removed from the system
iii. Operation
a. Fuel tank Selector Valve Filter & Drain Elec Pump (if on) Engine Pump Fuel Metering Unit
Fuel Nozzles
b. Continuous Flow fuel injection system
• Utilizes a vapor return line leading back to the fuel tanks
a Provides a return for vapor laden fuel
iv. Fuel Schematic:

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B. Oil
i. See Part 3, Powerplant, above
C. Hydraulic
i. See Part 4, Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
a. Two 65 ampere alternators, one mounted on each engine
b. Approximately 2000 RPM is required to obtain full alternator output of 65 amperes
c. A single alternator can support a continued flight in most conditions
• However, with deicing equipment and other high loads, care must be exercised to prevent the loads
from exceeding the 65-ampere rating
ii. Voltage Regulators
a. Two solid state voltage regulators maintain effective load sharing while regulating electrical system bus
voltage to 14-volts
• An overvoltage relay in each alternator circuit prevents damage to electrical and avionics equipment
by taking an alternator offline if voltage exceeds 14 volts
a Alternator light on the annunciator panel will illuminate
B. Power Storage

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[Link] Battery
a. 35-amp hour, 12-volt battery
• Provides:
a Current for starting
b Power for the electrical equipment when the engines aren’t running
c Limited electrical power in case the alternators fail
• Kept charged by the alternators
• Located in the nose section
b. If both alternators fail, the battery is the only source of electrical power – all unnecessary electrical
equipment should be turned off
• The length of time the battery will last depends on the current drained by the equipment, the time it
took for the pilot to notice the dual failure and execute the procedures, and the condition of the
battery
C. Indications and Annunciations
i. Two ammeters
a. Indicate the output of each alternator
b. If indicating much higher than expected, it should be suspected of a malfunction and turned off
• In this event, the remaining alternator’s ammeter should show a normal indication after one minute
c. A zero-ammeter reading indicates an alternator is not producing current and should be accompanied by
the ALT annunciator light
d. When all electrical equipment is turned off (other than the master), the ammeters will indicate current
being used to charge the battery and operate the instruments
• If the sum of the two readings is significant, this is an indication that the battery has a low charge
(consider having the battery/electrical system checked if the reason for this is unknown)
ii. ALT annunciator lights
a. Annunciates when an alternator fails, or is selected off
D. Protection
i. Circuit Breakers
a. Circuit breaker panel is located on the right side of the instrument panel
b. In the event of equipment malfunction or a surge of current, a circuit breaker can trip automatically,
removing power from the component
E. Cabin Courtesy Light System (optional)
i. Front and a rear entrance light operated individually
ii. The courtesy lights can be operated irrespective of the position of the master switch
a. Unless the engines are running, the courtesy lights should not be left on for extended time periods since
they can deplete the battery (like leaving the lights on in your car)
F. Piper External Power (optional)
i. Accessible through a receptacle located on the lower left side of the nose section
ii. An external battery can be connected to the socket, allowing the operator to crank the engine without
having to gain access to the aircraft’s battery
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel consists of flight, navigation, and engine
instrument on the left, and an avionics section on the right
i. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc.) installed in your aircraft. Often avionics operation is
difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like which buttons to
push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in general, stick to
the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment

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8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments

A. Pitot-Static System
i. Pitot pressure is picked up by the pitot head on the bottom of the left wing
a. Used for the airspeed indicator
b. Pitot Heat (optional)
• Used to help alleviate problems with icing or heavy rain
ii. Static pressure is sensed by two static source pads, one on each side of the rear fuselage forward of the
stabilator
a. Two static sources connect to a single line leading to the instruments
• The two pickups balance the differences in static pressure caused by slips or skids
b. Used for the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
c. Static sources have been demonstrated to be non-icing; however, in the event icing does occur,
selecting the alternate static source will alleviate the problem
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. In the case the static source is blocked or unreliable, an alternate source is available
• The control valve is located below the instrument panel, to the right of the control quadrant
• When in the alternate position, the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator will
use cabin air for static pressure
a During alternate static source operation, these instruments may give slightly different readings,
depending on the conditions in the cabin
1. Airspeed, heating and ventilation, or the storm windows can influence cabin air pressure
b To determine the effects of the alternate static source, the pilot can switch from standard to
alternate sources at different airspeeds, heating, and ventilation configurations
iv. Pitot Static Schematic:

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B. Vacuum System
i. The directional gyros and attitude indicators are driven by the vacuum system
ii. Components
a. Pressure pump on each engine
b. Pressure Regulators
• Maintain constant pressure to prevent damage to the instruments
• Normal pressure is 4.5 to 5.2 inches of mercury
a Higher pressures will damage the gyros
b Lower pressures will make the gyros unreliable
c. Air filters on each side
d. Manifold check valve
• Check valves close to allow pressure instruments to function during single engine operation or in the
event of malfunction of one of the pressure pumps
e. Plumbing
f. Gauges and Indications
• Operation of the gyro pressure system can be monitored through a pressure gauge on the left of the

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copilot’s control wheel

• Two warning indicators on the gauge alert the pilot if one of the engines is not producing sufficient
pressure to operate the gyro instruments
• Additional warning of a possible malfunction in the gyro pressure system is provided by a light in the
annunciator panel
iii. Vacuum System Schematic

9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heater
a. Heated air for the cabin and windshield defrosting is provided by a Janitrol combustion heater located in
the aft fuselage, behind the cabin baggage compartment close-off
• Instant starting and no priming required – heat should be felt within a few seconds
• When the desired temperature is reached, ignition of the heater cycles to maintain the selected
temperature
b. Fuel comes from the aircraft fuel system
• An electric pump draws fuel from the left tank at a rate of approximately ½ gallon per hour
• Consider heater fuel burn when flight planning

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ii. Pilot Operation

a. Heater operation is controlled by a three-position switch located on the control console
• Three settings: Fan, Off, Heater
b. Airflow and temperature are controlled by two levers on the console
• Right hand lever – regulates air intake
• Left hand lever – regulates cabin temperature
• Passengers have secondary control overheat output by adjustable outlets at each seat
c. For cabin heat:
• Air Intake lever must be partially or fully open and the switch set to Heater
a This starts fuel flow and ignites the heater
b During ground operation, it also activates the ventilation blower
d. For Defrost:
• When the heater controls are used for either cabin heat or ventilation, air is automatically ducted to
the windshield area for defrosting
• The flow of defrost air can by increased by activation of a defroster fan
a The fan is controlled by a defroster switch located on the control console between the two front
seats
e. Controls:

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iii. Protection
a. Safety Switches
• Two safety switches
a Prevent both fan and heater operation when the air intake lever is closed
b Turns off the ventilator blower once airborne so that cabin air is circulated by ram air pressure
only when in flight
1. Controlled by a micro switch which actuates when the gear is retracted
b. Overheat Switch and Annunciator
• Acts as a safety device to turn off the heater in the case of an overheat
• Overheat light will illuminate if the heater is deactivated by this switch
• To prevent activation of the overheat switch upon normal heater shutdown during ground
operation, turn the switch to Fan for two minutes with the air intake open before turning the switch
to Off
a During flight, leave the air intake lever open for a minimum of 15 seconds after turning the
switch to Off
B. Ventilation
i. An optional fresh air blower may be installed in the overhead ventilation system to provide additional fresh
air flow during ground operations
ii. During flight, the air intake should be open and the heater off
a. Ram air enters the system and can be individually regulated at each floor outlet
b. Overhead outlets also supply fresh air for ventilation
C. Schematic:

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Optional Ice Protection System
i. Components
a. Pneumatic wing and empennage boots
• Installed on the leading edge of the wings, the vertical stabilizer, and the horizontal stabilizer

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a During normal operation, when the deicer system is turned off, the engine driven pumps apply a
constant suction to the deicer boots to provide smooth, streamlined leading edges
• Operation
a Deicer boots are inflated by a momentary “ON”-type “Surface De-ice” switch located on the
instrument panel
1. Actuation of the surface deice switch activates a system cycle timer which energizes the
pneumatic pressure control valves for six seconds
2. The boot solenoid valves are activated, and air pressure is released to the boots, inflating all
surface deicers on the airplane
a. A Wing-Tail Deicer indicator light illuminates when the surface deicer boots inflate
3. When the cycle is complete, the deicer solenoid valves permit automatic overboard
exhaustion of pressurized air – suction is then reapplied to the boots
b Protected by Wing-Tail De-icers circuit breaker on the circuit breaker panel
b. Wing ice detection light
• Ice conditions can be detected during night flight by use of an ice detection light installed in the
outboard side of the left engine nacelle
• Controlled by the Ice Light switch on the instrument panel
• Protected by an Ice Light circuit breaker
c. Electrothermal propeller deice pads
• Each deicer pad has two separate heaters, one for the outboard half of the propeller and one for the
inboard half
a The heat and centrifugal force cause ice to be thrown from the propellers in very small pieces
• Powered by the airplane’s electrical system
• Protected by a Prop-Deice circuit breaker
• Operation
a Controlled by an on/off Prop Deice switch
b Deice is accomplished by heating the outboard half and then the inboard half of the deicer pads
in a timer-controlled sequence
1. Power is applied to a timer through the Prop Deicer ammeter
a. Ammeter monitors the current through the propeller deicing system
b. When on, the ammeter should indicate within the shaded portion for a normal reading
2. Heating sequence is as follows:
a. Outboard halves on the right engine
b. Inboard halves on the right engine
c. Outboard halves on the left engine
d. Inboard halves on the left engine
3. The optional McCauley propellers are heated as follows:
a. Entire deice pad on the right engine for 90 seconds
b. Entire deice pad on the left engine for 90 seconds
c Preflight – Turn on the prop deice switch and feel the propeller deice pads for the proper
heating sequence
d. Electric windshield panel
• Heated by electrical current and controlled by an On-Off switch on the right hand side of the de-ice
panel
• Ops check – Turn on the heated windshield for no more than 30 seconds. The glass should be warm
to the touch
e. Pitot Heat and Heated lift detectors

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•
Heated Pitot switch (on switch panel to the left of the pilot) turns the system on
•
Pitot Heat
a Alleviates ice accumulation from blocking the pitot intake
b Protected by Pitot Heat circuit breaker
• Lift Detectors
a Installed to prevent icing conditions from interfering with the operation of the stall warning
transmitters
b Protected by a Stall Warn Heat circuit breaker
c Stall warning system should not be depended on when there is ice on the wing
• Preflight – with the Heated Pitot switch on, check the pitot head and lift detector for proper heating
a Both can become very hot, be careful
B. Deice Schematic:

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Tecnam P2006T

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the Tecnam P2006T systems
and their operation as required in the PTS.

Key Elements 1. 51.35 gallons total usable fuel, 52.8 gallons total
2. Cruise: 10 gallons/hr., Climb: 12 gallons/hr.
3. Stabilator/Anti-servo trim tab

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the systems in the Tecnam P2006T aircraft.
Standards

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Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Tecnam P2006T. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole and the ability to make a more competent go/no
go decision.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. General
i. Fuselage is light alloy semi-monocoque structure wrapped by stressed skin panels
a. A monocoque structure uses its outer shell to support stresses and loads applied to it, whereas a semi-
monocoque structure has an internal skeleton of supports and braces to keep its shape rigid and strong
b. Radome and stern fairing are composite material
ii. Dual primary flight controls (ailerons, rudder, and stabilator) are manually operated by cables, bellcranks,
and rods
iii. Secondary flight controls consist of a two-axis trim system and a flaps system
iv. Although not part of the flight controls and trim, the doors are important to mention
a. Main Door
• Forward, on the left side of the fuselage
• Due to its proximity to the left propeller, its operation is limited to only when the engine is shut
down
a To prevent injury, an electro-mechanical device which sense oil pressure locks the door when
the left engine is running
b The device can be manually bypassed from the inside or outside, if necessary
b. Emergency Exit
• Located on the right side, behind the propeller
• Fitted with the same safety device as the left door, sensed off the right engine oil pressure
c. Ditching Exit
• Located in the ceiling of the aircraft. Allows another means of escape in case the pilot and/or
passenger doors are unable to open
a Be cautious of hot engine parts, fuel, hydraulic fluid, oil, etc.
• Can be opened via an emergency exit handle from the inside or outside of the airplane
B. Wings and Ailerons

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i. Wings
a. Traditional construction – a mono spar configuration
b. Each wing consists of a central light alloy torque box which carries all wing bending, shearing, and
torque loads
• The aluminum leading edge attaches to the front spar
• The aileron are hinged to the rear spar
c. Flaps and ailerons are also made of the light alloy
d. Wrap around aluminum stressed panels cover all structures
e. Steel alloy attachments connect the left and right wing together
ii. Ailerons
a. Frise type ailerons
• Allow aggressive roll rates with minimal adverse yaw
b. Aileron control is a mix of push rods and cables
• The cable controls are used within the cabin and are connected to a pair of push-pull rods in each
wing
c. The left aileron has a trim tab that can be adjusted on the ground
C. Empennage
i. Made up of a vertical stabilizer and an all movable horizontal stabilator
a. What is a Stabilator?
• Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
• Because the entire stab (vs just the elevator) moves, a stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
• Because stabilators are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance
to increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
ii. Horizontal Stabilizer
a. All moving type stabilator
• Structure consists of a twin spar covered by stressed aluminum skin
b. Controlled by push-pull rods connecting the control column to the stabilator
• Autopilot pitch servo (if installed) is connected to the push-pull rods through driving cables
c. A wide trim tab doubles as an anti-servo trim tab
• Improves longitudinal stability and provides longitudinal trim
• The tab moves in the same direction as the stabilator, but with increased travel
iii. Vertical Stabilizer
a. The vertical tail is entirely metallic
• Contains a twin spar with aluminum alloy stressed skin
b. The rudder is made of aluminum alloy and connected at two hinge points
• The rudder is operated through a cable system
• Rudder trim tab installed to increase directional stability of the airplane, especially during one
engine inoperative operation
a Trim tab is electrically operated via a switch located on the central console
2. Flaps
A. General
i. Electrically operated, wide slotted, aluminum flaps
ii. Single electric actuator controls both flaps by a switch on the instrument panel
iii. Three positions – 0o, takeoff (T/O), and landing (FULL – 40o)

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B. Warning
i. An aural warning is generated whenever the flaps are lowered to FULL and the landing gear is not down and
locked
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Engines
a. 2 Rotax 912 S3 engines
• 4 cylinder
• Horizontally Opposed
• 4 Stroke
• Dual Electronic Ignition
• Liquid Cooled Cylinder Heads
• Ram-air Cooled Cylinders
• Two Carburetors
• Integrated Reduction Gear Box (with shock absorber)
a 1:2.4286 reduction
• Labeled as a 100 hp, but technically:
a 98.6 hp @ 5800 RPM (5 min max)
b 92.5 hp @ 5500 RPM (continuous)
c The high RPM generates a lot of heat, necessitating the liquid cooling
ii. Controls
a. Throttle, Prop, and Carb Heat (No Mixture)
• Throttle – Adjusts the engine manifold pressure
• Prop – Adjust propeller speed from high RPM (low pitch) to feather (high pitch)
• Mixture – The mixture is self-regulating in the Tecnam, so the standard Throttle, Prop, Mixture
setup is replaced by Throttle, Prop, Carb Heat
• Carburetor Heating Levers – Turn on and off the carburetor heat
a Located to the right of the power and propeller controls
1. The carb heat was originally placed between the power and propeller controls, but the FAA
required they be moved to the right side, where the mixtures are generally located, for
certification
b Normal Operation = full forward (carb heat off)
c Fully backward = maximum hot air to the carburetors
b. Friction knob, on the center console, is provided to prevent creeping of the levers (throttle, prop, carb
heat) or to lock them in a selected position
iii. Engine Cooling
a. Liquid cooling of the cylinder heads, Ram air cooling of the cylinders
b. Liquid Cooling
• Closed circuit with an overflow bottle and expansion tank
• Components
a Water Pump
b Radiator
c Expansion Tank
d Pressure Relief and Return Valve
e Overflow Bottle
• A water pump (driven by the camshaft) moves the coolant from the radiator to the cylinder heads.
The expansion tank, on the top of the engine, allows for coolant expansion (contains the pressure

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relief and return valve)

a As temperatures rise and the coolant expands, the coolant will flow to the overflow bottle
b Once cooled, it returns to the cooling circuit, and back to the radiator
iv. Lubrication (Oil)
a. General
• Dry sump, forced lubrication system
a Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
• Components
a Oil pump with an internal pressure regulator
b Thermostatic Valve
1. Regulates the oil flow to the heat exchanger (oil radiator) on the basis of oil temperature
(this allows engine starting in cold conditions)
v. Engine Instrumentation - Left and Right Engine indications of the following:
a. RPM Indicators
b. Manifold Pressure Indicators
c. Oil Pressure Indicator
d. Oil Temperature Indicator
e. Cylinder Head Temperature Indicator
B. Propeller
i. General
a. 2 MT propellers
• MTV-21-A-C-F/CF178-05
b. Two blade
• Wood/composite construction
c. Constant speed
d. Variable pitch
e. Fully feathering
ii. Components
a. Propeller Control Lever
• Adjusts propeller speed from high RPM to low RPM/feather
• Forward = higher RPM
• Aft = lower RPM
b. Governor
• One MT hydraulic governor on each engine
a Model: P-875-12
• Supplies oil pressure through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM (i.e. to adjust propeller
pitch)
a Uses engine oil to vary the pitch of the propeller based on control lever inputs
b Oil pressure reduces the propeller pitch
1. An excessive decrease in oil pressure leads to higher propeller pitch, and consequently a
feathered propeller and stopped engine
4. Landing Gear
A. General
i. Electrically powered, hydraulically actuated, fully retractable, tricycle landing gear
ii. Trailing link suspension main landing gear
iii. Oleo-pneumatic shock absorption on both the main and nose wheels

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B. Operation
i. General
a. Two modes: Normal and Emergency
• Normal
a Provides gear extension by means of hydraulic jacks, and gravity
• Emergency
a Provides gear extension by a hydraulic accumulator which pressurizes the hydraulic jacks
mentioned above
b Emergency extension is controlled by a handle behind an access door on the pilots side which
activates two valves
1. One valve opens the emergency system, and the other valve releases nitrogen from the
accumulator
a. There is sufficient pressure to retract and lower the gear around two to three times (Per
Phil Solomon, CEO of Tecnam North America)
b. In order to prevent inadvertent retraction of the gear, the control knob must be pulled before it is
allowed to move up
ii. Components
a. Hydraulic Reservoir
• Located in the Hydraulic Power Pack, stores the hydraulic oil
b. Reversible Electric Pump
• Pumps the fluid to or from each hydraulic jack based on the position of the landing gear lever
c. Hydraulic Accumulator
• Stores nitrogen pressure for use in emergency gear extension
• Pressure indicator is located on the left side of the tail cone
a On the ground, a red button located beneath the pressure indicator allows the electric pump to
charge the accumulator if the nitrogen pressure is lower than the placarded limit
iii. Retraction and Extension
a. Hydraulic oil is pressurized by a reversible electric pump
• When the gear lever is placed in the Up or Down position, the pump directs the fluid through the
pressure line toward each hydraulic jack
b. The main gear rotates 90o inboard during retraction
iv. Gear Schematic:

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C. Indications
i. Down and Locked
a. 3 green lights – Leg Position Lights
b. Illuminate only when the respective gear is down and locked
ii. Gear is not in the correct position/in transition
a. 1 red light – Transition Light
b. Illuminates when the gear is in transit, up or down
c. Extinguishes only when all three landing gear legs are down and locked or up
iii. Pump is Operating
a. 1 amber light – Pump Light
b. Illuminates when the gear pump is on
iv. Push to Test
a. Checks the operation of the red and green gear lights
v. Emergency Extension
a. During emergency extension, the gear position lights work as they do in normal operation
• For this reason, the gear control knob must be set to down before starting the emergency extension
procedure
D. Safety Components
i. Warning Horn
• Alerts the pilot when the gear control knob is in the up position and the flaps are set to Land, and/or
at least one of the throttles is set to idle
E. Ground Operation/Taxiing
i. Nose Wheel Operation
a. When extended, the nose gear is steerable through push rods linked to the rudder pedals
ii. Brakes

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a. Independent hydraulically actuated brake system for each main wheel

b. Operated by toe pedals on the rudders
• A master cylinder is attached to each of the rudder pedals
• Hydraulic pressure applied by the master cylinders on each rudder pedal activates the brakes
c. Parking Brake
• Operated by a knob on the center pedestal
• When set, the parking brake maintains pressure on the main wheel brakes
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Two integrated tanks (one in each wing) located inside the wing torque boxes
b. Capacity
• Total Fuel
a Single tank capacity = 26.42 gallons or 100 liters
b Total Capacity = 52.8 gallons or 200 liters
• Usable Fuel
a Max usable fuel = 51.35 gallons or 194.4 liters
1. Approximately 25.7 usable gallons per tank
b Total Unusable fuel = 1.48 gallons or 5.6 liters
c. Can operate on 100LL as well as automotive unleaded fuel
ii. Components
a. Two tanks
b. Fuel Pumps
• 2 engine driven fuel pumps provide the normal supply of fuel to the engines
a Engine driven pumps operate when the engine is running. No controls in the cockpit
• 2 electric auxiliary fuel pumps serves as a back-up to the engine driven pumps
c. Controls
• Fuel Selectors
a Located on the overhead cabin panel
b In normal conditions, each engine gets fuel from its respective fuel tank
c The fuel selector can be used to crossfeed
1. The left fuel selector manages the left engine fuel feed, and allows the pilot to select fuel
from the left fuel tank or the right fuel tank
2. The right fuel selector does the same, but for the right engine
d Each selector can be set to off by pulling up and rotating the lever to the off position
• Electric Fuel Pumps
a Switches are located on the overhead cabin panel
b Used for engine start, taxi, takeoff, landing, and as a backup to the engine driven pumps (or,
whenever a checklist directs it)
d. Drains
• Gascolator
a Located beneath the engine nacelle, at the lowest point in the fuel system
b Fitted with a drain valve which allows the pilot to check for water and sediment, and drain the
fuel line
• Vent Valve
a Located on the lower wing
iii. Operation

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a. Fuel tank Selector Valve Filter & Drain Elec Pump (if on) Engine Pump Carburetor
• Unused fuel is returned to the tanks via the return line
• Fuel pressure is also measured and indicated on the fuel pressure indicator in the cockpit
iv. Indications
a. There is no rate of fuel burn displayed (Tecnam claims it is unnecessary)
• The airplane burns no more than 6 gallons per side in the climb and 5 gallons per side in the cruise,
for a total of 10 gallons per hour in cruise. Tecnam states it is extremely consistent
v. Fuel Schematic:

B. Oil
i. See Part 3, Powerplant, above
C. Hydraulic
i. See Part 4, Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. Two 14.2-14.8 Volt, 40 Amp engine driven generators, one mounted on each engine
ii. Integrated Regulators
a. Acts to maintain a constant voltage output
b. Protects circuits and electric components from excessive voltage caused by generator failure
iii. If one generator fails, the other can supply the electrical needs to maintain safe flight
B. Power Storage
i. Main Battery
a. Lead type, 12V, 35 Amp
ii. Backup Battery
a. Engine restart requires electrical power because the force of air on the propeller is insufficient to
overcome the high-compression design of the engine

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• This fact caused the FAA to require Tecnam to add a backup battery during the Part 23 certification
C. Power Distribution
i. Power is distributed via electrical buses
a. All electrical loads are divided among five buses on the basis of their importance and required power
• Equipment with duplicate functions are connected to separate buses
b. Buses:
• Battery Bus
a Supplies the most important loads and is energized from three sources (the battery and both
generators) allowing the bus to remain active in case of a loss of two of the sources
b For a list of equipment on the battery bus, see Section 7, Part 18. Electrical System, of the POH
• LH Generator Bus
• RH Generator Bus
• LH Avionic Bus
• RH Avionic Bus
ii. Operation
a. Normally, the distribution system operates as a single bus with power supplied by the battery and both
generators
• When both generators are operating correctly, and all switches are in the On position, all the busses
are connected to the generators
• If necessary, it is possible to separate the left busses from the right busses using the Cross Bus
switches (more below)

D. External Power
i. An external DC power source can be connected to the system to provide power for ground
operation/maintenance needs
E. Pilot Operation of the System
i. Master and Field Switches

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a. Lower instrument panel, on the pilot’s side

b. Master Switch: connects the battery bus to the battery through the battery relay
c. LH and RH Field Switches: Control the LH/RH generator
• Off takes the generator offline
ii. Avionics and Cross Bus Switches
a. Avionic Switches: Turn on/off the power supply to the respective avionics bus
b. Cross Bus Switches: Turning these off separates the associated generator bus from the battery bus and
the opposite side generator bus
F. Indications
i. Voltmeter/Ammeter
a. Right side of the instrument panel
b. Can indicate the current supplied by either the left or right generator
G. Protection
i. The system is protected by circuit breakers
ii. In any aircraft, only reset a circuit breaker per POH guidance
a. If the circuit breaker popped, it popped for a reason. Do not blindly reset a circuit breaker
7. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary by aircraft, but the standard instrument panel consists of flight, navigation, and trim
indications on the left, avionics in the middle, engine indications to the right of the avionics, followed by the
backup instruments, and additional indications further to the right
i. The Tecnam is also often outfitted with various glass cockpits (Garmin G950, or G1000 for example)

ii. Be familiar with the avionics (radios, navaids, GPS, etc.) installed in your aircraft. Often avionics operation is
difficult to teach as a lecture. Excessive information regarding detailed information, like which buttons to
push in what order, is difficult to follow. There are obviously exceptions to this rule, but in general stick to
the basics and have the student learn the details by operating the equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. There is a pitot tube located on the bottom of the left and right wing
a. Used for airspeed indications
b. Pitot Heat
• Used to help alleviate problems with icing in the pitot tube

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ii. Static pressure is sensed by two static ports, one on each side of the airplane
a. Static pressure is used for the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. In case of static port failure, the alternate static port in the cabin is used as a backup
• Ensure the cabin ventilation is off (hot and cold air), and open the alternate static port valve
B. Vacuum System
i. The POH does not address a vacuum system, but in general, vacuum systems work as follows:
ii. The directional gyros and attitude indicators are driven by the vacuum system
iii. Vacuum System Components
a. Pressure pump on each engine
b. Pressure Regulators
• Maintain constant pressure to prevent damage to the instruments
a High pressures will damage the gyros
b Low pressures will make the gyros unreliable
c. Air filters on each side
d. Manifold check valve
• Check valves close to allow pressure instruments to function during single engine operation or in the
event of malfunction of one of the pressure pumps
e. Plumbing
f. Gauges and Indications
• Pressure Gauge
• Warnings indicators alert the pilot if one of the engines is not producing sufficient pressure to
operate the gyro instruments
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heat
a. Utilizes hot air coming off the engine heat exchangers
• Cold ram air is (indirectly) heated by engine exhaust gases and then routed through the heating
system
b. Pilot Operation
• Controls
a Positioned on the lower side of the left-hand instrument panel
b When knobs are fully pulled, the cabin receives the maximum hot air
c The left knob controls the warm air from the left engine, and the right knob controls the warm
air from the right engine
• Heat Outlets
a Located on the cabin floor, near the pedestal
b Passenger heat is provided via an outlet port on the cabin head
ii. Defrost
a. Operated via a knob positioned on the pedestal
b. When the knob is pulled, the warm air is redirected to the windshield
B. Ventilation
i. Ram air enters the cabin through two ports located on the left and right side of the instrument panel, as well
as two outlets on the cabin head, for the passengers
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Carb Heat
i. Used to prevent induction air icing in the engine air intake

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B. Pitot Heat
i. Provides heating for the pitot tube(s) in the case of icing conditions to preserve flight instrument operation
C. Windshield Defrost
i. Can assist in keeping the windows warm and free of icing
a. Can help prevent obstruction of vision due to windscreen icing

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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