0.
INTRODUCTION
1. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
[Link] of Phonetics and Phonology
[Link] mechanisms of speech
1.2.1. Speech sounds
1.2.2. Speech organs
[Link] of speech sounds
2. CONSONANTS
[Link] of consonants
[Link] of consonants
3. COMPARISON WITH SPANISH
4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
0. INTRODUCTION
When we speak, we produce a succession of sounds arranged in groups, which we call words, and each word
has a definite meaning in the minds of the persons using that language. But to somebody who does not know
that language, the words convey no meaning.
Just as each language has its own set of words, different from those of other languages; each language has its
own set of sounds. The a list of all the different sounds used in that language is called its sound system. The
sound system of a language is peculiar to that language, and that no other language has the same system.
The English phonological system is a rather complex topic since it entails many different aspects, which
differ from the Spanish language. For this reason, this issue will be dealt with from two different scopes:
• The first part will examine the English phonological system: to begin with, a distinction between
phonetics and phonology will be established; then, a brief analysis of the speech organs and the
mechanisms of speech will be provided
• The second part will go through the analysis of the English vowels and diphthongs.
• Finally, a contrastive analysis with Spanish will be done in a parallel way.
This study will be carried out from the perspective of relevant and influential phoneticians, such as Daniel
Jones or O’Connor who have provided a general but exhaustive framework of the English phonological
system.
1. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
1.1. Definition of Phonology and Phonetics
To begin with, a brief distinction between phonetics and phonology should be set forth in order to determine
which area of spoken English corresponds to each branch.
• Phonology deals with the study of the phonemes in a language system. Phonology studies the phonic
differences with difference in meaning and the rules according to which these are combined to form
significants. Its minimal unit, the phoneme (an abstract representation in the speaker’s mind), is
represented between slashes /…/ The phoneme is physically realized by one or more allophones
(different realizations of the same sound), represented in turn between square brackets [ ].
• Phonetics deals with the study of how speech sounds are produced in a given language. They are, in
fact, the concrete sounds of a language. Phonetics do not take into account the relation they have
with linguistic meaning, thus, phonetic differences are phonologically irrelevant, if they have no
effect on meaning.
1.2. The mechanisms of speech
In this sense, when learning a foreign language, one should be conscious of the point and manner of
articulation of the speech sounds of that particular language, since they hardly ever coincide with one’s own
language. For example, Spanish has five distinct vowel sounds, whereas English has twelve. The learner of a
new language must, therefore, realize that he is dealing with quite new sounds, and he/she will have to put
their speech organs into positions which are not used in speaking their own language. In this sense, learning
a new set of sounds means forming a number of new habits.
1.2.1. Speech Sounds: How are speech sounds made?
• We use mainly our tongue and lips. However, much we change their shape and position, it is not
sufficient to produce any audible sound. What is needed is a stream of air is breathed out from the
lungs. This stream of air, when passing through the narrow spaces in the human throat and mouth,
makes a sound. This sound is not always the same; by modifying the shape of the passage
through which the air passes when we speak, we can make a number of different sounds. This
process whereby speech sounds are produced can be divided into three different physical stages:
• INITIATION: breathe in the air to produce the sound.
• PHONATION: the quality of the sound is made.
• ARTICULATION: the shaping of the sound is given.
1.2.2. Speech organs
As mentioned previously, speech organs are responsible, together with the stream of air breathe out from the
lungs, of the production of speech sounds. These can be classified according to whether they are movable or
fixed. The movable organs can act independently and their movements can be combined in different ways.
Consequently, it is possible to make a very large number of different speech sounds. Each organ of speech
contributes to the formation of speech sounds:
• Lungs are like two bags, which can be enlarged and compressed by the muscles of the chest. This
happens regularly when we breathe, as a result, the air is drawn in and forced out through the tube
known as the windpipe. It is this stream of air used when we speak.
• Larynx: the first point where it is possible to modify the air stream is at the top of the windpipe,
which ends in the larynx. Inside the larynx we can find the so-called vocal cords. These are brought
together and place edge to edge in the middle of the air passage, or drawn apart leaving a wide
opening between them. This opening is termed the glottis. The vocal cords can take up several
positions, and in this way affect speech sounds:
Breath voiceless: the vocal lips can be apart, leaving space for the breath to pass through
without any obstruction of any kind.
Voiced: the vocal lips can be brought together in such a way that the air, forcing its way
through them in rhythmical puffs, opens and closes them regularly and very rapidly.
Whisper: the position of the vocal cords take a position which gives rise to whisper.
Glottal stop: the vocal lips can be brought into complete contact so that the air is entirely
stopped for a moment. It sounds like a cough.
• Soft palate: it can take up two positions;
Raised: when the passage to the nose is open, to touch the back wall of the pharynx. When the
palate is raised, all the air from the windpipe escapes through the mouth, giving rise to oral sounds.
Lowered: when the passage to the nose is open, the air can escape either entirely through the
nose (if the mouth passage is closed), or through the nose and mouth. The lowering of the soft palate
gives rise to nasal or nasalized sounds.
• The tongue is capable of making many movements, and modifying the breath stream. It plays the
chief part in the formation of vowel sounds, when its different positions alter the shape of the
resonating chamber of the mouth and give rise to vowel sounds of various acoustic qualities.
• The lips can articulate sounds themselves, and their movement can be combined with that of other
organs of speech in the formation of both consonants and vowels. They can take up four positions:
Wide open /a/ of /h/.
Brought into contact so that the air is completely stopped for a moment and then released /p/.
Brought close together, so that the air pushes itself through, making friction.
Vibrate.
1.3. Classification of speech sounds
Speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants, the main difference is that vowels are those sounds
which have most carrying power.
• Vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a
continuous stream, there being no obstruction and no narrowing.
• Consonant is a voiced or voiceless sound in the pronunciation, in which there is either a complete or
a partial obstruction.
For the purpose of recording speech sounds, it is necessary to make use of a phonetic alphabet, based on the
principle of one letter per phoneme. Without such an alphabet, an accurate description and record of speech
usages would be clumsy and liable to misinterpretation.
Various phonetic alphabetic notations are in use. Yet, the most widely accepted alphabet is the International
Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA. As a matter of fact, over the course of this unit, this alphabet will be used for the
record of vowels.
2. CONSONANTS
2.1. Classification
Consonants are classified according to:
• Point of articulation
• Manner of articulation
These criteria, point and manner of articulation, help phoneticians study and classify consonants in an
accurate way.
POINT OF ARTICULATION
• Bilabial: when the lips are put together (m, p, b)
• Labio-dental: when the upper teeth rest on the lower lip (f, v)
• Dental: the tip of the tongue touches against the teeth (θ, ð)
• Alveolar: the tip of the tongue touches against the teeth ridge (d, t, l)
• Post-alveolar: the tip of the tongue touches against the back part of the teeth ridge (∫, З)
• Palato-alveolar: the blade of the tongue touches against the teeth ridge with a simultaneous rising of
the main body of the tongue towards the roof of the mouth (r)
• Palatal: the front of the tongue touches against the hard palate (j)
• Velar: the back of the tongue touches against the soft palate (k, g)
• Glottal: sound articulated with the glottis (h)
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
• Plosive: consists of: a stop, a hold, and some sound, which follows the release.
• Affricate: a plosive consonant with either quick or slow separation of the articulating organs, but on
the release of the stop, a fricative consonant is heard.
• Fricative: formed by narrowing the mouth passage at some point, so that the air makes a rubbing
sound.
• Nasal: are formed by closing the mouth passage and at the same time lowering the soft palate, so
that the air can escape through the nose.
• Lateral: the English /l/ is a lateral consonant because the air passage is stopped in the centre by the
tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, the air escaping along one or both sides of the tongue.
• Semi-vowel: phonetically vowels but phonologically consonants
• Approximant: the tip of the tongue approaching the alveolar area but it never touches it. The
tongue is slightly curled backwards with the tip raised.
It is possible to combine the movements of the vocal cords with the articulation of any consonant: i.e.
consonants can be voiced, or they can be voiceless. There are pairs of consonants, articulated by lips, tongue,
teeth, etc., in exactly the same way, and differing in the presence or absence of voice (p, b, f v, θ δ, s z, etc.).
Many consonants (such as m, n, ŋ, r, l) have only their voiced form as usual speech sounds of English. These
can be pronounced, however, without voice, and the student is advised to practise this as a good phonetic
exercise.
2.2. Description
1) PLOSIVES (P T K B D G)
Plosives are the easiest sounds to teach and learn in an English-Spanish second language course. Plosives are
consonant sounds, which involve, first, a stricture of the mouth that allows no air to escape from the vocal
tract and, second, the compression and release of the air. Therefore, there are three phases: closure, and hold,
release.
English has six plosive consonants, p, t, k, b, d, g.
• /p/ and /b/ are bilabial, the lips are pressed together.
• /t/ and /d/ are alveolar, the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge.
• /k/ and /g/ are velar; the back of the tongue is pressed against the area between the hard and the
soft palate.
• /p/, /t/ and /k/ are voiceless.
• /b/, /d/ and /g/ are voiced.
The most noticeable difference between the voiceless and the voiced plosives is this aspiration.
VOICELESS PLOSIVES
The English voiceless plosives are said to be aspirated, because on the release of the stop a slight h is heard
before the following vowel. The aspiration is marked in stressed position as in top [‘th ɒp] .
INCOMPLETE PLOSIVES
A plosive is said to have three parts (STOP, HOLD, RELEASE), but in English there are some cases in
which all the three parts are not made, when the stop alone is formed, but no release.
This occurs when two plosive consonants follow each other: in act, stopped, doctor [ækt], [stοpt], [‘doktə],
the first plosive in each pair is not exploded.
The same thing happens when the first plosive is at the end of one word and the second at the beginning of
another, e.g. [top boi].
When the two consonants are the same, as in black cat, good dog, they form a long stop with one release.
When three plosives follow each other, it is possible for the last one only to receive its full plosion: an apt
boy, a baked tart.
NASAL PLOSION
When the plosive consonant is immediately followed by a nasal consonant, the plosive is not exploded in the
normal way. The tongue or lips remain in the position for the plosive, but the soft palate is lowered to allow
the air to pass through the nose. The plosion is made by the air rushing out through the nose. E.g. Sidney,
good night, black magic.
LATERAL PLOSION
When a plosive is followed by an /l/ sound, the explosion is made by the sides of the tongue leaving the
upper teeth and the air rushing out along the sides of the tongue. E.g. muddle, bad light, big lake.
THE GLOTAL STOP
The glottal stop is used in all parts of the country to replace other plosive consonants. It is normally used
when a stressed syllable begins with a vowel, a glottal stop is introduced before it. E.g. n bu'er, wa'er, mar'in.
2) FRICATIVES
Fricatives are characterised by a “hissing” sound, which is produced by the air escaping through a small
passage in the mouth.
The English fricative consonants are: /f, v (labio-dental) θ, ð (dental) s z (alveolar)∫, З (post-alveolar) h
(glotal)/.
/h/ is a glottal fricative, that is, the air passes through the glottis, and slight friction occurs between the open
vocal cords. It varies according to the vowel which follows it. For the word hard, the tongue is in the position
of /a:/ while the /h/ is being pronounced, for /hud/ it is in the position of /u/, for /hi:d/ in the position of /i:/:
i.e. the /h/ is these words is similar to the unvoiced vowels.
Voiceless fricatives have the effect of shortening the preceding vowel, in the same way as voiceless plosives.
3) AFFRICATES (plosive + fricative)
An affricate is a plosive consonant in which the articulating organs are separated less quickly than in the case
of normal plosives, with the result that the corresponding fricative is heard as the organs separate.
[tθ] eigth, [ts] eats, [t∫] lunch, [tŗ] tree, [dЗ] jump
4) NASALS
The basic feature of a nasal is that the air escapes through the nose. There are three types of nasals (the main
difference between the three types of nasals is the point where the air is stopped in the mouth):
• bilabial /m/
• alveolar /n/
• velar / ŋ /
The difference between plosives and nasals lies in the position of the soft palate, which is lowered for the
nasal consonants and raised for the plosives. Nasal consonants are often syllabic, i.e., they form the most
sonorous element of a syllable: kitchen, heaven, iron, spoken.
The nasal consonants are extremely susceptible to the influence of other neighbouring sounds. /m, n, ŋ/
undergo different changes:
• Nasal consonants often influence the plosives articulated in the same place, e.g. in kindness. The /d/,
influenced by the preceding and following /n/, is replaced by /n/ and then readily disappears. In
handsome, the /d/ has been dropped under the influence of the /n/.
• The letters –ng, pronounced as /ŋ/ in words like singer, singing, are pronounced /ŋg/ in the Midlands.
5) LATERAL CONSONANTS
A lateral consonant is one in which air escapes from the mouth along the sides of the tongue. The lateral /l/
can be pronounced in two different ways depending on its position in a word:
• A clear /l/ at initial position (the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge ALVEOLAR) e.g. late
• A dark /l/, when it is final or medial preceding a consonant (the back of the tongue raised towards the
velum VELAR) e.g. ball
The terms clear and dark /l/ are descriptive of the acoustic effect of the sounds and not a technical or
scientific name; the correct phonetic terms are “palatalized” and “velarized”.
Many speakers use a kind of mid /l/ instead of a dark /l/, i.e., with an /ə/ instead of a /u/ resonance. This is
particularly noticeable in Northerners.
/l/ is often syllabic (carry most power instead of vowel). E.g.: little, thimble. This is the symbol used: /ļ/.
6) APPROXIMANT /r/
It is produced by the tip of the tongue approaching the alveolar area but it never touches it. The tongue is
slightly curled backwards with the tip raised.
In RP, this sound only occurs before vowels. However, many accents of English do pronounce
approximant /r/ after vowels. This is the difference between non-rhotic and rhotic accents. Non-rhotic
accents only pronounce the /r/ sound before vowels, like in “red”, “brick” or “scratch”. No /r/ sound in words
like “heart” or “car”. While rhotic accents always pronounce the /r/ sound.
There are different kinds of /r/ sounds:
• The rolled /r/ “perro” in Spanish
• A semi-rolled or one-tap /r/, consisting of one tap of the tongue. “pero” in Spanish. In American
for /t/ and /d/ between vowels “very” or “butter”
• An “inverted” /ɹ/, that is, a fricative made with the tongue-tip curled up, is used finally and before
consonants, especially in Ireland and America.
• Linking /r/ occurs in non-rotic accents when there is a word beginning with a vowel followed by
another word ending in /r/ sound, like in give me some more /mo:r/ of it. In this case the /r/ sound is
introduced by non-rhotic accent speakers.
• Intrusive /r/ is very frequently inserted between two words, the one ending and the next beginning
with a vowel, in order to avoid what is felt to be an awkward hiatus. E.g. I’ve no idea of it /aidiər əv
it/.
7) SEMI-VOWELS (/J/ /W/)
These two sounds are phonetically vowels but phonologically consonants. That is, phonetically they are
pronounced as /i:/ and /u:/ but a little bit shorter.
The semi-vowel /w/ has a double articulation; the primary formation is that the lips are rounded and pushed
forward; at the same time, the back of the tongue is raised towards the /u/ position.
For the semivowel /j/ the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate (PALATAL), and immediately
leaves this position to take up that of the vowel, which follows it. The voiceless glide corresponding to /j/ is
often heard in the pronunciation of words like human, huge
3. COMPARISON WITH SPANISH
In the following section English and Spanish phonological systems will be compared.
This contrastive analysis will help teachers with their instruction and students understand the differences and
similarities between both languages. Therefore, this will help them achieve a more accurate pronunciation
and use of the language.
• In Spanish, plosive consonants are not aspirated.
• The English phoneme /∫/ does not exist in Spanish; yet, in some southern areas it is used instead of
the Spanish affricate –ch [t∫]
• There are some English clusters, which do not exist in Spanish: st-, sk-, sp- as in student, school,
Spanish.
• In English t and d are alveolar, but in Spanish they are dental.
• En English /l/ can be clear or dark but in Spanish it is always clear.
• From a prosodic point of view, the major difference lies in the fact that English is a stress-timed
language, whereas Spanish is a syllable-timed language.
4.. CONCLUSION
This study set out to provide a systematic account of the main features of the English phonological system,
paying special attention to the identification and description of vowels and diphthongs. This paper also
explores the main differences between the English and the Spanish sound systems.
Over the years, phonology has played many different roles in the English language-teaching classroom, from
a virtually non-existent role in the traditional grammar translation method to being the focus of the audio-
lingual method through its emphasis on minimal pairs, phonemes, drills and dialogue work.
Nowadays, phonetics is a field of study which, although much research has been done on it, continues
developing in association with sociolinguistics; the different pronunciation of the consonants gives rise to the
different dialects. Students should be exposed to different variations of the language because RP is not
spoken that much, not even on TV as it was previously done.
This is a very complex field for Spanish students since they have to recognize and master a number of
sounds, which are strange to them. In this sense, special attention should be paid to listening, recognizing and
practising those particular sounds in context. Many and varied activities can be exploited in the second
language lesson, which range from recognizing individual sounds to working with songs.