Cambridge (CIE) AS Your notes

Environmental Management
4.1 Ecosystems
Contents
4.1.1 Biomes
4.1.2 Primary & Secondary Succession
4.1.3 Primary Productivity
4.1.4 Ecological Pyramids

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 4.1.1 Biomes
Your notes
Terrestrial Biomes
Biomes are large-scale ecological communities or ecosystem types that are
characterised by their dominant vegetation, climate and other abiotic factors that shape
their biotic communities
Biomes cover large geographic areas (different ecosystems can be found within a
single biome):
These larger zones have similar climatic and ecosystem characteristics
Terrestrial biomes (i.e. non-aquatic biomes) are classified into four major classes:
Forest
Grassland
Desert
Tundra
These major classes can be divided into further categories, for example:
Forest biomes are dominated by trees and are categorised into tropical rainforests,
temperate deciduous forests and boreal forests
Grassland biomes are characterised by grasses and herbaceous plants and are
categorised into savanna and temperate grasslands
Desert biomes are characterised by low rainfall and are dominated by cacti and
other drought-resistant plants - they can be further divided into subcategories such
as hot deserts, cold deserts, coastal deserts and semi-arid deserts
Tundra biomes are found in high latitudes and are characterised by low
temperatures and permafrost - they can be further divided into subcategories such
as arctic tundra and alpine tundra

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 Your notes

Terrestrial biomes of the world

Forest
Forest Biomes

Characteristics Tropical rainforest Temperate forest Boreal forest

Location Low latitudes Between 40°–60° Between 50°–

north and south of 60° north and
Within Tropics: equator south of equator
23.5° north
and south of E.g. Western E.g. Canada,
equator Europe, northeast Russia,
USA, Eastern Asia Scandinavia
E.g. Amazon in
South
America, New
Guinea,
Southeast
Asia, Zaire
Basin

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Annual Over 2000 750–1500 mm (all 300–900 mm (all year
precipitation mm year round) round)
Your notes
Temperature 26 to 28°C Over 0° C in winter -30°C in winter
range
20 to 25°C in Up to 20°C in
summer summer

Seasons No seasons: Four seasons of Two main

hot and wet all equal length seasons: winter
year round and summer

Growing All year round 6–8 months 2–3 months

season

Soils Relatively Relatively fertile and Not very fertile:

infertile due to nutrient rich due to often acidic, with
leaching and decomposition of permafrost
rapid uptake organic matter over
of nutrients by autumn and winter Shallow soil with a
plants thick litter layer
due to slow
decomposition

Biodiversity Approx. 50% Wide range of Less biodiverse

of world's animals and plants than temperate
plant and with higher forests
animal species biodiversity than
live within the boreal forests Example flora:
rainforest coniferous trees
biome Example flora:
deciduous trees Example fauna:
Example flora: e.g. beech, oak, squirrels, bears,
mahogany, birch reindeer, wolves
teak trees,
lianas, orchids Example fauna:
deer, rabbits,
Example squirrels, bears
fauna:
Toucans,
jaguars, frogs,
snakes

Grassland
Grassland Biomes

Characteristics Savanna Temperate grasslands

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Location 5°–30° north and south 40°–60° north and south of
of equator equator
Your notes
North and south of E.g." veldts" of South Africa,
tropical and monsoon "pampas" of Argentina, "steppes"
forest biomes of Russia, "plains" of USA
E.g. central Africa:
Tanzania, Kenya

Annual 800–900 mm 250–750 mm

precipitation

Temperature 15–35°C -40 to 40°C

range

Seasons Wet and dry season Four seasons

Growing season During wet season (4–5 During summer (dependent on

months) temperature)

Soils Free draining with thin Fertile soil

layer of humus
Not very fertile: most
nutrients near surface

Biodiversity Wide range of plant and Large numbers of plant and animal
animal species species
Greatest diversity of Grasses, sunflowers
hoofed animals
Bison, antelopes, rabbits
Grasses, baobab and
acacia trees
Zebras, elephants,
giraffes

Desert
Desert Biomes

Characteristics Hot desert

Location 15°–30° north and south of equator

North Africa e.g. Sahara, Southern Africa e.g. Kalahari and
Namib, Australia, Middle East

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Annual Below 250 mm
precipitation
Your notes
Temperature Daytime temperatures can reach 50°C but average around
range 25°C
Night time temperatures below 0°C

Seasons Summer and winter

Growing season All year round

Soils Infertile, dry

Biodiversity Low biodiversity

Cacti, yucca
Spiders, scorpions, camels, meerkats

Tundra
Tundra Biomes

Characteristics Tundra

Location North of the Arctic Circle and Antarctica

Annual precipitation Less than 250 mm

Temperature range Below 0°C for 6–10 months

Seasons Winter and summer

Growing season 6–10 weeks

Soils Thin infertile soil

Permafrost

Biodiversity Low biodiversity

Small grasses, mosses, lichen
Snowy owls, snow bunting, tundra swan
Arctic foxes, hares and wolves

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 Polar bears, musk ox and caribou

Your notes

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 4.1.2 Primary & Secondary Succession
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Primary & Secondary Succession
Ecosystems are dynamic, meaning that they are constantly changing
Sometimes, ecosystems change from being very simple to being relatively complex:
This process is known as succession
During succession, the biotic conditions (i.e. the living factors) and the abiotic
conditions (i.e. the non-living factors) change over time
Primary succession is the process that occurs when newly formed or newly exposed
land (with no species present) is gradually colonised (inhabited) by an increasing number
of species
This new uninhabited land can be created in several ways. For example:
The magma from erupting volcanoes cools and often leads to the formation of new
rock surfaces or even new rocky islands in the sea
Another way new land can be exposed is by sea-level dropping or the drying up of a
lake, leaving areas of bare rock
Primary succession does not only occur on bare rock. Any barren terrain that is slowly
being colonised by living species is undergoing primary succession. For example:
Sand dunes in coastal areas (marram grasses are the pioneer species in these
environments as they have deep roots to access water that other plants can't reach
and are able to tolerate the salty environment (i.e. the high concentrations of
sodium and calcium ions caused by sea spray)

Primary Succession Occurs in a Series of Stages

Firstly, seeds and spores that are carried by the wind land on the exposed rock and
begin to grow:
These first species to colonise the new land (often moss and lichens) are known as
pioneer species
As these pioneer species die and decompose, the dead organic matter (humus)
forms a basic soil
Seeds of small plants and grasses, sometimes also carried in the wind or sometimes
transported other ways (e.g. in bird faeces) land on this basic soil and begin to grow
(these smaller plants are adapted to survive in shallow, relatively nutrient-poor soils):
As these small plants and shrubs die and decompose, the new soil becomes deeper
and more nutrient-rich
The roots of these small plants and shrubs also form a network that helps to hold the
soil in place and prevent it from being washed away

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 Larger plants and shrubs, as well as small trees, that require deeper, more nutrient-rich
soil, can now begin to grow:
Your notes
These larger plants and small trees also require more water, which can be stored in
deeper soils
Finally, the soil is sufficiently deep, contains enough nutrients and can hold enough water
to support the growth of large trees:
These final species to colonise the new land become the dominant species of the
now relatively complex ecosystem
The final community formed, containing all the different plant and animal species
that have now colonised the new land, is known as the climax community

An example of primary succession occurring on a newly formed rock surface

Succession Changes the Biotic and Abiotic Conditions

At each stage in succession the newly arriving species change the local environment so
that it becomes more suitable for other species that have not yet colonised the new
land, for example:
Pioneer species such as lichens help to slowly break apart the top surface of bare
rock; this fragmented rock, along with the dead organic matter left behind when the
lichens die and are broken down, forms a basic soil
Species such as grasses grow roots that stabilise the soil, enabling it to hold more
moisture and nutrients
Often the new colonising species then change the environment in such a way that it
becomes less suitable for the previous species, for example:

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 Lichens cannot grow on soil so they disappear from the ecosystem once soil begins
to form; the new species change the environment in such a way that it becomes less
suitable for the lichens: Your notes
Pioneer species may not be found in a climax community as they will be out-
competed for light and other resources by the species that arrive during the
later stages of succession
Pioneer species are well adapted for harsh conditions but are often poor
competitors
As soil deepens and trees are able to grow, they may block out the light to shrubs
and other smaller plants, out-competing them and causing them to die
Secondary Succession
There is also a type of succession called secondary succession, which takes place on
previously occupied land that has been cleared of vegetation and animal species e.g.
after a wild fire or after heavy deforestation has occurred:
Secondary succession is very similar to primary succession except that soil is
already present so the process begins at a slightly later stage
Comparison of Pioneer and Climax Communities

Feature Pioneer communities Climax communities

Stage in succession Early stages Later stages

Ecosystem productivity Low High

Biodiversity Low High

Niches Fewer, wider Many, narrow

Size of organisms Small Large

Species composition Fewer species, adapted to More species, adapted to

harsh conditions stable conditions

Total biomass (amount Low High

of organic matter)

Soil depth Shallow Deep

Soil quality Poor (little nutrients and High (nutrient-rich and full of
organic material) organic matter)

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Growth rate of Rapid Slower
organisms
Your notes
Nutrient cycling Less efficient, open system More efficient, closed system
(external inputs) (nutrients are recycled)

Dominant organisms Lichens, mosses, algae, Woody plants, trees and

bacteria and fungi shrubs

Stability Unstable, prone to Stable, resistant to

disturbance and disturbance and colonisation
colonisation

Examples Pioneer species like lichens Ancient oak forests

and mosses on rocks

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In your exams you could be presented with, and asked questions about, examples of
succession other than the one provided here e.g. succession on a sand dune. As long
as you understand the principles of the stages of succession you should be able to
apply your knowledge to any example that an exam question might throw at you.

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 4.1.3 Primary Productivity
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Primary Productivity
During photosynthesis, primary producers (such as plants and algae) convert light
energy to chemical energy, which is stored within biological molecules
Gross primary production can be defined as the amount of chemical energy stored in
the carbohydrates within plants (during photosynthesis)
Roughly only 1% of the light falling on a plant is used in photosynthesis to produce
glucose:
99% of the light either passes through the leaf without hitting chloroplasts, is
reflected off of the leaf or is transferred to heat energy
After that, 1% is successfully absorbed and used to form glucose
The quantity of energy now stored in glucose is the gross primary production

Gross Primary Productivity

The rate at which plants are able to store chemical energy via photosynthesis is referred
to as gross primary productivity (GPP)
Gross primary productivity can be expressed in units of energy per unit area per unit
time, for example:
J m⁻² yr⁻¹ (joules per square metre per year)
kJ km⁻² yr⁻¹ (kilojoules per square kilometre per year)
In this case, "area" refers to the area of land that is being studied (this land contains
the primary producers that are producing the biomass - if there are no primary
producers present in this area of land, there will be no gross primary production)
Gross primary productivity can also be expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit
time, for example:
g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (grams per square metre per year)
kg km⁻² yr⁻¹ (kilograms per square kilometre per year)
In aquatic environments, it may be more suitable to measure gross primary production
per unit volume:
For example, for aquatic algae, gross primary productivity could be given in kg m⁻³
yr⁻¹ (kilograms per cubic metre per year) or kJ m⁻³ yr⁻¹ (kilojoules per cubic metre per
year)

Worked Example

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 The total chemical energy contained within the grass that grows in a 200 m² field over
the course of one year is found to be 1 000 kJ. Calculate the gross primary
productivity of the grass field. Give appropriate units. Your notes
Answer
Step 1: Calculate the total chemical energy contained within the grass in 1 m² of the
field over the course of one year
1 000 ÷ 200 = 5 (kJ)
Step 2: Give the appropriate units
5 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹

Worked Example
On average, a patch of arctic tundra covering an area of 1 km² is estimated to produce
a total biomass of 1 500 kg per year. Calculate the gross primary productivity of this
patch. Give your answer in g m⁻².
Answer
Step 1: Calculate the average yearly biomass of 1 m² of the arctic tundra patch (1 km² =
1 000 000 m²)
1 500 ÷ 1 000 000 = 0.0015 (kg yr⁻¹)
Step 2: Convert this into grams
0.0015 × 1 000 = 1.5 g m⁻² yr⁻¹

Net Primary Productivity

Net primary productivity (NPP) is the GPP minus plant respiratory losses (R):
Of the total energy stored in glucose during photosynthesis, 90% will be released
from glucose during respiration
90% of the energy originally converted by the plant will therefore not be stored as
new plant biomass and will not be available to be passed on to herbivores (primary
consumers)
NPP can therefore be defined as the rate at which energy is stored in plant biomass,
allowing for respiratory losses:
NPP is important because it represents the energy that is available to organisms
at higher trophic levels in the ecosystem, such as primary consumers and
decomposers
Net primary productivity can be calculated using the equation:
NPP = GPP - R

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 NPP is expressed in units of biomass or energy per unit area or volume per unit time, for
example:
Your notes
Using area: g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (grams per square metre per year) or J m⁻² yr⁻¹ (joules per square
metre per year)
Using volume: kg m⁻³ yr⁻¹ (kilograms per cubic metre per year) or kJ m⁻³ yr⁻¹ (kilojoules
per cubic metre per year)
As with GPP, volume would be used when calculating NPP in aquatic habitats

Net primary productivity, or NPP, is the rate at which energy is stored in plant biomass and
made available to primary consumers

Worked Example
The grass in a meadow habitat converts light energy into carbohydrates at a rate of
17 500 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹. The grass releases 14 000 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹ of that energy during respiration.
Calculate the net primary productivity of the grass in the meadow habitat.
Answer
Step 1: Work out which numbers correspond to which parts of the equation
The meadow grass converts 17 500 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹ into carbohydrates; this is GPP
The meadow grass releases 14 000 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹ of that energy in respiration; this is R
Step 2: Substitute numbers into the equation
NPP = GPP - R

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NPP = 17 500 - 14 000
Step 3: Complete calculation Your notes
17 500 - 14 000 = 3 500
NPP = 3 500 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹

The rate at which biomass is produced in an ecosystem is known as the ecosystem

productivity:
This rate varies greatly between different ecosystems depending on climatic
factors such as average temperature, rainfall and insolation, as well as the numbers
of producers, consumers and decomposers they contain

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When answering questions on GPP or NPP, make sure you give the appropriate units.
GPP and NPP can either be expressed in terms of biomass (per unit area per unit time)
or chemical energy (per unit area per unit time). The biomass of an organism is
effectively a measure of how much chemical energy is stored within it!
The worked example for calculating NPP uses the equation in its basic form, but you
may also be expected to rearrange the equation e.g. to calculate GPP or R
If a question provides you with the NPP and R and asks you to calculate GPP, you will
need to use the following equation:
GPP = NPP + R
If a question provides you with the NPP and the GPP and asks you to calculate R, you
will need to use the following equation:
R = GPP - NPP

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 4.1.4 Ecological Pyramids
Your notes
Ecological Pyramids
Energy Transfer & Energy Loss in Food Chains
The transfer of energy in a food chain is not 100 % efficient:
Energy is lost to the environment at each trophic level
When a consumer ingests another organism, not all the chemical energy in the
consumer's food is transferred to the consumer's biomass
Only around 10% of the energy is available to the consumer to store in their tissues
This is because around 90% of the energy is lost to the environment
So much energy is lost to the environment because:
Not every part of the food organism is eaten, e.g. the roots and woody parts of
plants or the bones of animals, meaning that the stored energy in these uneaten
tissues is lost to the environment
Consumers are not able to digest all of the food they ingest, e.g. cellulose in plants
or the fur of animals, so some is egested as faeces; the chemical energy in this
undigested food is then lost to the environment
Energy is lost to the environment in the form of heat when consumers respire
Energy is lost to the environment when organisms excrete the waste products of
metabolism e.g. urea in urine
The energy that is left after these losses is available to the consumer to fuel their life
functions, including being stored in biomass during growth

Energy is lost to the environment at every trophic level of a food chain

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Pyramids of Numbers
Ecological pyramids include: Your notes
Pyramids of numbers
Pyramids of biomass
Pyramids of energy
They are quantitative models usually measured for a given time and given area
A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms we are talking about at each level of a
food chain
The width of the box indicates the number of organisms at that trophic level
For example, consider the following food chain:
grass → vole → owl
A pyramid of numbers for this food chain would look like the one shown below
Often, the number of organisms decreases along food chains, as there is a
decrease in available energy since some energy is lost to the surrounding
environment at each trophic level
Therefore pyramids of numbers usually become narrower towards the apex (the
top)

A pyramid of numbers

Despite the name, a pyramid of numbers doesn’t always have to be pyramid-shaped

For example, consider the following food chain:
oak tree → insects → woodpecker

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 The pyramids of numbers for this food chain will display a different pattern to the first
food chain
Your notes
When individuals at lower trophic levels are relatively large, like the oak tree, the pyramid
becomes inverted:
Only a single oak tree is needed to support large numbers of insects (which can then
support large numbers of woodpeckers)

Pyramids of numbers are not always pyramid-shaped (they can be inverted, like the one
shown above)

Pyramids of Biomass
A pyramid of biomass shows how much mass the creatures at each level would have
without including all the water that is in the organisms:
This is known as their ‘dry mass’
Pyramids of biomass are usually pyramid-shaped, regardless of what the pyramid of
numbers for that food chain looks like
This is because the mass of organisms decreases as you go up a food chain:

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 If we take our first food chain as an example, it would be impossible to have 10kg of
grass feeding 50kg of voles feeding 100kg of barn owls
Your notes

A pyramid of biomass

Pyramids of biomass provide a much better idea of the quantity of the plant or animal
material at each level of a food chain and therefore are a better way of representing
interdependence within the food chain
Being able to construct accurate pyramids of biomass from appropriate data is an
important skill

Worked Example
Table 1 shows:
A food chain with four trophic levels
The total mass of organisms at each trophic level
Table 1

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 Clover → Snail Thrush → Sparrowhawk
→ Your notes
Biomass (kg) 80 30 10 2

Draw a pyramid of biomass for the food chain in Table 1.

Pyramids of Energy
Pyramids of energy illustrate the amount of energy contained within the biomass of
individuals within different trophic levels
These pyramids always have a wide base (due to the large amount of energy contained
within the biomass of producers)
As you move up the pyramid to higher trophic levels the quantity of energy decreases as
not all energy is transferred to the biomass of the next trophic level (roughly only 10% of
the energy is passed on)

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 Your notes

A pyramid of energy

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Pyramids of number can be any shape – so make sure you learn the rules for drawing a
pyramid of numbers as it is more common to see unusual shapes in the exam.
Pyramids of biomass are generally pyramid-shaped, so they are simple to draw.
Some ecosystems, such as an aquatic ecosystem, may occasionally show a different
shape or an inverted pyramid shape, but it is very unlikely you will see this in an exam.
Pyramids of energy are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped!

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