Edexcel GCSE Biology Your notes

Genetic Modification
Contents
Selective Breeding
Tissue Cultures
Genetic Engineering
The Process of Genetic Engineering
Meeting Global Food Demands
Evaluating the Use of Genetic Engineering
The Human Genome Project

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 Selective Breeding
Your notes
Selective Breeding in Animals
Selective breeding or artificial selection means to select individuals with desirable
characteristics and breed them together
The process doesn’t stop there though because it’s likely that not all of the offspring will
show the characteristics you want so offspring that do show the desired
characteristics are selected and bred together
This process has to be repeated for many successive generations before you can
definitely say you have a ‘new breed’ that will reliably show those selected
characteristics in all offspring
Natural Selection vs Artificial Selection Table

Selective breeding of animals

Individuals with the characteristics you want are bred together (often several different
parents all with the desired characteristics are chosen so siblings do not have to be bred
together in the next generation)
Offspring that show the desired characteristics are selected and bred together
This process is repeated for many successive generations
Animals are commonly selectively bred for various characteristics, including:
Cows, goats and sheep that produce lots of milk or meat
Chickens that lay large eggs
Domestic dogs that have a gentle nature
Sheep with good quality wool
Horses with fine features and a very fast pace

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 An example of an animal that has been selectively bred by humans in many ways to
produce breeds with many different characteristics is the domestic dog, all breeds of
which are descended from wolves: Your notes

Selective breeding has produced many different breeds of domestic dog

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you include the need to repeat the selective breeding process for
many generations in any exam answer you give – selecting two parents with desired
characteristics, breeding them and stopping there is not selective breeding and will
not give rise to a new breed.

Selective Breeding in Plants

Selective breeding of plants takes place in the same way as selective breeding of
animals
Plants are selectively bred by humans for development of many characteristics,
including:
Disease resistance in food crops
Increased crop yield
Hardiness to weather conditions (eg. drought tolerance)
Better tasting fruits
Large or unusual flowers
An example of a plant that has been selectively bred in multiple ways is wild brassica,
which has given rise to cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts, kale and kohlrabi:

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 Your notes

An example of selective breeding in plants

Problems with selective breeding
Selective breeding can lead to ‘inbreeding’
This occurs when only the ‘best’ animals or plants (which are closely related to each
other) are bred together
This results in a reduction in the gene pool – this is a reduction in the number of alleles
(different versions of genes) in a population
As inbreeding limits the size of the gene pool, there is an increased chance of:

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Organisms inheriting harmful genetic defects
Organisms being vulnerable to new diseases (there is less chance of resistant Your notes
alleles being present in the reduced gene pool)

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 Tissue Cultures
Your notes
Tissue Cultures
Tissue culture is a process in which very small pieces of organisms (‘tissues’) are grown
(‘cultured’) using nutrient media (i.e. in some kind of artificial growth medium)
This allows scientists to produce a large amount of tissue from just a single individual
organism
This tissue can then be used for a variety of different purposes

Plant tissue culture

Using tissue culture, whole plants can be grown from a very small amount of plant tissue
New plants are produced via tissue culture in the following way:
A parent plant is chosen (this should have the desired characteristics e.g. beautiful
flowers, interesting shaped leaves or a large fruit crop)
A very small amount of tissue (usually a small group of cells) is scraped from the
parent plant (these small pieces of tissue are known as explants)
Under aseptic (sterile) conditions, the tissue pieces are transferred to a sterile petri
dish containing nutrient agar. This step must be done under aseptic conditions to
prevent the growth of microbes that might harm the plant
Hormones (e.g. auxins) are added to encourage the cells of the explants to grow
The explants continue to grow and eventually form plantlets that can be transferred
to individual potting trays with compost, where they can develop into plants

Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from a part of a plant to grow identical new
plants
The plants produced via tissue culture are all clones (genetically identical individuals)
The cloning of plants has many important commercial uses (mainly in plant breeding
programmes)

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 It allows a variety of a plant with desirable characteristics (e.g. pesticide resistance,
good tasting fruit etc.) to be produced:
Your notes
Cheaply
With a greater yield (a large number of plants can be produced)
In a small space
Quickly
At any time of the year
It can also ensure diseases prevalent in other areas of the world are not imported and
spread by ensuring native varieties of plants are produced in large enough quantities to
supply demand in one country without importing plants from abroad
Plant tissue culture can also play an important role in preserving rare plant species
Animal tissue culture
Genetically identical animal cells and tissues can be produced in large quantities via a
slightly different tissue culture process:
A sample of the tissue to be studied (e.g. tissue from the pancreas) is extracted
from the animal
Enzymes are used to separate the cells that make up the tissue sample
The cells are placed in a culture vessel (i.e. some kind of container) along with a
growth medium
This contains all the nutrients needed for the cells to grow and multiply into tissues
Once the tissue culture has been grown, it can be stored for future use
Animal tissues grown via tissue culture can be used in medical research:
For example, the effect of glucose on pancreatic cells can be tested on samples of
pancreatic tissue grown via tissue culture
This means that experiments can be conducted on tissues in isolation, without
negatively affecting a living organism
For example, scientists can study the effects of a particular chemical or
environmental change on the cells of a single tissue without complications and
external factors caused by other processes that would normally occur in the whole
organism

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 Genetic Engineering
Your notes
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is a process that involves modifying the genome of an organism
to introduce desirable characteristics
Specifically, genetic engineering is changing the genetic material of an organism by
removing or altering genes within that organism, or by inserting genes from another
organism
The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be genetically modified or is
described as being a transgenic organism
The DNA of the organism that now contains DNA from another organism as well is known
as recombinant DNA
There are many examples of genetically modified organisms, including:
The gene for human insulin has been inserted into bacteria, which then produce
human insulin that can be collected and purified for medical use for diabetics
Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically modified to contain a
gene from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects, making them
resistant to insect pests such as caterpillars
Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant to certain
herbicides (chemicals that kill plants), meaning that when the herbicide is sprayed
on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the crop plant
Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins, e.g.
‘golden rice’ contains genes from another plant and a bacterium which make the
rice grains produce a chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human body, which
could help prevent vitamin A deficiency in certain areas of the world

Genetic engineering in medicine

Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to
overcome some inherited disorders
As these inherited genetic diseases are caused by faulty genes, it may be possible to
treat these by inserting working versions of these genes into people with the genetic
disease
This is called gene therapy

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 The Process of Genetic Engineering
Your notes
The Process of Genetic Engineering
Higher tier only
The gene that is to be inserted is located in the original organism
Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required gene, leaving it with ‘sticky ends’
(a short section of unpaired bases)
A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with corresponding
sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found inside bacterial cells)

Restriction enzymes cut DNA strands at specific sequences to form ‘sticky ends’

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The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme
If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have been cut by the Your notes
same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to form a single, unbroken molecule
of DNA

DNA ligase is used to join two separate pieces of DNA together

The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell
When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a recombinant
plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they will then all express the
gene and make the human protein
The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly
in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein

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 Meeting Global Food Demands
Your notes
GM Crops
Higher Tier Only
Modern technology has increased food supply substantially in a number of ways,
including:
Agricultural machinery has replaced humans and improved efficiency due to the
ability to farm much larger areas of land
Chemical fertilisers improve yields - fertilisers increase the amount of nutrients in
the soil for plants, meaning that they can grow larger and produce more fruit
Insecticides and herbicides - these chemicals kill off unwanted insects and weed
species, meaning that there is less damage done to plants and fruit lost to insects
(insecticides), as well as reducing competition from other plant species
(herbicides)
Selective breeding - animals and crop plants that produce a large yield are
selectively bred to produce breeds that reliably produce high yields
More recently, genetic engineering has been used to produced genetically modified
crop plants that have increased yields compared to normal crop plants
These genetically modified crops are known as GM crops

Genetic engineering of crops

Crop plants have been genetically modified to be:
Resistant to pests – increases productivity / yield
Resistant to herbicides – increases productivity / yield
Enriched in vitamins – increases the nutritional value
Crop plants have been genetically modified to produce poisons that kill insects,
making them resistant to insect pests. This can improve crop yields and reduce the
need for chemical pesticides
For example, maize (corn) and cotton plants have been genetically modified with a
gene for a toxin (a poison) that kills many insect larvae that are harmful to these
crops
The toxin is called Bt toxin as it was taken from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
The crops with the Bt gene produce the toxin in their stems and leaves
The significance of genetically engineering crops to be insect resistant is that there
is an increase in yield and fewer pesticides are used which could have ecological
benefits (e.g. non-targeted invertebrates are not harmed)
Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant to certain
herbicides (chemicals that kill plants)

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 This means that when the herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and
does not affect the crop plant
Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins and Your notes
improved nutritional value
For example, ‘golden rice’ contains genes from another plant and a bacterium which
make the rice grains produce a chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human
body, which could help prevent deficiency diseases in certain areas of the world
Some crops have been genetically modified to be drought-resistant (to grow better in
very dry conditions). This can also improve crop yields in arid countries that are prone to
droughts
Advantages & Disadvantages of GM Crops Table

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Fertilisers & Biological Control
Higher Tier Only Your notes

Using fertilisers to increase crop yields

Plants require a range of mineral ions in order to grow well
As crop plants take up these mineral ions from the soil, the mineral ions need to
be replaced if crops are grown repeatedly in the same field (i.e. year after year)
Fertilisers are used to replace these mineral ions
They can make crops grow faster and bigger so that yields are increased
Fertilisers can be in the form of organic fertiliser or chemical fertiliser
Organic fertilisers commonly used by farmers include
farmyard manure and compost
Chemical fertilisers are often applied to the soil as dry granules or can be sprayed
on in liquid form
They mainly provide crop plants with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
However, a major disadvantage is that excess fertilisers not taken up by crops can get
washed into lakes and rivers and cause problems, such as eutrophication

Using biological control to increase crop yields

Pests such as insects and other animals can damage crops by eating them
Pests such as weeds can outcompete crop plants for space, water and soil nutrients
Many of these pests can be controlled by introducing other species to the farmland (a
technique known as biological control)
Biological control can happen naturally - for example, ladybirds eat aphids (which can
damage certain crops)
Usually, a new species is introduced specifically to prey upon or parasitise the
pest species - for example, cane toads were introduced into Australia to eat crop-
damaging beetles and parasitic wasps can control whitefly in glasshouse tomato crops
An advantage of biological control is that it can have longer-lasting effects than
chemical pesticides and be less harmful to the environment (e.g. to non-target
species)
However, as biological control is based on a predator-prey cycle or a parasite-host
relationship, it does not completely remove a pest but keeps it at lower levels
Also, in some cases, the introduction of new organisms to an ecosystem can cause
problems - for example, cane toads are now themselves considered a pest species in
Australia as they poison the native species that eat them

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 Evaluating the Use of Genetic Engineering
Your notes
Evaluating the Use of Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering and selective breeding are used in modern-day agriculture
Genetic engineering is also used in modern-day medicine
Both these techniques have many benefits but their use also comes with certain risks, as
well as other practical and ethical implications
Advantages & Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering Table

Advantages & Disadvantages of Selective Breeding Table

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 Your notes

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 The Human Genome Project
Your notes
The Human Genome Project
The entire set of genetic material of an organism is known as its genome
Biologists now know the entire human genome (they have worked out all the genes that
are found in humans)
The Human Genome Project (completed in 2003) was the name of the international,
collaborative research effort to determine the DNA sequence of the entire human
genome and record every gene in human beings
This was a very important breakthrough for several reasons, including:
The prediction and prevention of diseases
The testing and treatment for inherited disorders
The development of new and improved medicines

Prediction and prevention of diseases

Diseases such as cancers and heart disease are partially caused by genes (as well as
lifestyle factors)
A greater understanding of which genes predispose people to these diseases would
enable doctors to provide people with much more specific advice on the best lifestyle
and diet to help them avoid or delay the onset of these diseases
Doctors would also be much better at predicting what diseases someone might
develop and ensuring early treatment if someone develops a disease

Testing and treatment for inherited disorders

Inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis arise due to one or more faulty alleles in a
person's genome
The Human Genome Project has allowed doctors to identify these faulty alleles much
more quickly than in the past
Once these faulty alleles are identified, people can be tested for them and it is possible
to develop treatments for the inherited disorder

Development of new and improved medicines

A greater understanding of how genetic variations can make people more susceptible
to certain diseases has allowed doctors to design new medicinal drugs specifically
tailored to those with genetic variations that affect how they react to specific diseases
and treatments
It has also allowed these drugs or other treatments to be made more effective and
have fewer side-effects

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 Doctors are also now able to much better predict how well an existing drug or other
treatment will work for a specific person
Disadvantages of the Human Genome Project Your notes

There are also several potential drawbacks to the Human Genome Project, including:
Someone who is told they have a high chance of developing a certain genetic
disease may suffer from increased anxiety and stress (and this could be completely
unnecessary as they may never even develop the disease)
People with known genetic diseases and disorders (or who carry a faulty allele but
do not have the disease themselves) could potentially be pressured into not having
children
These same people may be unfairly discriminated against by employers (who may
not want to hire them and invest resources in them in case they become ill) or
insurers (who could make life insurance much more expensive for people they know
are more likely to develop a fatal disease)

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