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FUNCTIONAL
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PROF. MUHAMMAD BAQIR NAQVI

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IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS/SHORT QUESTIONS/DIFFERENCES

1. Functional English
Definition: Different words perform different functions in a sentence. The study of these
functions of the words is called Functional English. The same word can perform different
functions.
Example:
Consider the word ‘button’ in different sentences.
i. Button up your coat. (used as verb)
ii. A button of my coat has come off. (used as noun)
iii. He works in a button factory. (used as adjective)
2. Heteronym
Definition: Such two or more words which have same spellings but different pronunciation
and meanings are called heteronyms.
Example:
a. Present means to give
Present means gift
b. Such as tear meaning ‘rip’ and tear meaning ‘a liquid drop from our eyes’.
3. Acronym
Definition: It is a word formed from the first letters of the words that make up the name of
something.
Example: AIDS is an acronym for “Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome”.
ATM for Automatic Teller Machine
4. Antonym
Definition: Antonyms are the words having different spellings, different pronunciation and
opposite meanings.
Example:
For example: beautiful and ugly, high and low
5. Synonym
Definition: Synonyms are the words having same meanings but different spellings and
pronunciation.
For example: solitude and deserted, charming and beautiful
6. Homonym
Definition: Homonyms are the words which are having same pronunciation but different
spellings and meanning.
Example:
a. Altar b. Accept
Alter Except
7. Homophone
Definition: Homo means same and phone means sound. Homophones are the words having
same sound or pronunciation but different spellings and meaning.
Example: Allowed, Aloud Ate, Eight Buy, Bye
8. Homograph

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Definition: Homo means same and graph means written form of words. So homographs are
the words having same spellings but different meanings.
Example: Bat-a piece of sports used for playing cricket.
Bat-a mammal
Minute-tiny
Minute-unit of time
9. Idiom
Definition: An idiom is a phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood from
the ordinary meanings of the words in it.
For example
 A black sheep: A black sheep spoils the whole flock.
 Apple of discord: This piece of land is an apple of discord between two brothers.
10. Proverb
Definition: It is a well-known phrase or sentence that gives advice or says something that is
generally true.
Example: It is useless to cry over spilt milk.
Waste not, want not.
11. One Word substitution
Definition: One word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a
wordy phrase, to make the sentence structure more clear but the meaning is identical.
For example
Hypocrite: One with outward show of virtue and with double standards.
Bachelor: A man who is not married.
Bellicose: One who is quarrelsome and ever ready to fight.
12. Case and Mood
CASE MOOD
Definition: Case is that form of a noun or Definition: The word ‘mood’ indicates
pronoun that shows its relation to some the mode or manner in which the verb is
other word or words in the sentence. used in a sentence. There are four moods
There are four types of cases. in English
i. The nominative case/Subjective i. The indicative mood (positive,
case negative statements, questions)
ii. The possessive case ii. The imperative mood(positive,
iii. The objective case negative command, request and
There are two types of objective advise)
case iii. Subjunctive mood (doubt,
 Accusative case supposition, condition,
 Dative case consequence, wish or purpose)
iv. The vocative case iv. Infinitive mood (simply names
the action and is not limited by
time, person or number)

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TYPES OF CASES
i. The Nominative Case/Subjective Case
Definition: When a noun or a pronoun is used as a subject of a verb then it is called a
nominative case.
For example:
Virtue is its own reward. (Virtue is in nominative case)
He sent me a gift. (He is nominative case)
Napoleon was an emperor. (Napoleon is a noun and it is in nominative case because it is the
subject of the sentence.)
ii. Genitive Case/Possessive Case
Definition: When a noun or a pronoun is possessor or owner of something then it is called a
possessive or Genitive Case.
For example:
Ahmad’s book.
Ghalib’s poems.
Shakespeare’s dramas.
iii. Objective Case
Definition: When a noun or a pronoun is used as an object of a verb or an object of a
preposition then it is called objective case.
For example:
Did you give me his pen. (You is nominative case, me is objective case and his is possessive
case)
Objective case has two further types.
a. Accusative Case
b. Dative Case
Accusative Case
Definition: When a noun or a pronoun is used as a direct object then it is called accusative
case.
For example:
The man killed the rat. (Accusative case)
Dative Case
Definition: When a noun or pronoun is used as an indirect object then it is called dative
case.
For example:
Harry gave me a ball. (Dative case)
iv. Vocative Case
Definition: When a noun or a pronoun is used for the sake of address then it is called in
vocative case.
For example:
Sir, May I come in? (Vocative case)
Shehroz, come here. (Vocative Case)
TYPES OF MOODS OF VERBS

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There are FOUR moods in English.

i. The indicative mood
Definition: The indicative mood of the verb makes a positive or negative statement or asks a
question.
Example:
He came here yesterday.
He does not take tea every morning.
Did you hear the noise?
Why are you not coming today?
ii. The imperative mood
Definition: The imperative mood expresses a positive or negative command, request or
advice (exhortation), invitation, instruction or suggestion.
Example:
Have mercy on the down-trodden.
Have a cup of tea, please.
Try to do better next time.
Where can I locate Mr. Durrani?
iii. The subjunctive mood
Definition: The subjunctive mood of the verb is used to express doubt, supposition,
condition, consequence, wish or purpose.
Example:
Would that I were in Faisalabad today.
I work hard that I may pass.
Long live the king!
I insist that Aslam pay his debt.
I demand that he write me an apology.
iv. The infinitive mood
Definition: The infinitive mood simply names the action and is not limited by time, person
or number.
Example:
I want to write a letter.
To err is human, to forgive is divine.
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13. Subject and Predicate
SUBJECT PREDICATE
Definition: A word or a group of words Definition: Predicate is the part of
denoting the person or thing about which sentence which tells something about the
something is said is called subject. subject.
For example: Ali killed the snake. In this For example: Ali killed the snake. In this
sentence ‘Ali’ is subject because the sentence ‘killed the snake” is telling us
remaining part of the sentence is about it something about the subject “Ali” so it is
OR predicate of this sentence.
Definition: The doer of something in a
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sentence is called Subject of that

sentence.
For example: Ali killed the snake. In this
sentence ‘Ali’ is subject because he is the
doer of an action.

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14. Phrase and Clause
PHRASE CLAUSE
Definition: A phrase is a group of words Definition: Clause is a group of words
which is a part of a sentence and does not which is a part of a sentence and it has
give us complete meaning/sense. its own subject and predicate. It gives
OR us a complete meaning/sense.
Definition: A phrase is a group of words For example:
that does not have a subject and predicate He said you have made a mistake
of its own. In the above example “you have made
OR a mistake” is clause because it is a part
A phrase is a group of words which has no of sentence and it has its own subject
finite verb. and predicate. On the other hand, it is
For example: giving us complete meaning.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. OR
She was waiting at the bus stop. Definition: A clause is a group of
In the above examples, “on a wall”, “at the words that includes a finite verb and a
bus stop” are phrases because they do not subject.
give us complete meaning. For example:
 She was reading a sad story. (It
is a main clause because it is a
complete sentence and can stand
alone)
 When he was in the room. (It is a
subordinate clause because it is
not complete as a statement and
cannot stand on its own.
15. Types/Kinds of Phrases
There are FOUR major kinds of phrases:
i. The Noun Phrase ii. The Adverb Phrase iii. The Adjective Phrase iv. Prepositional
Phrase
ii. Noun Phrase
Definition: Such a group of words that does the work of a noun in a sentence is called Noun
Phrase.
For Example: Promise to come again. In this sentence, ‘to come again’ is a group of words
that acts as an object of the verb promise. Therefore it is called a noun phrase.

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iii. Adverb Phrase/Adverbial/Adverbial Phrase

Definition: Such a group of words that qualifies any word in a sentence except a noun or
pronoun and acts as an adverb is called adverb phrase.
For example: Nelson fell on this spot. In this sentence ‘on this spot’ is a group of words that
tells us where Nelson fell. Here it modifies/adds meaning/qualifies the verb ‘fell’ therefore it
is an adverb phrase.
iv. Adjective Phrase
Definition: Such a group of words that qualifies noun and does the work of an adjective is
called adjective phrase.
For example: He was lad of great promise. In this sentence ‘of great promise’ is a group of
words that qualifies the noun ‘lad’ therefore it is an adjective phrase.
v. Preposition Phrase/Prepositional Phrase
Definition: A phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, pronoun or noun
phrase is called preposition or prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase includes
preposition and its object and also modifiers of object.
Note: Prepositional phrases can function either as adjective phrases or adverb phrases to
modify the other words in a sentence.
Example:
The boy with him is his son. (Prepositional phrase working as an adjective)
We climbed up the hill to see the view. (Prepositional phrase working as an adverb)
It annoys me when people talk during movies. (Prepositional phrase working as an adverb)
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16. Types of Clauses
Coordinate Clause and Subordinate Clause
Coordinate Clause/Main Clause/Principal Subordinate Clause/Dependent
Clause/Independent Clause Clause
Definition: A clause which makes complete Definition: A clause which depends on
sense independently and stands by itself. some other clause for its meaning.
For example: For example:
I received a letter and replied to it. When I was walking in the street, I met
In the above example, ‘I received a letter’ is a beggar.
coordinate clause. In the above example, ‘when I was
walking in the street’ is a subordinate
clause.

17. Kinds of Clauses

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Following are the major kinds of clauses.

Note: All these kinds of clauses are subordinate clauses.
i. Noun clauses ii. Adjective clauses iii. Adverb clauses iv. Relative clauses
i. Noun Clauses
Definition: A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun in relation to main
clause.
For example:
I understand that prices have increased. (The underlined clause is a noun clause because it is
functioning as a noun and it is a clause because it has a finite verb ‘increased’ and subject
‘prices’)
ii. Adjective Clauses:
Definition: An adjective clause is a subordinate clause which functions as an adjective in
modifying a noun or pronoun.
For Example:
The house which he has bought has a swimming pool. (Underlined clause modifies the noun
house and it is a clause because it has a finite verb bought and subject ‘he’)
This is the room in which I shall sleep tonight. (Underlined clause modifies the noun room
and it is clause because it has a finite verb ‘sleep’ and subject ‘I’)
iii. Adverb Clauses
Definition: An adverb clause is a subordinate clause which functions as an adverb in
modifying a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
For example:
You may leave whenever you wish. (Underlined clause is an adverb clause because it is
modifying the verb ‘leave’)
iv. Relative Clauses
Definition: Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun.
Example:
The woman who lives next door works in a bank. (‘who lives next door’ is a clause because
it is giving extra information about the noun ‘woman’)
The film that we saw last week was awful. (‘that we saw last week’ is a clause because it is
giving extra information about the noun ‘film’)
NOTE: There is no such difference between an adjective clause and a relative clause.
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18. Particle versus Gender
PARTICLES GENDER
Definition: A word or a part of a word that Definition: The difference of sex is
has grammatical purpose but often has little called gender.
or no meaning. For example:
For example: I washed up the clothes. I saw a man and woman with a baby and
In this sentence, ‘up’ is a particle. a bag.
In the above example.
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Man: Masculine gender

Woman: Feminine gender
Baby: Common gender
Bag: Neuter Gender
19. Masculine Gender and Feminine Gender
Masculine Gender Feminine Gender
Definition: A noun which denotes a male Definition: A noun which denotes a
person or animal is called masculine gender. female person or animal is called
Example: boy, horse, father etc. feminine gender.
Example: girl, mother, she, goat

20. Neuter Gender and Common Gender

Neuter Gender Common Gender
Definition: Neuter Gender is a noun which Definition: Common Gender is a noun
denotes a thing that is neither female nor which is used wither for a male or a
male (i.e., thing without life.) female.
Example: book, tree, room, pen etc. Example: Parent, child, friend, pupil,
thief, enemy, cousin etc.

21. Passive Voice and Active Voice

Active Voice Passive Voice
Definition:A verb is in the active voice Definition:A verb is in the passive voice
when its form shows that the person or when its form shows that something is
thing denoted by the subject does done to the person or thing denoted by
something; or, in other words, when subject
the subject.
is the doer of the action then it is called
In this case, when the person or thing
active voice. denoted by the subject is not active but
Example: Rama helps Harry. passive and it suffers or receives some
action.
Example: Harry is helped by Rama.
22. Direct Narration and Indirect Narration/Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct Narration/Speech Indirect Narration/Speech
Definition: Direct speech is that form of Definition: Indirect speech is that
narration in which the actual words of the form of narration in which the actual
speaker are quoted. words of the speaker are not reported
Example: but the same sense is nevertheless,
He said, “I am going to the market”. conveyed.
Example:
He told that he was going to the
market.

23. Function words and content words

FUNCTION WORDS CONTENT WORDS
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Definition: Determiners are sometimes Definition: True adjectives on the

called ‘function word’ because they have other hand are called content words-
very little meaning in themselves-they merely because they have some sort of finite
perform a function in a sentence. meaning when they stand alone.
Example: Example:
All the good work is ruined. He is afraid.

24. Participle and Gerund

PARTICIPLE/VERBAL ADJECTIVE GERUND/VERBAL NOUN
Definition: A participle is that form of the Definition: A gerund is that form of
verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb which ends in -ing, and has the
verb and of an adjective. force of a noun and a verb.
OR OR
Definition: A participle is a word which is Definition: A gerund is a word which
partly a verb and partly an adjective. is partly a verb and partly a noun.
Example: Example:
Hearing the noise, the boy woke up. Swimming is a good exercise.
The word ‘hearing’, therefore, it takes the In this sentence ‘swimming’ is gerund
nature of both a Verb and an Adjective, and because it takes the nature of both a
is called a participle. verb and also a noun.
25. Present Participle and Past Participle
PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE
Definition: The form of verb ending in –ing. Definition: Third form of every verb
It is used in forming continuous tenses. is called past participle. Past participle
Example: is used in making perfect tenses.
Marry is interested in reading books. Example:
He left the room laughing. I have read an interesting book.
I have finished my work.
26. Perfect Participle:
Definition: It is formed by using ‘having’ before the third form of a verb.
Example:
Having drunk too much he vomited. (In this sentence ‘having drunk’ is perfect participle)
Having been found guilty, he was sentenced by the judge. (In this sentence ‘having been ‘is
perfect participle)
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27. Define Object
Definition: An object is a noun or pronoun that is governed by a verb or a preposition. OR
When a noun or pronoun receives an action in a sentence then it is called object of that
sentence.
For example:
Ali killed a snake. (Ali is subject, killed is verb (2nd form) and a snake is object of this
sentence)
There are three kinds of object.

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i. Direct object ii. Indirect object iii. Object of preposition

28. Direct object versus Indirect Object
Direct Object Indirect Object
Definition: Definition:
An object which receives the action directly An object which receives the action of
is called a direct object. It usually refers to a a verb indirectly.
thing. For example: I gave him a book.
For example: I gave him a book. She handed over me a cheque.
She handed over me a cheque. In above examples ‘him’ and ‘me’ are
In above examples ‘book’ and ‘cheque’ are indirect objects.
direct objects. (Answer of what) (Answer of whom)
29. Object of preposition
Definition: The object of a preposition is a noun or a pronoun that is governed by a
preposition. The object of a preposition is usually the noun or pronoun to the right of
preposition.
For example: Cook without salt. (Without is preposition and salt is object)
Sit with them.(With is preposition and them is object)
30. Determiners
Definition: Determiners like adjectives give information about nouns and pronouns. But they
do not strictly speaking describe nouns and pronouns-which is one of the definitions of an
adjective. Determiners were so named because they determine the number and definiteness
of the noun phrase to which they are attached.
Common determiners are the following:
 Articles
 Demonstratives
 Possessives
 Numbers
 Indefinite determiners: including all, any, both, each, either, every, few, less, more,
enough, neither, no, several, some, only.
Example:
Give me that gun.
This girl is my best friend.
31. Complement
Definition: A word or group of words which is used after linking verb is called a
complement.
For example:
Ali is a teacher. (Subject complement)
We made Ali teacher. (Object complement)
There are two kinds/types of complement.
i. Subject complement ii. Object complement
i. Subject Complement
Definition: A subject complement is a word or phrase that follows a linking verb and
identifies or describes a subject.
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For example:
 The box is a present. (In this sentence ‘the box’ is subject and ‘is’ is linking verb and
‘a present’ is a subject complement because it is identifying the subject ‘box’.)
 The box smells funny. (In this sentence ‘the box’ is subject and ‘smells’ is linking
verb and ‘funny’ is subject complement because it is describing the subject ‘box’)
ii. Object Complement
Definition: An object complement is a noun, pronoun or an adjective which follows a direct
object to rename it or state what it has become.
For example:
We made Ali teacher. (In this example ‘teacher’ is an object complement because it is stating
about the object ‘Ali’)
32. Syllable
A syllable is any of the units into which a word is divided, containing a vowel sound and
usually one or more consonants.
For example:
There are two syllables in ‘water’ and three in ‘inferno’ (hell)
33. Syntax
Definition: The scientific study of the formation of sentences is called syntax.
Definition: The arrangement of words into meaningful sentences is called syntax.
Syntax of sentence is as follows.
Subject+verb+object/complement+adverb
OR
Definition: The study of rules of grammar that are used for ordering, connecting words to
from phrases or sentences is called syntax.
Subject+verb+object/complement+adverb
34. Grammar
Definition: Grammar is defined as the study of the ways we use words to make sentences.
Subject+verb+object/complement+adverb
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35. Parts of speech
Definition: Words can be divided into different groups or categories called parts of speech.
There are 8 parts of speech in English. These parts of speech are noun, pronoun, adjective,
verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Note:Some grammarians also include articles (a,an,the) in parts of speech. Some say that
these are types of adjectives.
i. Noun
Definition: Nouns are the words used for persons, places and things.
For example
Quaid-e-Azam, Aslam, Lahore, Book etc.
ii. Pronoun
Definition: Pronouns are the words used in place of nouns.
For example

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Ali is a good boy. He obeys his elders. (The words ‘he’ and ‘his’ are used in place of proper
noun ‘Ali’ so these are pronouns)
iii. Adjective
Definition: Adjectives are the words which modify the nouns and pronouns in a sentence.
For example:
I saw a beautiful scene. (In this sentence, ‘beautiful’ is an adjective that modifies the noun
‘scene’)
She is very intelligent. (In this sentence, ‘intelligent’ is an adjective because it is modifying
the pronoun ‘she’)
iv. Verb
Definition: Words which are used for an action, state or existence are called verbs.
For example:
The thief ran away. (Action)
I felt thirsty. (State)
The students are in the room. (Existence)
v. Adverb
Definition: Adverb is a word which is used to modify/add meaning to any word in a
sentence except noun or pronoun. OR An adverb is a word used to add meaning to a verb,
adjective or another adverb in a sentence.
Example:
She moves slowly. (In this sentence, ‘slowly’ is an adverb because it adds to the meaning of
verb ‘moves.)
He runs fast. (In this sentence, ‘fast’ is an adverb because it is modifying the verb ‘runs’)
Ali is a very good student. (In this sentence, ‘very’ is an adverb because it is modifying the
adjective ‘good’)
vi. Preposition
Definition: Prepositions are the words which are placed before nouns or pronouns in order to
make their relation with some other noun or pronoun.
Example
The book is on the table. (In this sentence ‘on’ is preposition which is making relationship
between book and table)
The cart was put before the horse. (In this sentence, ‘before’ is preposition which is making
relationship between cart and horse)
vii. Conjunction
Definition: Conjunctions are the words used for joining words, phrases clauses or sentences.
Example
Tariq and Shabbir obey their parents. (In this sentence, ‘and’ is a conjunction which is
joining two nouns Tariq and Shabbir)
I like English language but my brother likes literature. (In this sentence, ‘but’ is a
conjunction which is joining two clauses of equal rank.)
viii. Interjection
Definition: An interjection is a word that expresses some sudden feelings or emotions.
Example

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Hurrah! We have won the match. (Hurrah! is expressing some sudden feelings so it is an
interjection)
Alas! His mother has passed away. (Alas! is expressing some sudden feelings so it is an
interjection)
ix. Articles
There are two types of articles.
i. Definite articles ii. Indefinite articles
i. Definite articles
Definition: ‘The’ is called definite article.
i. Definite Article:
Definite article points to a particular noun. ‘The’ is a definite article.
For example:
The boy is playing well.

Definite Article
ii. Indefinite Article
Indefinite article does not point to any particular noun.
For example: a, an
This is a pen.
Indefinite article
In above example, ‘a’ does not point to any particular pen and therefore is indefinite article.
Note: Some grammarians also include zero article.
iii. Zero Article
The absence of an article before a noun or noun phrase is called zero article.
Example:
Carrots are good for you.
In the above example, no article is used before noun ‘carrot’.
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1. TYPES OF NOUN
i. Common Nouns
Definition: A common noun is the name of a class shared by each of its members.
For example
Man, dog, horse, city, book, river
ii. Proper Nouns
Definition: Proper noun is the name of a particular thing, a particular place or particular
person.
For example
Sheroze, Taj Mahal, Lahore, Asia, Ammara
iii. Abstract Nouns
Definition: The name of a quality, idea, action or state is called abstract noun.
Example:
Kindness, honesty, hatred, slavery, childhood etc.
iv. Concrete Nouns

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Definition: A concrete noun is that which can be touched or having some physical existence.
For example:
Man, city, crowd, milk, Karachi, Ahmad etc.
v. Collective Nouns
Definition: A collective noun is the name of a group or collection of similar persons or
things considered as one complete whole.
For example:
Class, team, family, crowd, Army, police, nation, flock, jury, group, swarm, committee,
congregation, mob, herd, parliament, nation, fleet etc.
vi. Material Nouns
Definition: A material noun is the name of material or matter or substance out of which
other things are made.
For example:
Gold, wood, silver, iron, milk, cotton, water etc.
vii. Countable Nouns
Definition: These are used for persons, places or things which can be counted.
For example:
Pen, book, apple, boy, sister, horse etc.
viii. Uncountable Nouns
Definition: These are the names of things which cannot be counted.
For example:
Ink, milk, oil, sugar, gold, water, air etc.
ix. Compound Nouns
Definition: A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words.
For example:
Daughter-in-law, bedroom, toothpaste etc.
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2. Types of Pronoun
i. Personal pronouns
Definition: A personal pronoun is a pronoun that is used for the name of a person. Personal
pronouns have the same gender and number as the nouns for which they are used.
For example: He, she, it, they, I, we etc.
Note: I and We are first person pronouns, you is second person pronoun while he, she it and
they are third person pronouns.
First Person Second Person Third Person
Third Person
CASE (Always Common (Always Common Person
Plural
Gender) Gender) Singular
Always
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Common
Gender Gender Gender
Gender
Nominative
You You
case/ I We He She It They
Thou Thou
Subjective case
Your Your
Possessive case/ My Our Her Their
Yours Yours His Its
Genitive case Mine Ours Hers Theirs
Thy/Thine Thy/Thine

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You
Objective Case Me Us Him Her It Them
Thee
ii. Demonstrative pronouns
Definition: These pronouns are used in place of nouns to which they point.
For example: This, that, these, those, such, someone, none, same, one, so.
This is my book.
These are flowers.
Those are my pens.
She may buy that.
iii. Interrogative pronouns
Definition: They are pronouns which are used for asking questions. They are used in place
of nouns which we get in answer to the question.
Example:
What is this? It is a book.
The following are the interrogative pronouns.
who, whom, whose, which, what
iv. Relative pronouns
Definition: A relative pronoun is one that refers to a noun or pronoun and joins two
sentences. It serves the purpose of both a pronoun and a conjunction.
Example:
I like those books which contain great ideas. (In this sentence which is a relative pronoun and
book is antecedent)
Give this book to the man who is sitting in my office. (In this sentence who is a relative
pronoun and man is its antecedent)
Antecedent:
Definition: The noun or pronoun to which the relative pronoun refers is called its
antecedent.
Example:
I like those books which contain great ideas. (In this sentence which is a relative pronoun and
book is antecedent)
Give this book to the man who is sitting in my office. (In this sentence who is a relative
pronoun and man is its antecedent)
v. Indefinite pronouns
Definition: Indefinite pronouns are those which refer to persons or things in general and not
in particular.
List of indefinite pronouns: many, all, few, some, one, none, much, others, any, little, less,
enough, each, either, neither.
Arranged: Some (body, one, thing), any (body, one, thing), every (body, one, thing)
Example:
One should do one’s duty.
Many are born, but few are remembered after their death.
All is well that ends well.
Each of them was given a present.
vi. Distributive pronouns
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Definition: Each, either, neither are called distributive pronouns because they refer to
persons and things one at a time. They are always singular and always followed by a singular
verb.
Example:
Each of the boys was punished.
Each of these students has paid his dues.
Either of these two buses will go to Lahore.
Neither of the girls was present.
Note: In case of more than two persons or things, any, no one, none should be used.
vii. Reflexive pronouns
Definition: Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding self to my, your, him, her, it and
selves to our, your and them. (Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves). They are always used as objects and never as subjects. They are used when the
action done by the subject is reflected back, or turns back on the subject, i.e., when subject
and object are the same persons.
Example:
He cut himself.
He shaved himself.
Aslam and Akram blamed themselves for the accident.
Samina hits herself with a ruler.
The dog saw itself reflected in water.
viii. Emphatic pronouns/Intensive pronouns
Definition: They have the same form as the reflexive pronouns but their use or function is
different. They are used to lay emphasis on the subject of the sentence. Therefore they are
placed after the subject or after the object if there is one.
Example:
Ali himself opened the door. (After subject for emphasis)
The village itself is quite small. (After subject for emphasis)
Ali opened the door himself. (After the object)
She was drawing the map herself. (After the object)
ix. Reciprocal pronouns
Definition:“Each other” and “One another” are called reciprocal pronouns.
Example:
They stayed two hours without talking to each other/one another.
Note: In modern English there is no difference between the two forms. But if there are two
persons or things then preferably use each other and if there are more than two than use one
another.
x. Possessive pronouns
Definition: This is a type of personal pronouns. When pronouns are used for possession they
are called possessive pronouns.
Example:
This book is mine.(In this sentence ‘mine’s is possessive pronoun)
The cat is yours. (In this sentence ‘yours’ is a possessive pronoun)
The ring is hers. (In this sentence ‘hers’ is a possessive pronoun)
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Note: When a noun is used with a possessive pronoun then it becomes a possessive
adjective. (This is my book. Here my is possessive adjective because it is used with a noun
‘book’)
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3. TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
i. Adjective of quality/Descriptive adjective/Qualifying adjective
Definition: These show the kind, quality or condition of a person or thing.
Example:
Aslam is a brave boy.
Faisalabad is a large city.
She wears a black cap.
I live in a small house.
Ahmad is a wise man.
ii. Adjective of quantity
Definition: These adjectives show the quantity or degree or magnitude of a thing. Adjectives
of quantity tell how much of a thing is meant.
Example:
The child took some milk.
There is not sufficient light in the rooms.
A little knowledge is dangerous.
iii. Numeral adjectives
Definition: These are the adjectives that tell how many persons or things are meant or in
what order a person or thing stands.
Example:
I have two pens.
She got first position in the examination.
Few cats like cold water.
All men must die.
Sunday is the third day of the week.
iv. Demonstrative adjectives
Definition: These are the adjectives that show which or what thing or person is meant.
Example:
This box is very heavy.
That gentleman has childlike habits.
Those leaders have always betrayed their nation.
I hate such an attitude.
Note: Demonstrative adjectives answer the question “which”.
v. Distributive adjectives
Definition: These are the adjectives that show that things are taken separately.
Example:
Each pen costs five rupees.
Every boy was given some sweets.
Neither edition of the book was good.
On either side is a narrow lane.
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Neither accusation is true.

vi. Interrogative adjectives
Definition: These are the adjective that are used with nouns for asking questions.
Example:
Which fruit do you like most?
Whose pen is this?
Whose house is this?
What places would you like to see in Lahore?
vii. Possessive adjectives
Definition: These are the adjectives that are used with nouns to show the possession of a
thing.
Example:
This is my book.
This is your house.
We have achieved our goals.
This tree sheds its leaves in autumn.
viii. Proper Adjectives
Definition: These are the adjectives which are formed from proper nouns.
Example:
He is a Pakistani player.
He is an English man.
ix. Exclamatory adjective
Definition: Exclamatory adjective is a word that shows emotion so it is used with a noun.
We know that ‘what’ is a question word but usually ‘what’ is used to show strong emotion. It
means, word used to show strong emotion is an exclamatory adjective.
Example:
What a genius!
What an idea!
What a folly!
What a blessing!
What a piece of work is man!
What a popular actor he is!
What a charming child he is!
x. Emphasizing adjective
Definition: Emphasizing adjectives lay stress on the proceeding noun. The words used to
emphasize a noun are called emphasizing adjectives. ‘Very’ and ‘own’ are the most
commonly used emphasizing adjectives which are used to emphasize some idea.
Example:
I saw it with my own eyes.
He is his own master.
That is the very thing we want.
DEGRESS OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Positive Degree: It is used when no comparison is made. It is the basic or dictionary form of
an [Link] is a tall boy.‘Tall’ here is an adjective of positive degree.
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Comparative Degree: It is used when the quality of only two nouns is compared. Ali is
taller than Aslam. “Taller” is a comparative adjective and ‘than’ is always used after
adjectives in comparative degree.
Superlative Degree: It is used when more than two nouns or pronouns are compared. Ali is
the tallest boy of the class. In this sentence ‘tallest’ is the superlative degree of adjective.
Definite article ‘the’ is always used with superlative degree of adjective.
Attributive use and predictive use of Adjective
Attributive Adjective Predicative adjective
An adjective used with a noun is known as An adjective used with a verb is known
attributive adjective. as predicative use of adjective.
Example: She is intelligent girl. Example: She is afraid.
Adjective Noun Verb adjective
In above example, ‘intelligent’ is an In above example ‘afraid’ is predicative
attributive use of adjective. use of adjective.

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4. TYPESOF ADVERB
Definition: An adverb is a word that adds meaning to any word in a sentence except a noun
or a pronoun.
Example:
He runs fast. (Fast is an adverb and it is modifying the verb runs)
He runs very fast. (Very is an adverb because it is modifying the adverb fast)
There are three types of Adverb
1. Simple Adverbs 2. Interrogative Adverbs 3. Relative Adverbs
1. Simple Adverbs are divided into seven different kinds.
Types of Simple Adverbs:
i. Adverb of Time
Definition: Words or group of words which tell us of the time of an action are called adverbs
of time or adverbials of time.
Example:
He hurt his leg yesterday.
He left the room immediately.
It happened a year ago.
I hope to finish it soon.
ii. Adverb of Place
Definition: Adverbs of place show where an action is or was done.
Example:
He searched the lost child everywhere.
He will stand here till you come back.
He ran away from home.
He was sitting inside.
iii. Adverb of Manner
Definition: Adverbs of manner tell us of the way or manner in which an action is done. They
are the answer of ‘how’.
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Example:
He runs fast.
They fought bravely.
They talked loudly.
She reads clearly.
The book is well written.
He walked slowly.
iv. Adverbs of Degree/Adverbs of Quantity
Definition: They show how much, to what extent or in what degree or to what extent an
action is or was done.
Example:
You are quite right.
He is fully prepared for the emergency.
He is very happy.
He is almost mature.
The mangoes are nearly ripe.
v. Adverbs of Number or Frequency
Definition: They tell us how often or how many times or how frequently an action is done.
Example:
I have read this book thrice.
He never comes late.
He always speaks the truth.
He came here once.
They seldom go to Karachi.
vi. Adverbs of Affirmation, Probability and Negation
Definition: They tell us an action is done or not done or what is the probability of an action.
Example:
It is not my book.
Yes, I will come.
Perhaps you are right.
I will certainly help you.
vii. Adverbs of Reason, Purpose or Consequence
Definition: They tell us why some action was done or not done.
Example:
He was, therefore, expelled from the college.
I am, hence,to keep my appointment.
He did not work hard, therefore, he failed.
2. Interrogative Adverbs
Definition: The adverbs which are used for asking questions are called interrogative
adverbs. Like simple adverbs these indicate time, place, number, manner, quality or state,
quantity or degree, cause or reason etc.
Example:
Why is the child weeping? (Reason or cause)
Where are you going? (Place)
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When will the train arrive at Lahore? (Time)

How do you go to your office? (Manner)
How far can you help me? (Extent)
3. Relative Adverbs
Definition: When the interrogative adverbs are used to join two clauses or sentences, they
are called relative adverbs. Relative adverbs like relative pronouns refer back to their
antecedents.
Example:
That is the spot where the dictator was hanged.
I don’t know why he disobeyed me.
I do not know how he earned so much money.
I can tell you how much wheat he has hoarded.
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5. TYPES OF VERB
Definition: A verb is a word that describes an action, an event or a state of being.
Example:
He told me an interesting story. (Told)
She is a doctor. (Is as a linking verb)
They boy seems tired. (Seems is describing state of boy)
CATEGORIES OF VERB
There are two categories of verb
i. Finite verb
a Principal verb/Main verb/Lexical (Transitive verb, intransitive verb, di-transitive
Verb verb, regular and irregular verb, ergative verb,
causative verb, stative and dynamic verb)
b Linking verb/copula/copular verb

c Auxiliary verb i. Primary auxiliary verb

There are 2 types of auxiliary verb ii. Modal auxiliary verb

ii. Non-finite verb

a Infinitive
b Gerund
c Participle i. Present participle
There are 3 types of participles ii. Past participle
iii. Perfect participle

Finite verb can be

 Transitive or intransitive or di-transitive verb
 Regular and irregular/Weak and Strong verbs
 Ergative verb

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 Causative
 Factitive
 Stative or dynamic
 Transitive Verb
Definition: A transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes over from the doer
or subject to an object.
OR
A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning is called transitive verb.
Example:
The boy kicks the football.
Ali killed the snake.
 Intransitive Verb
Definition: An intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which does not passes over
from the doer or subject to an object.
OR
A verb that does not take an object to complete its meaning is called intransitive verb.
Note: It is an action verb that has no object to receive its action.
Example:
i. Harry laughs.
ii. The baby slept.
 Di-transitive verb
Di-transitive verbs are the verbs that take both direct object and indirect object.
Example: bring, buy, give, pass, trade
i. Please pass me the rice.
ii. Ayesha gave Ali the pen.
In the above examples, ‘pass’ and ‘gave’ are di-transitive verbs.
 Regular Verb/Weak Verb
Definition: A verb whose second and third form is made only by adding “ed,d’t” in the end.
Example:
Kill-killed-killed
Burn-burnt-burnt
 Irregular Verb/Strong Verb
Definition: A verb whose second and third form is not made by adding “ed,d,t” in the end.
Example:
Break-broke-broken
Meet-met- met
Come-came-come
 Ergative verb
Definition: A verb that can be used both transitively and intransitively is called an ergative
verb.
Example:
She boils water.
The water boils.

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He opens the door.

The door opens.
 Causative verb
Definition: The verbs that express the idea of somebody causing someone to happen or
causing another person to do something. In English there are three true causative verbs, and
they are: Let, Have and Make.
 Stative verb and dynamic/fientive verb
Definition:Dynamic verbs usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen.
Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static.
For example:
She plays tennis. (Dynamic)
The snow melts every spring. (Dynamic)
I hate chocolate. (Stative)

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i. Finite verb:
Definition: A finite verb is a verb that changes its form according to the tense (present and
past) of the sentence, the number and person of the subject. It is the main verb of a sentence
or clause.
Example:
I like reading books.
He likes reading books.
(In above sentences, reading is a verb that is non-finite because it does not change according
to subject or number)
This chair is broken. (In this sentence ‘is’ is finite verb’ while broken is non-finite verb)
ii. Non-finite verb:
Definition:The verb which is not affected by the person or number of the subject and the
tense of the sentence is called non-finite verb. It acts as noun, adjective and adverb.
Example:
I like reading books.
He likes reading books.
In above sentences, ‘like’ is a verb that is finite because it changes according to
subject/person or number.
This chair is broken. (In this sentence ‘is’ is finite verb’ while broken is non-finite verb)
TYPES OF FINITE VERB
i. Principal verb/Lexical verb/Main verb
Definition: A principal verb is the verb that provides information and is used to express an
action. It functions as the main verb of the sentence or a clause.
Example:
He gave me a book. (Gave is main verb because it is expressing an action)
He told me a story. (Told is the past of tell and it is finite verb and it can change according to
subject or number so it is a finite verb)
The child weeps. (Weep is main verb in this sentence)
ii. Linking verb/Copular verb/Copula
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Definition: A linking verb connects the subject of the sentence to a word (subject
complement) or a phrase and gives information about the subject.
Subject + Linking verb + Subjective complement
(Noun/Adjective/Participle)
Some linking verbs: Be (is, are, am, was, were) become, look, seem, grow, taste, appear,
feel, get etc.
Example:
They are students. (‘Are’ is a linking verb and ‘students’ is a complement and it is a noun)
He looks happy. (Looks is joining subject to a word that is giving information about subject
that is why it is a linking verb here)
They seemed tired. (Seemed is a verb that is joining subject to a word to complete its
meaning that is why it is a linking verb)
iii. Auxiliary Verbs
Definition: Auxiliary verbs are the verbs that are used to help the main verb to express its
meaning in accordance with tense or mood.
i. Primary Auxiliary Verbs ii. Modal Auxiliary Verbs
i. Primary Auxiliary Verb: Be (is, are, am, was, were), do(do, does, did), have (has,
have, had) it can be used as a helping verb or main verb in a sentence.
Example:
They are playing. (Primary auxiliary)
I have finished my work. (Primary auxiliary)
I have a dog. (Main verb)
I do my work. (Main verb)
ii. Modal auxiliary verb
Definition: Modal auxiliary verb or modal verb is a verb that is used with the main verb to
indicate mood or tense.
Modal auxiliaries: Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to, need,
used to.
Example:
You can jump. (Jump is main verb and can is modal auxiliary)
It may rain today. (Rain is main verb and may is modal auxiliary here)
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TYPES OF NON-FINTIE VERB
Non-finite verb:
Definition:The verb which is not affected by the person or number of the subject and the
tense of the sentence is called non-finite verb. It acts as noun, adjective and adverb.
Example:
I like reading books.
He likes reading books.
In above sentences, ‘reading’ is a verb that is non-finite because it does not change according
to subject/person or number.
This chair is broken. (In this sentence ‘is’ is finite verb’ while broken is non-finite verb)
i. Infinitive

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Definition: An infinitive is that form of a verb that acts as a noun, an adjective or an adverb
in a sentence. It is form with
To + Base form of the verb
To play, to eat, to buy
Example:
I like to swim. (Like is main verb and swim in non-finite verb and to is used with swim so it
is infinitive and it is acting as a noun here and noun ‘to swim’ is object in this sentence)
To walk is useful. (To walk is used as a subject that is why it is used as a noun and to is used
with walk so it is infinitive)
ii. Gerund
Definition: Gerund is the word that is formed with a verb by adding –ing and acts as a noun.
e.g. –playing, swimming, dancing, learning etc.
Example:
I like swimming. (Two verbs, like is main verb and swimming is non-finite verb and it is
used in place of object and as we know that we usenoun in place of subject and object so it is
a gerund)
Walking is a good exercise. (Walking is used here as a subject to subject is always a noun or
a pronoun so it is gerund)
Note: We can use infinitive is place of gerund if it is working as a subject but if it is used as
an object then it depends upon the main verb of the sentence.
iii. Participle
Definition: A participle is a word that is formed from a verb and acts as a verb, an adjective
or an adverb.
Example:
They are playing. (As a verb)
I saw a burning hut. (As an adjective)
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF PARTICIPLES
a. Present participle
Definition: The form of verb ending in –ing. It is commonly used in forming continuous
tenses but not always.
Example:
Marry is interested in reading books.
He left the room laughing.
They are playing. (Forming continuous tense)
b. Past participle
Definition: Third form of every verb is called past participle. Past participle is used in
making perfect tenses.
Example:
I have read an interesting book. (As a verb)
I have finished my work. (As a verb)
There is a broken chair. (As an adjective)
c. Perfect Participle:
Definition: It is formed by using ‘having’ before the third form of a verb.
Example:
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Having drunk too much he vomited. (In this sentence ‘having drunk’ is perfect participle)
Having been found guilty, he was sentenced by the judge. (In this sentence ‘having been ‘is
perfect participle)
He took his food. He went to school.
Having taken his food, he went to school.

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6. PREPOSITION AND ITS KINDS/TYPES
Definition: A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show its relation to
some other word in a sentence.
For example: on, of, in, under, by, with, to, off, through, beside, for etc.
Following are the FIVE types/kinds of preposition
i. Simple Preposition
ii. Compound Preposition
iii. Double Preposition
iv. Phrase Preposition
v. Participle Preposition
i. Simple Preposition
Definition: Prepositions which are not formed by any method are known as simple
preposition.
For example: at, in, since, for, by, with, over, but, down, up etc.
ii. Compound Preposition
Definition: Prepositions which are formed with some nouns, adjectives, adverbs are known
as compound preposition.
For example: about, outside, besides, beyond, above, along etc.
iii. Double Preposition
Definition: Prepositions which contain two words are known as double prepositions.
For example: out of, according to, owning to, opposite to etc.
iv. Phrase Preposition
Definition: Groups of words which are used as prepositions are known as phrase
prepositions.
For example: by dint of, in search of, because of, in order to etc.
v. Participle Preposition

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Definition: Present participles which are used as prepositions are known as participle
preposition.
For example: concerning, regarding, during etc.
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7. Conjunction
Following are the types of Conjunction
Coordinating conjunction versus Subordinating Conjunction
i. Coordinating Conjunction ii. Subordinating Conjunction
Definition: Coordinating conjunctions are Subordinating conjunctions are those
those conjunctions which join together conjunctions which join main clause
clauses of equal rank. with subordinate clause.
Example: Example:
The teacher asked a question but no one He takes medicine because he suffers
answered. from fever.
In above example, ‘but’ is a coordinating In the above example, ‘because’ is a
conjunction as it joins two clauses of equal subordinating conjunction as it joins
rank. two clauses of unequal rank.
Other examples include: For, And, Nor, Other examples include: after, if, that,
But, Or, Yet, and So. (FANBOYS) until, than, except, since, while, when,
where, as, unless, though, still, before,
although, and which.
iii. Correlative conjunctions.
Definition: Correlative conjunctions include pairs such as “both/and”, “either/or”,
“neither/nor”, “not/but”, and “not only/but also”.
Example:
I want either the cheesecake or the chocolate cake. (Either/or)
We will have both the cheesecake and the chocolate cake. (Both/and)
iv. Conjunctive adverb
Definition: Conjunctive adverbs are the words that join independent clauses into one
sentence. When you use a conjunctive adverb use a semicolon (;) before it and a comma (,)
after it.
Example:
The baby fell asleep; then, the doorbell rang.
There are many history books; however, none of them may be accurate.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TYPES OF SENTENCES
According to Function/Meaning
THERE ARE FIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
i. Declarative/Assertive Sentences
Definition: Sentences which tell us that some action or event has taken place or not is called
a declarative or assertive sentence. It always ends with a full stop.
We can say that a statement may be positive (affirmative), negative or emphatic.
Example:
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He goes to college regularly. (Affirmative/Positive)

He does not go to college regularly. (Negative)
You must obey your elders. (Emphatic)
ii. Interrogative Sentences
Definition: A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. It ends with a
sign of interrogation (?).
Example:
What are you reading?
Where are you going?
iii. Imperative Sentences
A sentence that expresses order, command, request, appeal or advice is called an imperative
sentence. In these sentences the subject ‘you’ is understood.
Example:
Polish my shoes. (Order, Command)
Please give me your pen. (Request, Appeal)
Do not waste your time. (Advice)
Note: If there is a strong command, it may end with a sign of exclamation e.g. Get lost!
iv. Exclamatory Sentences
Definition: Exclamatory sentences express some strong feelings of mind as joy, sorrow,
surprise or wonder. The mark of exclamation is always used at the end of these sentences or
words.
Example:
Hurrah! We have won the match. (Joy)
Alas! He is dead. (Sorrow)
What a beautiful bird! (Wonder)
v. Optative Sentences
A sentence that expresses a prayer or wish is called an optative sentence. Optative sentence
is also a type of exclamatory sentence.
Example:
May you live long!
I wish I were a king!
TYPES OF SENTENCES
According to Structure
THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
i. Simple Sentences
Definition: It is a type of sentence which has only subject and one predicate.
Example: The moon was bright.
Subject Predicate
Above mentioned sentence is a simple sentence because it has a subject and a predicate.
ii. Compound Sentences
Definition: It is a type of sentence in which there are two main clauses of equal rank and
joined together by some coordinate conjunctions. These sentences are independent of each

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other. They have simply been joined together. OR A sentence in which there are two
subjects and two predicates is called a compound sentence.
Example:
Ali is my brother and Aslam is my friend.
iii. Complex Sentences
Definition: It is a type of sentence in which there is one main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.
Example: The moon was bright because of which we could see our way.
Above mentioned sentence is an example of complex sentence because it has one main
clause and one subordinate clause.
iv. Compound complex Sentences
Definition: Such a sentence in which there are two main clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
Example:
I like English language but my brother likes literature because literature is interesting.
NOTE: Some grammarians also include ‘Multiple Sentences’ in this category.
v. Multiple Sentences
Multiple sentences are such sentences that are having two or more than two main/principal
clauses and are with or without one or more subordinate clauses.
For example: She sat down and opened the book to read but went to sleep.
The above example is a multiple sentence because it has more than two main clauses.

Prof. Muhammad Baqir Naqvi

Contact: 0321-6039112
(One Can Never Climb the Ladder of Success with Both Hands in Pockets)
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i. Differentiate between simple sentence and complex sentence.

Simple Sentence Complex Sentence
Definition:It is a type of sentence which Definition: It is a type of sentence in
has only subject and one predicate. which there is one main clause and one
Example:The moonwas bright or more subordinate clauses.
Subject Predicate Example:The moon was bright because
Above mentioned sentence is a simple of which we could see our way.
sentence because it has a subject and a Above mentioned sentence is an
predicate. example of complex sentence because it
has one main clause and one subordinate
clause.

ii. Adverbs of place and adverbs of time

Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Time
It shows where an action is and was done. It shows when an action is or was done.
Example: Example:
Let us go out. We read the article yesterday.
In the above sentence, out is adverb of In the above example, ‘yesterday’ is
place, as it tells the answer of question adverb of time as it tells the answer of
where? question ‘when’.

iii. Di-transitive verb

Di-transitive verbs are the verbs that take both direct object and indirect object.
Example: bring, buy, give, pass, trade
iii. Please pass me the rice.
iv. Ayesha gave Ali the pen.
In the above examples, ‘pass’ and ‘gave’ are di-transitive verbs.
iv. Adverb of Degree or Quantity
It shows how much or in what degree or to what extent something happens.
Examples:
You are too careless.
These mangoes are almost ripe.
I am fully prepared.
In the above examples, ‘too’, ‘almost’ and ‘fully’ are adverbs of degree/quantity.
v. Regular Verb versus Irregular Verb
Regular Verb Irregular Verb
Definition:A verb whose second and third Definition:A verb whose second and
form is made only by adding “ed,d’t” in third form is not made by adding
the end. “ed,d,t” in the end.
Example: killkilledkilled Example: breakbrokebroken
Burnburntburnt Meetmetmet
Comecamecome
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vi. Transitive verb and intransitive verb

Transitive Verb Intransitive Verb
Definition: A transitive verb is a verb that Definition: An intransitive verb is a
denotes an action which passes over from verb that denotes an action which does
the doer or subject to an object. not passes over from the doer or
OR subject to an object.
Definition: A verb that requires an object OR
to complete its meaning is called transitive Definition: A verb that does not take
verb. an object to complete its meaning is
Example: called intransitive verb.
i. The boy kicks the football. Note:It is an action verb that has no
ii. Ali killed the snake. object to receive its action.
Example:
vii. Harry laughs.
viii. The baby slept.

viii. Distributive pronoun versus Distributive Adjective

Distributive Pronoun Distributive Adjective
A pronoun used to talk about each and An adjective used to show that things
every person separately. are taken separately.
For example: each, none, everyone, For example:
either, neither etc. Each pen costs five rupees.
They refer to persons and things one at a In above example “each” is used as a
time. They are always singular and distributive adjective.
followed by a singular verb.
For example: Each of the boys was
punished.
It is used in place of noun.

ix. Modal verbs/Modal Auxiliaries

An auxiliary verb that expresses necessity or possibility is called a modal verb.
For example: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to, need, used to
etc.
x. Affixes and its types.
Prefix Suffix
A syllable placed at the start of a word to A syllable placed at the end of a word
form a new word is called prefix. to form a new word is called suffix.
For example: unhappy, unreal, disadvantage. For example: Shameless,
In the above examples, ‘un’ and ‘dis’ are Hopeful
prefixes because they are at the start of root In the above examples, ‘less’ and ‘ful’
word. are suffixes.

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xi. Possessive Adjective and Demonstrative Pronoun

Possessive Adjective:
An adjective used to talk about ownership or possession is called possessive adjective.
For example: This is my pen.
In the above example, ‘my’ is possessive adjective. Other examples include; your, our, his,
her etc.
Demonstrative Pronoun:
A pronoun used to talk about/point out the person or thing we talk about is called
demonstrative pronoun.
For example:This is my pen. Those are oranges.
In the above examples, ‘this’ and ‘those’ are demonstrative pronouns.
xii. Gender versus Gerund
Gender Gerund
The difference of sex is called gender. Gerund is a verb used as noun. It is
There are four types of gender. also known as verbal-noun.
i. Masculine Gender i. Swimming is a good exercise.
ii. Feminine Gender ii. Dancing is a bad thing.
iii. Neuter Gender In the above examples. ‘swimming’
iv. Common Gender and ‘dancing’ are gerund.

xiii. Clause and Sentence

Clause Sentence
Definition:Clause is a group of words which Definition:Sentence is a group of
forms a part of a sentence and it has its own words which gives us complete sense.
subject and predicate. It gives us complete It has a verb and a predicate.
meaning. Example: He killed the snake.
Example:If I wash up all the clothes
somebody else can dry it.

xiv. Imperative Sentence versus Optative Sentence

Imperative Sentence Optative Sentence
Definition:Imperative sentence expresses Definition:Optative sentence
a command or request. expresses some wish or prayer.
For example: Bring a glass of water. For Example:
Please obey your parents. May you live long!
May you win the match!

xv. Nominative Case versus Accusative Case

Nominative Case Accusative Case
Definition:When a noun or pronoun is Definition:When a noun or pronoun is
used as a subject of verb, it is said to be used as the object of verb, it is said to
in the nominative case. be the accusative case.

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Nominative case is also known as Accusative case is also known as

subjective case. objective case.
To find the Nominative case, we should To find the Accusative Case we should
put, ‘who’? or ‘what’? before the verb put ‘whom’? or ‘what’? before the
and its subject. verb and its subject.
Example:The student learnt the lesson. Example:
In the given sentence, ‘the student’ is in He killed a snake.
nominative case. In the given sentence, ‘snake’ is in
accusative case.

xvi. Reflexive Pronoun and Emphatic Pronoun

Reflexive Pronoun Emphatic Pronoun
Definition:A pronoun used with ‘self’ or Definition:When reflexive pronouns
‘selves’ to reflect the action of verb back to are used to put emphasis on a
subject. particular noun they are called
For example: They hurt themselves. emphatic pronouns.
In the above example, ‘themselves’ is For example: I finished the job
reflexive pronoun. myself.
If we remove reflexive pronoun, the basic In the above example, ‘myself’ is an
meaning would be affected/changed. emphatic pronoun.
If we remove the emphatic pronoun,
the basic meaning could not be
affected.

xvii. A Word versus A Phrase

Word Phrase
Definition:A word is a meaningful Definition:A phrase is a group of words
combination of different letters. that makes sense but not complete sense.
For example: book, pen etc. For example: in a garden, on a wall

xviii. Possessive Pronoun versus Possessive Adjective

Possessive Pronoun Possessive Adjective
Definition:A pronoun that expresses Definition:An adjective which is used
possession or ownership. to talk about the possession or
For example: This book is mine. ownership.
In the above example, ‘mine’ is For example: This is my book.
possessive pronoun. In the above example, ‘my’ is
Other examples include: his, her, hers, possessive adjective.
ours, theirs, its etc.
A possessive pronoun is always used in
place of a noun.
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Prof. Muhammad Baqir Naqvi

(One Can Never Climb the Ladder of Success with Both Hands in Pockets)

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