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A REPORT OF ADVANCE MAPPING TECHNIQUES IN IGARRA AREA, EDO STATE,

SOUTH WESTREN NIGERIA

Experiment Findings · October 2024

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13922.95681

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 A REPORT OF ADVANCE MAPPING
TECHNIQUES IN IGARRA AREA, EDO STATE,
SOUTH WESTREN NIGERIA

SUBMITTED BY

OJO MICHAEL OLUWASEUN

TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT OF THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN
GEOLOGY
NOVEMBER,2023
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply appreciative of the individuals who have played an essential role in the completion of
this geological report . I would like to express my deep gratitude to all the academic and non-
academic staff of department of Geology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife whose
professional guidance have been invaluable throughout the fieldwork journey. I also acknowledge
the collaborative efforts of my classmates for their support which has been instrumental during the
field work. Finally, I want to express my profound thanks to my friends, siblings and family for
their unwavering encouragement and support throughout the fieldwork exercise.

2
 ABSTRACT

The Advanced Mapping Techniques (GLY 413) fieldwork is a compulsory course for final year
students in the Department of Geology in Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) which is designed
to help students to be able to interpret geological maps involving the thickness of strata and the
geometrical forms of outcrops. The GLY 413 fieldwork was carried out in Igarra and its environs
located in Akoko Edo Local Government Area, in the northern area of Edo State, Nigeria. The
area can be accessed by roads and several footpaths . The area is highly vegetated and well drained
with rivers and streams which are connected to form a dendritic and trellis drainage pattern with a
relief of low-lying to hilly areas.

Various mapping techniques were used during the mapping exercise which include pacing, road
traversing, compass traversing, stream traversing and global positioning system(GPS) technique
which were used in locating ,identifying, naming the rocks based on the minerals present and other
physical features of the rocks. Different structures on the rocks such as folds, faults, joint were
observed and measured by the use of compass clinometers.

The whole area is dominated by basement complex and sedimentary rocks in which the basement
complex is underlying the sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks consist of three formations
which are stated from the oldest to the youngest: Lokoja-bassange formation, Mamu formation
and Ajali sandstone formation. The basement complex is made up of the metasediments and
igneous [Link] sequence of the rock found in Igarra area which was according to their relative
age as discovered during the mapping exercise is stated below from the oldest to the youngest;
metaconglomerate, phyllite, quarzite, flaggy quartz biotite schist, calc-silicate, spotted schist, fault
breccia, granite suites, porphyritic granite, coarse grained granite, syenite dyke, lamprophyre,
pegmatite, dolerite dyke , quartz vein.

The report reveals a wide variety of rock formations, mineral deposits, and geological stru ctures,
which have important implications for various industries, including mining, agriculture, and
construction. The findings of this report can serve as a valuable resource for policymakers,
investors, and researchers interested in the geological and economic potential of this region.

3
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geology is a branch of earth science concerned with both the liquid and solid earth, the rocks of
which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include
the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon.
Therefore, Geology is an observatory science and also a field science so that it is necessary for
Geo- Scientist to go out on field to study the rocks in their natural environment and interpret the
observations to understand the Earth's structure and evolution. The Advanced Mapping
Techniques (GLY 413) fieldwork is a compulsory course for final year students in the Department
of Geology in Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) which is designed to help students to be able
to interpret geological maps involving the thickness of strata and the geometrical forms of
outcrops. It also enables the students to be able to produce geological maps (a maps that gives
information about the geological conditions in a particular area which includes rock units and its
structures). From a geological map, we can obtain the various rock types in the area, their
thicknesses, lithological bearings (strike and dips), faults, folds, fractures, and other processes that
might have occurred in earlier times. In producing the geological map, the following instruments
and materials were used. These include: compass clinometers, geological hammer, topography
map, Field boot, Field note, Protractor, ruler, pencil, eraser, digital camera, hand lens, etc. The
data collected while on the field were recorded into the field notebook and then transferred onto
the field map and later superimposed on the geologic map. The fieldwork was carried out in Igarra
and it environs located in Akoko Edo Local Government Area, in the northern area of Edo State,
Nigeria. The field exercise commenced on 31 st of July and ended on 13 thof August 2023
comprising of fifty-seven students and all staff of the Department of Geology Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife.

1.2. LOCATION

Igarra area lies approximately within Latitudes 7 o 15’ N to 7o 18’N and Longitudes 6 o 05’E to 6o
09’E at the northern part of Edo State which is shown in figure 1

4
Figure 1. A map showing the study area (Igarra and environs)

5
1.3. ACCESSIBILITY

The study area is highly accessible with a good network of roads and footpaths which helped to
easily locate the different outcrops within the study area as shown in figure 2 below. Some of the
localities were accessed by well-developed footpaths and where the outcrops were covered with
vegetation, slight clearance was done to have a good picture of the rocks. Some of the major roads
that link the study area and its environs are Igarra-Ojirami road, Igarra-Ibillo road, Igarra-Auchi
road, and Igarra-Igwe road, to mention but a few as shown in figure 2

1.4. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

The region has a warm tropical climate. It has two distinct climatic seasons; the rainy and the dry
seasons. The rainy season is between April and October with a two-week break in August with
an average rainfall of 150cm in the far north and 250cm in the south. The average temperature
ranges between 250C in the rainy season and 28 0C in the dry season. Humidity is constantly high,
and the area enjoys adequate precipitation.
The study area lies in the transition between tropical rain forest and savannah (grassland). As a
result, the vegetation of the region is made up of the wooded area belt (which consists of the
central and southern part of the state) and the guinea savannah (which consists of the northern
part of the state where the study area is located).The vegetation was wet and thick during the
mapping exercise.

1.5 METHOD OF MAPPING

The following mapping techniques were used in the course of the mapping exercise

• Pacing.
• Road/footpath traversing.
• Compass traversing.
• Stream traversing.
• Global positioning techniques

6
Figure 2 showing accessibility map of Igarra and environs

7
1.5.1 PACING

Pacing is a reasonably easy and quick method of measuring distance in the field. It is used to
measure a distance and is often used with a sighting or hand compass. Most commonly, pacing is
split up into segments; such as chains, which are set measures of distance by determining one’s
own pace, distance can easily be calculated. Pacing was used by me and the member of my group
to measure the distances to places that were not known. The distance from a known outcrop are
easily estimated by pacing which involves counting of the steps taken from a known location with
reference to the topographic map given to point where the outcrop is located. We locate the outcrop
on the map by multiplying our steps taken with our respective initial pacing to know the distance
from the known location and then convert it to the map scale. for instances my pacing is
0.76paces/meter, the distance is then gotten in meters by using the scale on the map. This method
was useful in helping to get the distances of a particular place on the map, it was also used in
compass traversing method to create footpath on the map as some of the roads and the footpath of
the mapped area were not on the map. Generally, pacing was used to help locate the actual point
of the localities on the map and also helpful in determining the distance between each outcrops.

1.5.2 ROAD/FOOTPATH TRAVERSING

Road traversing is to travel, traverse or pass action over or through a road or footpath. Since the
mapped area has a good network of road that is connected to each other and most of the times well
connected to the footpaths, road/footpath traversing was useful a lot but it had to be used together
with pacing to locate the exact position of the outcrop on the map.

1.5.3 COMPASS TRAVERSING

Compass traversing is a mapping techniques which is used in locating outcrops whose position are
unknown on the map. It is a method of surveying a path or the edge of an outcrop by a means of a
series of traverse of which the bearing is observed by compass and the length measured directly
mostly by using pacing .We used compass traversing in some places where there is no footpath
leading to the outcrop and we had to create one by ourselves or the footpath leading to the outcrop
was not on the map. This method includes taking the bearing and the distance of the footpath on
the map.

8
1.5.4 STREAM TRAVERSING

This include traverse along the rivers and stream since there are lots of streams and rivers within
the mapped area this method was also used some times.

1.5.5 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) TECHNIQUE

This provides the most accurate location of an observer at any point in time. This technique
employs the use of a device known as the global positioning system (GPS) which gives the exact
co-ordinates (both longitude and latitude) of a point by tracking satellites launched into space. This
method was used almost throughout the fieldwork as it reduced the rigors of pacing from point to
point.

1.6 DURATION

The field exercise commenced on 31 st of July 2023 and ended on 13 thof August [Link] days for
geological mapping, a day for geochemistry study and three days for geophysical investigation.
Hence, the exercise lasted for a period of fourteen days.

1.7 LANDFORM

The region mapped is very much set apart by hills of various shapes particularly along Okene-
Auchi road. The hills present are uncovered both on the northern and southern piece of the region
and are of various shapes. The hills toward the north are cone-shaped while the hills toward the
south represents an extent of inclines, which isn't cone-like in [Link] and large, a portion of the
regions mapped are level, a few zones are hilly and the hills are mainly conical. Hills are also
present in Igarra and towards the south is a long chine of hills uncovered as granites (older granite
of the pan African age). The ridge extends towards the south, and it is about 1.2 kilometers long.

1.7.1 DRAINAGE PATTERN

The rivers and stream in the area flow along planes of weaknesses in the underlying rocks; such
as joints, fractures, foliation surfaces, bedding planes, as well as fault planes. Major rivers in the
area are river Osse, river Onyami, river Ubeze, amongst others. The drainage pattern of the mapped
area centres around river Osse. The trellis and dendritic drainage patterns were observed in the

9
mapped region. The tributary of river Onyami which flows in a north-east and south-west direction
forms a trellis drainage pattern with the main river.
The dendritic drainage pattern was observed very close to Sasaro with the river flowing southwards
and Semorika with the river flowing eastwards. Here the tributaries form acute angles with these
rivers such as the complex branching of a tree. However, the dendritic drainage pattern was
observed most in the mapped region.

1.8 PREVIOUS WORK

The only detailed published work in the area was by Geological Survey of Nigeria (GSN) now
known as Nigeria Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) in 1965, while works of individual workers
was also published in journals of Nigeria Mining Geoscience Society (NMGS). Over the years. So
many unpublished works have been done by students from different Universities every year.
Some of the published geological studies that have been carried out in these areas (Igarra) include
paper by Falconer (1911); Elueze, 1980, 1991; Turner, 1983; Rahaman, 1992; Odeyemi et al, 1991
and Ekwueme, 1990, 2000; Okeke and Meju, 1985; Ajibade et al, 1987; Odeyemi, 1988; Ekwere
and Ekwueze, 1991; Imeokparia and Emofurieta, 1991 and Ocan et al, (2003).
Attempts have been made by these workers to classify the different rocks found therein.

1.8.1 Falconer (1911):

Falconer (1911) was the earliest worker, and was able to classify the basement rocks into two
groups. These are:
i. Younger granites.
ii. Older granites.
Other workers include Wilson (1922), King and De Swardth (1942), De Swardth (1953); who at
one time or the other worked in various sections of the basement complex.
A later on the classification was done by following:

1.8.2 Oyawoye, (1972):

In his work classified the rocks of Nigeria basement complex into four major groups. His
classification was based on petrological evidences;
i. The Migmatite complex

10
 ii. The Metasedimentary series
iii. The Older granites
iv. The miscellaneous rock types which include Bauchites, Diorite etc.

1.8.3 Rahaman M.A 1976:

Rahaman M.A (1976) however, improved on the classification scheme of Oyawoye and came up
with six groups. They are:
i. The migmatite-gneiss-quartz complex:
ii. Slightly migmatized to non-migmatized metasedimentary and metaigneous rocks
iii. Charnokitic, Gabbroic and Dioritic rocks [Pan African, 600 + 150 ma].
iv. Metamorphosed to unmetamorphosed. calc-alkaline Volcanic and Hyperbasal rocks
v. Unmetamorphosed dolerite dykes and syenite dykes

1.8.4 Hockey et al., (1986):

i. Hockey et al., (1986) who also carried out an early work in the Igarra area, described the
following rock types:
ii. The impure quartzite as a flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist because the rock is dark coloured and
fine-grained with narrow, alternating, dark grey and light grey bands. He described the
quartzite in the Igarra formation and noticed that they are distinct from the flaggy quartz
biotite schist due to their complete lack of biotite. He however noticed the presence of
muscovite which tends to concentrate in thin laminae which give rise to generally flaggy
appearance. Odeyemi further described the impure quartzite as flaggy schist typified by
distinct fine to coarsed mineralogical banding of alternating light grey and dark grey layers.
iii. He noticed that within variation in the muscovite content these rocks grade from almost
impure quartzite on the one hand to quartz-muscovite schist on the other.
iv. He noticed the metaconglomerate present in Igarra formation appears to be contained in
three zones. The rock of the upper and lower zones area assumed to form lenticular bodies
within the country rock of flaggy-schist and gneiss.
v. Mica schist
vi. Cal-gneiss and marble.

11
1.8.5 Odeyemi, (1988):
In his work titled preliminary report on the field relationship of the basement complex around
Igarra, Midwest state classified the rock types into four major groups;
i. Migmatite-gneiss complex
ii. The metasediments comprising Schists, Calc-gneiss, Metaconglomerate and Quartzites.
iii. The porphyritic older granites
iv. The late discordant unmetamorphosed Syenite dykes believed to be the youngest.

1.9 AIMS & OBJECTIVES

1.9.1 AIMS:
The principal aim of this advance mapping is to produce the geological map of Igarra and its
environs

OBJECTIVE:

i. observing and recording field data selectively and systematically for the construction
of a detailed geological map.
ii. making careful observations of rock types, textures, structures, measurement of the
orientation of structures (strike and dip).
iii. constructing a representative geological section across the mapped area.
iv. understanding the river morphology.

12
 CHAPTER 2
SOLID GEOLOGY

2.1 SOFT ROCKS

These are sedimentary rocks that are formed by the accumulation of sediments that have
compacted and cemented together over a long period of time. During the mapping exercise, the
following sedimentary rocks were observed:

i. Sandstone.
ii. Siltstone
iii. Mudstone.
iv. Shale

2.1.1 SANDSTONE

Sandstone was seen at all the location where Lokoja-Bassange and Ajali sandstone formation was
observed at Bawa hill, along Ekpeshi-Auchi road and at the outskirts of Fugar along Aghenebode
road. This outcrop is low-lying along Ekpeshi and hilly at Bawa hill which is exposed as road-
cuts. It is about 14m high and has a width of about 55m along Ekpeshi-Auchi, while the road-cut
at the outskirts of Fugar is about 13m high and about 110m long. Based on lithology, two sandstone
formations types were observed which are Lokoja-Basanje Formation and Ajali Sandstone
Formation. The sandstone ranges from fine-grained to coarse-grained in both formation. It consist
of mainly quartz and feldspar. The colour are mainly white in the Ajali formation and reddish due
to weathering. While at the Bawa hill the colour changes from light to reddish brown colouration
due to weathering.

2.1.2 SILTSTONE

Siltstone occurs as thin beds within the sedimentary sequences visited. It was found to occur along
Ekpeshi-Auchi road within the Mamu formation and every Mamu formation observed in the study
area. Siltstone just as mudstone occurred as a minor rock type in the study area. It has a yellowish
colour. It is fine-grained and composed mainly of quartz. A slightly coarser quartz-rich siltstone
was observed which is quite different from the clay-rich mudstone. When moistened by saliva, the
particles of the clay minerals feel smooth, whereas the abrasive quartz grains of siltstones feel
noticeably gritty. The siltstone bed directly overlies the alternating beds of shale and mudstone.
13
2.1.3 MUDSTONE

It is a minor rock type that occurs with shale at Auchi and along Ifon road and every location where
Mamu formation was observed at the study area. The outcrop along Ifon-road is a road-cut. This
rock is reddish brown and very fine-grained. The extremely fine particles in mudstone consist
largely of clay minerals and micas that are not easily observable in the field except through x-ray
diffraction. Ironstone is the cementing material in the mudstone which has given the rock a reddish
brown colour. Trails were also observed on the mudstone found at Auchi.

2.1.4 SHALE

Shale is located along Ifon road before Uzebba village, Auchi and all location where Mamu
formation was observed at the study area. It occurred as a bed in the formation which is exposed
by quarrying activities along Auchi-Ekpeshi road and as a road-cut along Ifon road which is about
11m high and 185m long .Shale and mudstone have the same particle size (< 0.004mm in diameter)
which shows that shale is also fine-grained , but shale is a fissile mudstone noted for its ability to
split easily into very thin parallel surfaces. The shale has a very dark gray colour due to the
presence of organic matter (carbonaceous materials) in it. These carbonaceous contents show that
the environment of deposition is a low energy environment and contains organic rich constituents.
It also has a light grey colour which shows low organic content. It consists largely of clay minerals
and micas. It also contain fossils such as floral remains are present.

All these soft rocks occurred as beds in formations mapped in the study area. Three formations
was discovered during the mapping exercise. The formations was belived to have been deposited
in the Anambra basin-Calabar flank region which is generally considered as an upper cretaceous-
lower tertiary descendant of the southern Benue trough. The Anambra basin-Calabar flank region
was a fault-controlled depression within the basement complex of the African shield.
The Benin flank is an extension of the Anambra basin, towards the western part of Nigeria, within
which the Igarra formation fall under this flank. The Benin flank of the Anambra basin constitute
of the following formations that were deposited on top of the basement complex, which were seen
during the course of the field exercise. The formation seen from the oldest to the youngest are:
i. Lokoja-Basange formation
ii. Mamu formation
iii. Ajali Sandstone formation.

14
2.1.5 LOKOJA-BASSANGE FORMATION
The Lokoja-Basange formation belongs to the Benin flank of the Anambra basin, the oldest of all
the formations studied, and it marks an unconformity between itself and the basement complex,
which is non-conformity type. It is made-up of Sandstones of various sizes, it is overlain by the
Mamu formation and underlain by the Basement rocks. The Lokoja-Basange formation is of
Campanian age. The formation was exposed as a road-cut along the Igarra - Auchi road. It has a
height of 12-18m and a length of about 71-88m. The colour of the sandstone changes from light
to reddish brown colouration due to weathering. Lokoja – Bassange is made up of different beds
within which there exist thin laminations. This formation is essentially sandstone and the grain
sizes grade from coarse (at the bottom) to fine (at the top), hence, exhibiting a fining upward (or
transgressive) sequence. This graded bedding suggests that the sediments that formed this
formation were deposited in a deep marine environment. Fossils were conspicuously absent. The
pinkish colouration observed on the outcrop at some parts; result from the coating of the K-
Feldspars. The angular nature of the mineral grains suggest a short distance of travel of the
sediments from it source. The lokoja- basange formation overlies the basement unconformably
with a coarse to gritty, locally conglomeratic angular sandstone. The basal sandstone is followed
by an alternation of purple – grey, usually sandy but occasionally very pure, waxy clays and white
sandstones which grades from coarse to very fine grained sandstones and siltstones. The coarse
sandstones are sometimes cross – bedded, the finer ones often contain small spherical glauconite
which weathers into brown ferrigenous grains (iron oolites). In the topmost part of the formation,
it contains carbonaceous material and plant remains, which makes it difficult to distinguish from
the overlying lower coal measures from mamu formation.

2.1.6 MAMU FORMATION

The Mamu formation is also part of the Benin flank of the Anambra basin, and it marks an
unconformity between itself and the Lokoja-Basange formation, which is disconformity type. It is
overlain by the Ajali formation and underlain by the Lokoja-Basange formation. It is older than
the Ajali formation that is at the top of the basin. It is composed of shale, siltstone, layer of iron-
stone, and in carbonaceous rock in some locality e.g. The Mamu formation at Imiegba shown in
figure 3 below. They belong to the late Campanian – early maestrichtian age. It shows a grading

15
Figure 3 showing Mamu formation in Igarra, Edo state

16
sequence of coarsening upward sequence. The shales are dark to black grey in colour. The
sandstones are fine grained and range from pure white to grey. The upper part of the formation is
often formed by a pure white sandstone which constitutes a distinct morphological feature.

2.1.7 AJALI SANDSTONE FORMATION

The Ajali formation is also part of the Benin flank of the Anambra basin, and it marks an
unconformity between itself and the Ajali formation, which is disconformity type. It is underlain
by the Mamu formation. This formation is the youngest of all the formations that were studied. It
is composed mainly of sandstones that are friable, and shows cross-bedded laminations. It is
incoherent and non-fossiliferous due to its porosity, and unconsolidated nature. The age is middle
to upper maestrichtian. The colour of the sandstone are mainly white. It is fine to medium-grained.
The sandstone form beds whose bedding planes are inclined at about 4 0 to the horizontal as shown
in figure 4. The thicknesses of the beds range from 1cm to 3m. Each bed contains laminations of
pinkish and dark bands. These bands gave rise to herringbone cross-bedding. Graded bedding,
scolithus (animal burrows) and lags were also observed.
The environment of deposition is a shallow marine environment and the herringbone cross bedding
indicate that there was a reversal in the initial current direction that deposited these sediments. The
occurrence of burrows suggests that organisms lived in the rock when the sediments were still soft.
The grains are fairly rounded and poorly sorted. Ajalis sandstone shows a grading sequence of
fining upward sequence.

2.2 CRYSTALLINE ROCK

The Basement Complex in Igarra area consists of the following four major rock groups (Odeyemi,
1988 and Adekoya, 2003):

(i) Migmatites, biotite and biotite-hornblende gneisses;

(ii) Low to medium grade metasediments (the schist belt) consisting of schists, calc-silicate
gneisses, marbles, polymict metaconglomerates and quartzite;

(iii) Syn- to late-tectonic porphyritic, biotite and biotite-hornblende granodiorites and adamellites,
charnockites and gabbros; and

17
Figure 4 showing Ajali sandstone formation in Igarra area, Edo state

18
(iv) Minor felsic and mafic intrusives comprising pegmatite, aplite, dolerite, lamprophyre and
syenite dykes.
The study area is underlain in most parts by the metasediments, referred to as the Igarra Schist
Belt, which presumably overlies an older gneiss-migmatite basement, possibly of Liberian age
(Odeyemi, 1988).
According to my study on the area,the basement rocks happens as the metasediments, and
additionally the igneous rocks (granite), the igneous rocks (granite) also occurred as inclusions,
veins and intrusives within the metasediments like metaconglomerate. The following are basement
rock types which were seen during the field exercise, and are further explained below in an orderly
manner (from oldest to youngest) by taking into consideration petrological and petrographical
studies and evidences relating to structural/contact relationships between the rocks.

1. THE METASEDIMENTS:

i. Metaconglomerate
ii. Phyllite
iii. Quarzite
iv. Flaggy biotite quartz schist
v. Spotted schist
vi. Calc-gneiss
vii. Fault breccia

2. THE GRANITE SUITE:

i. Hornblende-granite (coarse-grained)
ii. Porphyritic older granite (very coarse-grained)

3. THE INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS :

i. Syenite dyke
ii. Lamprophyre
iii. Pegmatite
iv. Dolerite dyke
v. Quartz vein
19
2.2.1 METASEDIMENTS:
The metasedimentary succession in Igarra area consists predominantly of pelitic to semi-pelitic
rocks of low to medium grade metamorphism. Major rock types exposed in the area include the
following are the main rock units:

[Link] METACONGLOMERATE
During the mapping exercise two different kinds of metaconglomerate were seen: which are the
matrix supported and the clast supported .Metaconglomerate is abundant in Igarra and extensive.
It underlies the western and northern region of Igarra; Otuo, north-west Ekpeshi. It also occurs in
alteration with quartzite in west Igarra. It is believed to be formed as a result of the metamorphism
of basal conglomerate. The nature of the outcrop may vary from a low-lying outcrop as seen in
Otuo to a slightly hilly outcrop as shown in figure 6. The colour varies from light to dark grey,
sometimes containing black and green patches due to the presence of amphibole, pyroxene and
olivine. It is strongly foliated and the foliation is marked by the intercalation bands between the
light greenish bands of calc-silicate rock and the dark bands of phyllite, combination of both the
light and the dark coloured bands forms the matrix of the metaconglomerate which are fine-grained
and shows both lithological banding and mineralogical banding. The bands of calc-silicate rock
(light grey) and metapelites (dark grey) define the lithological banding while within the
metapelites, there are alternating bands of light (quartz and feldspar) and dark coloured minerals
(ferromagnesian minerals e.g. biotite, amphiboles, and pyroxene), which define the mineralogical
banding.
The clast are poorly sorted to well sorted which are sub-rounded, lenticular and elongated in shape
with vary size ranging from 2mm to 50cm as shown in Table 1 and Figure 5. Most of the
metaconglomerate are polymicts due to varying compositions which include granite gneiss,
quartzite, quartz and calc-silicate . The clast are mostly oriented in a north-south direction which
are parallel to the foliation while some localities show random orientation.

20
Table 1. Table Showing Flynn’s Diagram Data of a typical Igarra metaconglomerate seen during
a river traverse of the mapping exercise, coordinate: N07o12’17.3’’, E006o01’46.9’’.

S/N Longest Axis Shortest Axis ɸ

1 5 3 74o
2 11 5 82o
3 4 2.5 91o
4 33 19 90o
5 11.6 3.2 94o
6 26 15 86o
7 12 5.8 81o
8 17 5 91O
9 25 14 89O
10 11 5 75O
11 7.4 3.8 79O
12 4 2.1 81O
13 4.9 1.9 80O
14 2.7 1.2 87O
15 3.1 0.8 92O

21
Figure 5 showing a typical example of the metaconglomerate in Igarra that were seen during a
road traverse of the mapping exercise, showing different sizes of clast

22
[Link] PHYLLITE
This rock unit was mapped along Aiyetoro-Sebe ogbe road north-east of Igwe and north-west of
Ekpeshi during the field exercise. The rock occur as series of hilly and low-lying outcrop. The
rock unit is generally grey, but colour may vary from brownish-grey to light-grey or dark-grey,
with an alternation of dark and light bands (mineralogical banding) as shown in Figure 6. The rock
is fine to medium grained with hornfelsic texture due to the contact of igneous body intrusion. The
rock displays a distinct silky sheen appearance, and the micas present influence this silky sheen.
The rock is strongly foliated, with the alternation of psammitic and pelitic bands; also, there is
preferred alignment of the micas and axial plane foliation or cleavage. The rock unit is generally
rich in minerals such as muscovite, biotite, amphiboles, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar. These rock
unit was first mapped along Aiyetoro-Sebe ogbe road about 1km north-east of Igwe. These rock
unit here shows some structural evidence i.e. two different types of foliation surfaces on the
outcrop shows that the rock most have been deformed and metamorphosed more than once and
that they are product of contact metamorphism that were superimposed on series of rocks that are
regionally metamorphosed, forming a metamorphic aureoule of about 1km-2km long towards the
north-west of Ekpeshi. The contact metamorphism is associated with low pressure, and high
temperature metamorphism due to the presence of andalusite that are very conspicuous within the
outcrop surface. The grade of metamorphism varies from low grade metamorphism to medium
grade metamorphism due to the presence of andalusite and garnet respectively as the two end
members.

[Link] QUARTZITE
The quartzite is widely distributed in the study area. it occur as series of a low-lying and isolated
outcrop which ranges from about an average length of 3m- 15m and width of about 2m -36m in
some locality(Figure 7). It is highly weathered and in some places it was seen as rubbles. It was
seen at the foot of a hill located south of Akoko-Edo local government secretariat, as an enclave
at the toe of the Semolika granite and as a road-cut along Auchi-Ibilo road (about11m high) and
also as clast in the metaconglomerate. The mineralogy of quartzite includes mainly quartz,
muscovite, plagioclase feldspar, and with little or no biotite. It has a whitish yellow colour, and a
reddish brown colour due to the impact of weathering on the rock.

23
Figure 6 showing an outcrop of phylitte in Igarra area, Edo state.

24
Figure 7. A typical example of the Igarra quartzite that was seen beside a river channel during
field exercise, showing the strongly foliated nature of the Igarra quartzite

25
Its texture is generally fine to medium-grained with a few exceptions that are [Link]
rock is foliated. There are alternations of layers rich in quartz and layers rich in pelitic minerals
(micas) indicating lithological banding. The bands rich in quartz stand out due to their resistance
to weathering. However, within the pelitic minerals, muscovites are aligned in a parallel
arrangement indicating mineralogical banding. Quartzite is randomly distributed within the
mapped area. Joints were observed on all the outcrops of quartzite visited, with some trending 255 0
and 2390. Contact was established in the field between quartzite and metaconglomerate in the study
area. Quartz veins were observed cutting across the quartzite discordantly, indicating that it was
later and younger. At an outcrop exposed by a stream with a three dimensional (3 -D) view (N 70
15.298/ E6o 05.543/), the angle of dip varies from acute to nearly vertical and then acute again as
we move along an E-W profile across the outcrop. This variation in dip results from shearing,
which thereafter produced boudinage and mullion structures.

[Link] FLAGGY BIOTITE QUARTZITE SCHIST

This rock type is the dominant rock unit in the Igarra schist belt. Typical examples are well
displayed along the Igarra-Auchi road(N07o17’46.3’’, E006o09’19.2’’), Ojirami-Igarra road in the
Ojirami district(N07o17’56.0’’, E006o09’44.9’’), and also south of the road from Sebe-Ogbe to
Otwa (N07o09’45.6’’,E006o10’12.9’’, N07o09’25.9’’,E006o10’26.9’’ , N07o11’24.4’’,
E006o06’32.6’’ , N07o13’23.6’’, E006o08’29.5’’) as described by Hockey et al., (1986) which was
confirmed during the course of our field exercise. the nature of outcrop of this rock unit are hilly,
slightly hilly and low-lying. The rock is a dark coloured and fine grained with millimetric or
narrow, alternating, dark grey and light grey bands (Figure 8). The darker bands is more rich in
biotite than that of the lighter bands which marks the flaggy character or nature of the rock,
meanwhile the lighter bands which are very rich in quartz have a fine-grained, and granulitic
texture. The light-grey bands are generally thicker than that of the dark bands with an average
thickness of about 2mm and 4mm respectively. The thickness may vary from one locality to
another, to an extent that may be traced out to about 1m long or may be lesser in another locality,
hence giving the rock itself a schistose character nature. The rock unit is composed of quartz, mica,
and feldspar mineralogically, but mineralogy varies particularly to the northeast of Ojirami near
Imorga to a richer pale greenish banding which is known as the calc-silicates i.e. calcium rich
bands, of an average thickness of about [Link] flaggy nature of the rock which is usually seen
as the Axial plane foliation may be accompanied by gentle/small scale folding or shearing in some

26
Figure 8 showing flaggy biotite quartz schist with an evidence of fault near the Ojirami water
works.

27
locality. Hence, giving the rock an axial plane foliation or sometimes axial plane cleavage (only
when the foliation is not prominent) on the top of the outcrop, the quality of the axial plane foliation
may vary from different part of the rock from axial plane foliation to axial plane cleavage. This
rock unit is also accompanied by faults trending in a N-S direction almost parallel or slightly
oblique to the axial plane foliation of the outcrops in some locality, for example an isolated-hilly
outcrop of about 17m high and about 10m long which was seen at Ojirami off Ojirami-Igarra road
beside the Ojirami lake, shows an evidence of two different kinds of inclined fault seen on a surface
that is oblique to the S2 surface (Axial plane): (i) High angle Normal fault at an angle of about 85o
and (ii) High angle Reverse fault (in form of shearing at an angle of about 85 o as shown in figure
5. Meanwhile there are also evidence of a transcurrent fault (strike-slip sinistrial faults) on the axial
plane foliation surface at the top of the outcrop whereby some of the quartz vein are stretched in
a N-S direction parallel as shown in figure 8. The flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist also shows evidence
of a gentle fold known as an open fold that is present on the axial plane foliation at the top of the
rock . One of the open folds that was observed; the fold axis of the open fold is plunging 0160
north and the amount of plunge is 24 degrees. This rock unit in some locality is composed of
igneous inclusion (Xenolith), and igneous intrusives body for example an isolated-hilly outcrop
along this same Ojirami-Igarra road, about 200m away from the Ojirami lake towards the northeast
direction, Ojirami-Ogbe area. The broken xenoliths with an average length that range from about
5cm to 15cm are stretched in a preferred orientation, and confined within the inclusion. The
inclusion is rotated clockwise to the axial foliation cleavage of the host rock (flaggy-quartz-biotite-
schist) that trends N-S direction . The dyke is about 0.7m thick, and discordant to the direction at
which the axial plane foliation of the host rock (flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist) trends, the dyke is
very fine grained, with a felsic composition, and it is composed of porphyroblasts that are stretched
and aligned parallel to the direction at which the dyke trends, forming a kind of lineation i.e. a
preferred alignment of the porphyroblasts on the dyke surface.

[Link] CALC- SILICATE

Calc-silicate is referred to as foliated impure marble and it was observed at Ikao, west of Igarra.
The calc-silicate rock in Igarra occur as a low-lying outcrop. According to Oyawoye (1965) He
referred to them as younger metasediments. The rock is dark-green in colour, and has a phyllitic
texture i.e. fine-grained texture, but may also vary from fine to medium-grained texture. The rock

28
has a strong foliation fabric at which it tends to split or break, the foliation is marked by lithological
banding between the light-greenish band and the dark-grey band, the light-greenish band is
composed of calcium rich rock while the dark-grey band is composed of phyllite (Figure 9).
Mineralogical composition of the rock includes: mica (biotite), amphibole, sulphide mineralization
(i.e. the tiny opaque minerals) and hornblende (within the light-greenish band) which can be seen
within the hand specimen with the aid of hand lens. The thickness of the light and the dark coloured
bands is usually less than 3mm and may vary within the rock from one locality to another. The
calcite-rich bands are very competent, with some ductile characteristics which account for the
minor folds observed on the rock. These minor folds are; vertical upright fold (symmetrical fold)
and chevron fold as shown in figure 9. Contact was observed in the field between calc-gneiss and
lamprophyre dike. The lamprophyre dike was observed to cut across the calc-gneiss which
indicates that it is younger. Also, a xenolith of calc-gneiss was found in syenite indicating that
calc-gneiss was intruded by the syenite.

[Link] SPOTTED SCHIST

These rock unit was encountered at the outskirt of Sebe-Ogbe very close to Ekpeshi. The outcrop
occurs as a low-lying isolated exposure which is about 8m wide. The rock is light-yellowish grey
and coarse-grained. The rock is strongly foliated, and shows presence of spots of an average length
of about 2cm and width of about 1cm on the surface of the axial foliation plane (S2) that are
randomly oriented. The rock type show preferred alignment of tabular minerals giving a schistose
foliation and the foliation is marked by mineralogical banding which is essentially made up of
biotite and muscovite, the thickness of the bands vary from about 1mm to 5mm throughout the
exposure.. The spots represents embryo for developing or newly forming minerals. The
porphyroblasts consist mainly of garnet and staurolite which are idioblastic, the garnets are evenly
distributed while the staurolites on the other hand are randomly distributed in that some are parallel
to the foliation plane and some are oblique to it, those oblique to it was believed to have formed
from a static metamorphism that took place at the end of the second episode of deformation and
metamorphism. The longest axis of the staurolite is approximately 1.5cm long while the shortest
axis is about 0.4cm long. The matrix is essentially made up of biotite and quartz.

29
Figure 9 showing a typical calc-silicate rock in Igarra area,Edo state

30
[Link] FAULT BRECCIA

This rock was observed along Auchi-Igarra road . It was also observed on the baboon hill with the
lamprophyre dyke,the biotite pyroxenite and the syenite. It is however believed to be a product of
the brittle deformation of pre-existing metaconglomerate by a major fault. It is also believed to be
an indicator of a fault plane in the field. Hence, it occupies a very small portion of the area mapped.
The fault breccia outcrops visited were generally low lying and scattered. The rock has a grey
colour and it is made up of two components ([Link] and matrix). It has both lithological and
mineralogical banding which define its foliation. Its mineralogy is similar to that of
metaconglomerate. The clast are angular and randomly oriented, with some cutting across the
foliation. The clast are white to dirty white, with sizes ranging from small to large and they are
scattered within the matrix forming a terrazzo pattern. The composition of the clast varies; with
some similar to those emplaced in metaconglomerate, while some are similar to the [Link]
was established between fault breccia and lamprophyre dike in the study area. The lamprophyre
dike was observed to be broken into pieces and thrown apart due to deformation. Contact was also
established between fault breccia and syenite dyke. It can be deduced that the lamprophyre dyke
and syenite dike are younger than the fault breccia.

2.2 GRANITE SUITES

Granite covers a wide region of the mapped area. Based on texture, the granite suite is divided into
two namely:

i. Porphyritic Granite (Ogbe Adamelite).

ii. Coarse grained Granite

2.2.1 PORPHYRITIC GRANITE (Ogbe Adamelite)

This rock unit occurs as a range of hills, which is called the Igarra batholith. It covers the central
to northern region of Igarra town which is about 16000km2 in area. This rock is a member of the
older granite of the Precambrian. It shows pinkish colouration which is as a results of the presence
of K-Feldspars. These K-Feldspars occur as large phenocrysts in a finer matrix or groundmass,
hence, giving the rock a porphyritic texture. These phenocrysts are of various sizes ranging from
0.5cm-5cm in length, and they tend to be rectangular. Its mineralogy includes– quartz, feldspar,
biotite, muscovite, other mafic minerals and cognate bodies. This rock is highly jointed with

31
different joint angles. As earlier stated, contact was established in the field between porphyritic
granite and phyllitic schist, where a xenolith of phyllitic schist was found inside the porphyritic
granite. The angular xenolith of the country rock in the granitic intrusion suggests that the magma
that formed the granite did not result from partial melting; rather, the magma exploited the zones
of weaknesses in the country rocks (observed by the veining of the porphyritic granite).

2.2.2 COARSE GRAINED GRANITE

This rock unit was observed as a low-lying outcrop about 6m high along Auchi-Ibillo road, where
it intruded metaconglomerate and it covers a lesser area of about 1.0 km2. This rock is a light grey
in colour and it has a coarse-grained texture (Figure 10). There is presence of potassium feldspar
phenocrysts which are even-grained as they were emplaced at a higher crustal level compared to
the porphyritic granite. Its mineralogy includes k-feldspar, quartz, plagioclase feldspar, biotite,
muscovite, and tourmaline. At the chilled margin, the k-feldspar crystals are poorly aligned and
they progressively become larger away from the contact zone. Contact was observed between
coarse-grained granite and metaconglomerate. The coarse-grained granite was exposed as a dyke
cutting across the metaconglomerate. This dyke is about 30m wide and trends 1300. As a result of
the intrusion of this granite dyke into the country rock, a metamorphic aureole was formed. The
aureole is about 4m wide and very coarse-grained. The aureole was belived to be formed because
of the reaction and re-crystalization of amphiboles and pyroxenes in the metaconglomerate
(coarsening effect of minerals) because the granite intruded with a lot of water.

2.3 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

2.3.1 SYENITE DYKE

Syenite occurs as an oblique intrusive igneous dyke in the studied area. It is exposed as a low-
lying outcrop and as a hill. It is typically dark gray with some green patches and the grains are fine
to medium in size. Black clots of oval shaped mafic minerals were present in the rock. There are
two textural varieties of syenite; the fine-grained and the coarse-grained varieties. Precisely at
N07o14’33’’, E006o09’38’’ the coarse grained syenite was seen intertonguing with the finer grained
syenite via openings (fractures). This means that, during the multiple intrusion of the syenite into
the country rock, the finer variety intruded first before the coarser one; hence, the former is older
than the latter. Xenoliths of dark grey syenite were also observed in the lighter variety which

32
Figure 10 showing a typical coarsed grained granite in Igarra area, Edo state.

33
further confirms that the darker syenite is older. Also, at N07 o13’33.3’’, E006o08’24.3’’ the syenite
occurs as a tongue of an intrusion in the fault breccia. The trend of this contact is about 221 [Link]
N07o10’45’’, E006o09’24.3’’, the agmatitic appearance produced as a result of the multiple
intrusion of syenite into the biotite-pyroxenite shows that the biotite – pyroxenite is older than the
syenite. Contact was established between metaconglomerate and syenite and also established
between syenite and dolerite dyke. At the same locality, coarse-grained syenite was found within
the fine-grained variety.

2.3.2 LAMPROPHYRE

Lamprophyre occurs prominently as a dyke cutting across the country rocks ; metaconglomerate,
phyllite, calc-gneiss and schist respectively. It is dark grey in colour ranging fine to medium
grained size (Figure 11). It thickness ranges from 5 to 30cm. It contains phenocrysts of mafic
minerals such as biotite embedded within a finer-grained matrix of quartz, K-feldspars and
greenish minerals like amphibole, olivine and pyroxene. It is not foliated . At a locality exposed
along the Igarra-Auchi road, the lamprophyre occurs in association with the quartz vein and fault
breccia. Along Ibillo-Igarra road the lamprophyre also cut across the metaconglomerate and the
fabric produced on the lamprophyre is parallel to the metaconglomerate foliation. It is believed
that the stress regime that produces the metaconglomerate foliation was still active when the
lamprophyre cut across it and thereby producing the fabric on the lamprophyre. However,
Lamprophyre which usually occurs as a dyke was also seen occurring as a sill. The lamprophyre
originally occurred as a dyke but the events of deformation changed its orientation from a dyke to
a sill. At N07o13’9.3’’, E006o05’21’’, two episodes of lamprophyric intrusion were noticed. The
first occurred after the foliation in the calc-gneiss had formed and was later deformed by folding,
the second intrusion occurred after the folding of the first intrusion.

2.3.3 PEGMATITE
It occurs as a dyke and clast in metaconglomerate within Igarra area (Figure 12). It has a pinkish
colouration. It is very coarse grained due to its quartzo-feldspathic composition. The well-formed
crystals of feldspars are elongated in some outcrops. The mineralogy is mainly quartz, k-feldspar
and muscovite. Its thickness varies from 0.3 to 15cm and it developed a chilled margin along the
contact with the country rock. Quartzo-feldspathic pegmatite was observed to occur as a dyke
cutting across phyllitic schist which indicates that it is younger than the phyllitic schist. Since there

34
Figure 11 showing an intrusion of lampophyre in a flaggy biotite quartz schist in Igarra area, Edo
state.

35
Figure 12 showing a contact between pegmatite and calc-silicate rock in igarra area, Edo state

36
are no phenocrysts of the country rock within the dyke, it can be concluded that the pegmatite dyke
was formed from the fracture and joint openings.

2.3.4 DOLERITE DYKE

It is a rock type that occurs as a dyke. It is located about few kilometres to the north-west of Igarra-
Auchi road at baboon hill. It is dark grey because of its mafic composition and has a fine-grained
texture. The mineralogy includes calcic plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, and amphibole may or may
not be present. The dolerite dyke was identified as the youngest in this area based on the cross-
cutting relationship between dolerite dyke, syenite and biotite-pyroxenite which was used in
determining their age relationships at GPS at N07 o13’42’’, E006o05’35.8’’.

2.3.5 QUARTZ VEIN

Quartz vein is an ubiquitous igneous intrusion . It is found in almost every locality forming along
fractures or joints and veining through rocks in different directions. Its colour is white to dirty
white (Figure 13). It has a coarse-grained texture. The rock has no foliation; and its mineralogy is
mainly quartz. it length varies from 5mm to 10cm. The effect of deformation on the vein quartz
resulted in the formation of sigmoidal tension gashes. Due to the ubiquitous nature of the rock, it
has a sharp contact with all the major rock types of the region. In some localities, the veins are
deformed and broken thereby forming pebbles and quartz pods.

37
Figure 13 showing a typical quartz vein on a flaggy biotite quartz schist outcrop in igarra area,
Edo state

38
 CHAPTER THREE

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Structural geology can be described as the architecture of the earth crust and trying to relate how
rocks that were once deposited under water in horizontal layers are now found [Link]
structures are formed as a result of the different rock behaviour to these tectonic forces. Rocks
behave as elastic, ductile, or brittle material depending on the amount and rate of stress applied,
the type of rock, and the temperature and pressure under which the rock is strained. Geologic
structures result from stresses that exceed the rock strength. When the strength is exceeded, the
rock will fall by either brittle (fracture) or ductile (folding) deformation, depending on how the
physical environment has affects the ability of the rock and composition to resist the stresses.
Many Geologic structures where observed on the outcrops during the mapping exercise depending
on the geologic process that once took place in the mapped area. All of the structures encountered
in the mapping exercise can be grouped into two, which are;

i. Primary structures
ii. Secondary structures

3.2 PRIMARY STRUCTURES

The primary structures mapped in the study area can be divided into two, which are ;

i. Sedimentary structures
ii. Magmatic flow structure

3.2.1 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Sedimentary structures are non-deformational structures. They are basically associated with
sedimentary processes that result to sedimentary rock. These structures reveal the conditions under
which sediment deposition occurred. They are also preserved as relict structures in metamorphic
rocks .The sedimentary structures which are produced by the physical processes of transport and
deposition of the sediment are known as primary sedimentary structures. However, a number of
processes, including water escape, deformation of the sediment and disruption by organisms living
in or on the sediment, may occur after deposition. The structures produced at this time are known

39
as secondary sedimentary structures. The primary sedimentary structures mapped in the study area
are;
i. Bedding
ii. Graded Bedding
iii. Cross Bedding
iv. Convolute Bedding
v. Fissility
vi. Unconformity

The only secondary structure mapped in the area is

vii. Fossil Impression

[Link] BEDDING
Bedding or stratification is the arrangement of sediment particles into distinct layers of different
sediment compositions or grain sizes. Beds are litholigic units whose thickness are greater than
1cm which are well pronounced in all the Sedimentary rocks mapped in the study area. At Mamu
formation and Lokoja - bassange formation, the beds were approximately horizontal while at the
Ajali sandstone formation, the beds were tilted at an angle of about 4 0 to the horizontal. At Mamu
formation, the bed thickness range from 10cm to 2m. At Lokoja Bassange, the bed thickness range
from 10cm to about 1m. At Ajali sandstone, the bed thickness range from 10cm to about 1m. All
the sedimentary rock mapped in the study area all show bedding plane which separates adjacent
beds, marking the end of one depositional event and the beginning of another. The bedding plane
also indicate change in nature of sediment deposited and shift in energy of deposition.

[Link] GRADED BEDDING

All the formation mapped shows graded bedding which was shown by gradation in grain sizes in
the formation and indicate changes in the energy of deposition. Mamu Formation shows a graded
bedding of coarsening upward sequence grading from siltstone to sandstone. Lokoja Bassange and
Ajali Formations shows graded bedding of fining upward sequence as seen in the study area.
Graded bedding also occur as relict structure on metaconglomerate which was shown by the clast
fining upward in Sebe -Ogbe and coarsening upward in Ojirami.

40
[Link] CROSS BEDDING

Cross-beds are formed when particles drop from a moving current, such as wind or a flowing river,
rather than settling out of relatively still water or [Link] orientation of the cross-beds may also
reveal whether a series of rocks have been overturned by tectonic forces. The herringbone pattern
of cross-bedding was evidently noticed both at the Lokoja-basange formation and the Ajali
sandstone formation. The herring bone pattern was concluded to results from the reversal in the
current direction that deposited the sediments over time.

[Link] FISSILITY

Fissility is the ability of a rock to split easily into very thin parallel surfaces along planes. It is
however a characteristic property of shale that is formed as a result of parallel alignment of platy
minerals within the rock during sedimentation. It was observed on all Mamu formation in the study
area that has shale as part of it lithology.

[Link] UNCONFORMITY
An uncomformity is a stratigraphic plane of contact which marks an important interruption of the
stratigraphic records. It could represent a period of non-deposition or a period of active erosion. A
nonconformity type of unconformity was observed at Ori Ohin, River Ose, Along Ifon Uzebba
road and a few km to Uzebba Between the basement rock and the Lokoja-bassange formation.

[Link] FOSSIL IMPRESSION

These are impressions of living organisms. Impressions such as trails were observed on mudstone
and shale in Mamu formation which indicates high organic content in the shale. Scolithus tubes
(burrows) and lags were observed on Ajali sandstone at Fugar. It is believed that the sediments
were deposited by shallow marine, and are of cretaceous age.

3.2.2 MAGMATIC FLOW STRUCTURE

A flow structure is an igneous flow fabric. Generally, there are two types of magmatic flow
structures:
i. Platy flow structure
ii. Linear flow structure

41
Both types were observed during the mapping exercise.

[Link] FOLIATION

This structure was a characteristic property of hard rock and most of the hard rocks mapped in the
study area display foliation plane which was defined by both mineralogical and lithological
banding. Calc-silicate rock has a mineralogical banding which is shown by a conspicuous surface
marked by parallel layer consisting of greenish band alternating with brown bands. Also, the flaggy
quartz biotite- schist seen at Ojirami shows an evidence of preservation of the primary sedimentary
structure to form a surface called So (the relict beds of different lithological banding) which is
parallel to the S1 -surface (millimetric or mineralogical banding) to produce So /S1 -surface (i.e.
lithological bedding/mineralogical banding) in form of an upright fold. In metaconglomerate the
foliation is marked by the intercalation bands between the light greenish bands of calc-silicate rock
and the dark bands of phyllite (lithological banding). The phyllite unit along Aiyetoro to Sebe ogbe
road north-east also show evidence of mineralogical banding marked by alternation of psammitic
and pelitic bands; also, there is preferred alignment of the micas and axial plane foliation or
cleavage. In schist, the foliation is a well-developed schistosity defined by parallel alignment of
mica and amphibole.

[Link] XENOLITHS AND PLUTONS

Plutons are igneous bodies which intrude country rocks. The plutons that were observed on the
field are dykes and sills. Dykes are tabular, discordant plutons that lie across the layers of a rock
while sills are tabular, concordant plutons that lie parallel to the layers of the country rock. The
rocks biotite-pyroxenite, syenite, dolerite, pegmatite, granite and vein quartz occur as dykes in the
study area while lamprophyre occur as both sill and dyke within the Igarra area.

Xenoliths on the other hand are inclusions of unmelted country rock in an igneous pluton. They
are pre-existing rocks embedded in a newer igneous rock. Hence, the xenoliths are always older
than the surrounding rock.

42
3.3 SECONDARY STRUCTURE
These are structures produced as a result of tectonism or deformation which involves reaction of a
rock to stress. They are also called tectonic structures. The following secondary structures are
mapped in the study area

3.3.1 FOLDS
Different folds which differ in both orientations and styles were observed on the rocks from one
locality to another throughout the mapping exercise and these include recumbent folds, crenulation
folds as shown in figure 14, asymmetrical folds, symmetrical folds, plunging folds and isoclinal
folds.
[Link] RECUMBENT FOLD
These are folds that have their axial plane being nearly horizontal or horizontal. Most of the
recumbent folds discovered in the study area was mapped in Ojirami and some other localities
along Ojirami road. Some of the recumbent folds are concluded to be the products of highly ductile
deformation which would have formed at deeper level of the crust. The wavelength of the
recumbent fold varies from one outcrop to another during the field studies of this fold, which
revealed that it has been displaced from its original position by earth movements

[Link] ASYMMETRIC FOLD

The fold was observed at Ikao on a calc-silicate rock . The fold contains a folded quartzo-
feldspathic material embedded in it forming a lineation of quartz minerals. According to the field
studies, the asymmetric folds are of unequal limbs and the axial planes are not equidistant from
the limbs.

[Link] CRENULATION FOLD

Crenulation fold was observed on flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist at Ojirami district, coordinate:
N07o18’8.3’’, E006o10’54’’. Based on the field study analysis, they are concluded to be formed as
a result of two or more stress directions resulting in superimposed foliation.

43
Figure 14 showing a crenulation fold in igarra area, Edo state

44
[Link] KINK FOLD
Kink fold occurred within the phyllite around the north-east of Ikao. The fold is about half a meter
wide and the attitude of the axial plane of the fold is 1800 and 220 N`E.

3.3.2 LINEATION
Lineation is a set of linear surface produced in rocks as result of deformation. It is a non-
dimensional feature and it was mainly found in on the metasediments. Both intersection lineation
and crenulation lineation were seen during the field mapping exercise.
At Ojirami district, intersection lineation was seen occurring on a flaggy quartz biotite-schist,
whereby two surface-planes intersects each other to form a lineation surfaces. In north east of
Igarra intersection lineation were seen within the metaconglomerate. At Ikao, both intersection
lineation and crenulation lineation occurred within the calc-gniess.

3.3.3 BOUDINAGE LENSES

Boudinage are structures arising from tensional forces developed by the stretching of the
component bed along bedding planes, giving rise to pull-apart structures, tension crack or necks,
which became filled with incompetent material from either side. This was seen within a
metaconglomerate in the northern part of Igarra on metaconglomerate outcrop. They are formed
as a result of tensional forces developed by stretching the bed along bedding planes. Hence giving
rise to a sausage-like shape where by the cracks in it are filled with incompetent materials.

3.3.4 JOINT
Joints and fractures are both structural discontinuities which divide a rock between the sides of
which there is no observable movement parallel to the surface or joint planes.
Joints were seen on many outcrops and they are formed due to the brittle nature of the rock when
subjected to one deformation or the other. These joints are exploited by plants and shrubs. Some
joints were also seen which are as a result of human activity such as blasting and quarrying of
rocks. Joints and fractures occur mostly in quartzite, metaconglomerate, and flaggy-quartz-biotite-
schists.

45
3.3.5 FAULT

These are fractures that were accompanied by significant displacements. A major fault A was
observed on a flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist outcrop at Ojirami. It shows a displaced factures in the
rock accompanied by movement, the faults have both hanging wall and footwall. Based on the
relationships among the different structures seen on different outcrop, it was assumed that the fault
happened at the 5th episode of deformation but it does not have surface and they were concluded
to occurred as a result of plastic deformation in low temperature metamorphism while the fracture
occurred as a result of ductile deformation at the later phase long after faulting. There is also a
major strike-slip fault observed between fault breccia and quartzite in the northwest part of Igarra.
The fault trends 28 0 west. The fault plane is exposed at : N07o17’56’’, E006o5’22’’ , the fault also
cuts across the metaconglomerate which later result into fault breccia with angular pebbles and
tension gashes that was seen at N07o17’53’’, E006o5’52.4’’.

46
Figure 15 showing Inclined fault on a surface that is oblique to the S2 surface (Axial plane) seen
on a flaggy-quartz-biotite-schist at Ojirami Oke near Ojirami water works, Edo state

47
 CHAPTER 4
METAMORPHISM AND DEFORMATION

Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture (distinct arrangement of minerals) in

pre-existing rocks(protoliths), without the protolith melting into liquid magma. The change occurs
primarily due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. It is the
mineralogical and structural adjustment of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions that
have been imposed at depth below the near surface zones of weathering and diagenesis and which
differ from condition under which the rock formed.
Odeyemi (1988) suggested that the metamorphism in the study area did not exceed the green schist
facies. According to the observation on the study area on the texture and mineralogy of the
metamorphic rocks in the study area show that the rocks have been affected by two types of
metamorphism which are:
i. Regional metamorphism
ii. Contact metamorphism.

4.1 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM

The first episode of Metamorphism (𝑀1) is a regional metamorphism which is associated with the
first episode of deformation (𝐷1) resulted in the transformation of the relict sedimentary bedding
(𝑆0) and as well as the re-crystallization and parallel alignment of mica grains to form
mineralogical banding (𝑆1) and the first folding activity (𝐹1).
The second metamorphic episode (𝑀2) is a contact metamorphic episode which was accompanied
by (𝐷1) deformation affected the earlier fabric formed by (𝑀1) and this resulted in the formation
of axial plane cleavage (𝑆2) and the second folding activity (𝐹2).

4.2 CONTACT METAMORPHISM

The third episode of metamorphism (M3) is a contact metamorphic episode which was
accompanied by D3 deformation. It was locally superimposed on the regional metamorphosed area
thereby causing the refolding (F2) of the initially formed folds. The earlier formed foliation (S 2)
was refolded on a small scale to produce shear fractures referred to as crenulation cleavage (S3).
S3 is oblique to S2 , while S2 is oblique to S0-1 . The superimposed metamorphism is evident seen at
Sebe-Ogbe where large crystals of Andalusite were consciously found in the metapellites.

48
4.3 GRADE OF METAMORPHISM

The contact metamorphism in the study area is associated with low pressure, and high temperature
metamorphism due to the presence of andalusite in phyllite that are very conspicuous within the
outcrop surface at Ojirami , at about few hundreds meter away this previously mapped phyllite the
first appearance of garnet was observed before getting to Sebe-Ogbe. Few meters from Sebe-Ogbe,
appearance of staurolite was observed. Based on this observation, grade of metamorphism in the
area was concluded to varies from low grade metamorphism to medium grade metamorphism due
to the presence of andalusite and garnet respectively as the two end members.

4.4 EPISODE OF DEFORMATION

The metamorphism that took place in the rocks of the Igarra schist belt occurred in phases as the
rocks suffered multiple deformation. Field evidences indicate that the area was affected by at least
2 episodes of regional metamorphism associated with the deformation of the rocks.
The first metamorphic phase and its deformation accounts for the transformation of the original
sedimentary bedding into Lithological bands (S1) and the rearrangement and realignment of the
Biotite grains into millimetric mineralogic banding. The second phase of metamorphism was
followed by an episode of deformation which produced axial plane cleavage and F2 folds. The
garnet grains seen were generally concordant with the S2 surfaces which imply the formation was
syntectonic or it outlasted the tectonism indicating some late or post tectonic recrystallisation in
the rock. Evidences of a third phase of metamorphism which appears to be contact metamorphism
was seen at Ikpeshi. Andalusite crystals that were oval shaped showed the superposition of contact
metamorphism on the rock body and could be said to have resulted from the multiple igneous
intrusions especially the granite batholiths intrusions. The fourth deformation episode produces a
crenulation cleavage surface caused by the relative strike - slip movement. D3 produced a
crenulation lineation (L3) which was observed in this episode while the fifth episode of
deformation is a faulting episode .

49
 CHAPTER 5
GEOCHEMISTRY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Geochemistry is a pivotal scientific discipline that investigates the chemical composition,

distribution, and behaviors of elements and compounds within the Earth's crust. It plays an
indispensable role in mineral exploration, environmental assessment, and comprehending Earth's
intricate systems, enabling us to address numerous geological and environmental challenges. It is
the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major
geological systems. It is an integrated field of chemistry and geology.

During the field exercise, we were taught how to collect sample for geochemical test, precaution
to take to avoid sample contamination and instrument used in the sample collection

5.2 INSTRUMENT USED IN SAMPLE COLLECTION

Geochemical sample collection requires a variety of specialized tools and instruments. These
include;

5.2.1 ROCK HAMMERS AND CHISEL

This is essential for collecting rock samples from outcrops or underground. It is used in driving
the soil augers and core drills into the ground during sample collection.

5.2.2 SOIL AUGERS

It is used to extract soil samples from different depths for analysis. It was used during the field
study to extract soil sample of B horizon.

5.2.3 WATER SAMPLERS

It is designed for collecting water samples from surface water bodies, wells, or groundwater.
During the field exercise, we used a bowl due to unavalability of the instrument.

5.2.4 SIEVES AND PANS

50
It is Used to separate and classify fine-grained sediments and soils. It is of various sizes.

5.2.5 CORE DRILLS

It is utilized for obtaining cylindrical samples from the subsurface, often in mineral exploration
and environmental drilling. It has the same purpose with soil augers.

5.3 SAMPLING METHOD

Geochemical sample collection involves various methods depending on the type of material being
studied:

5.3.1 ROCK SAMPLING

Geological mapping and rock sampling involve the collection of representative rock specimens
from various lithological units to understand the distribution of elements and minerals.

5.3.2 SOIL SAMPLING

Soil samples are collected from predetermined depths such as horizon B or based on the desired
analysis. Composite sampling, grid sampling, or targeted sampling can be used, depending on the
research objectives.

5.3.3 WATER SAMPLING

Water sampling methods include grab sampling (single-point collection), depth profiling, and
passive sampling, using equipment such as bailers, bottles, or specialized probes.

5.3.4 SEDIMENT SAMPLING

It involves collecting sediment samples from rivers, lakes, or the seafloor which is used for
understanding the transport and deposition of materials. Grab samples and sediment coring are
commonly used methods.

5.4 PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHEN COLLECTING SAMPLE

51
Collecting geochemical samples requires attention to detail and adherence to best practices to
ensure the accuracy and representativeness of the data. Some precautions include:

i. Sample Contamination: Avoiding contamination is crucial. Clean tools, containers, and

gloves should be used to prevent the introduction of foreign elements.
ii. Sample Labeling: Proper labeling with information about the location, depth, date, and
collector is essential to maintain sample integrity.
iii. Sampling Depth: Ensuring that samples are collected from the correct depths is vital,
especially in soil and water sampling.
iv. Storage and Preservation: Samples should be stored in clean, airtight containers and
preserved according to specific requirements. For instance, some samples may need to be
kept frozen or acidified to prevent alteration.
v. Safety: Taking safety precautions is vital, particularly in hazardous environments or when
handling potentially toxic materials.

52
 CHAPTER 6
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

The geologic history of an area is the summary of the geologic events that occurred in the past in
geochronological order. Many past authors have proposed possible history for the geologic events
that are believed to have taken place in the Igarra schist belt .According to Rahaman, M. A. (1971),
the migmatite gneiss complex is thought to have resulted from a complex association of
deformation, shearing and folding, granitization and migmatization processes – the slightly
migmatized to un-migmatized para-schist represent a sedimentary cover on the granite- migmatite
complex. Calc-silicate rocks and schists are thought to represent micro-geosynclinal sequence of
sediments. However, the rock occurrences and their contact relationship with each other have been
used to determine the probable geologic history of the study area. Migmatite-gneiss complex is
believed to be the oldest rock in the region, as it underlies other meta -sediments. its origin is
speculative, probably of migmatized ancient meta-sediments (Odeyemi, 1977).
An initial phase of sediment (pelitic sediments and quart-rich sediments) deposition in a synclinal
basin within the underlying polycyclic basement rocks of migmatite-gneisses occurred. Diagenesis
and lithification converted the pelitic sediments into pelites, and the quartz-rich sediments into
pure quartz sandstones. Conglomeratic sediments (that is, sediments made up of unsorted rounded
particles) were subsequently deposited and then lithified to conglomerate. This was followed by
the deposition of calcium rich sediments, which were lithified to pure and impure limestone. These
sediments were hence converted to meta-sediments due to the effect of metamorphism and
deformation. It is evident that the different episodes of deformation and metamorphism have
greatly affected the rocks and original sediments in the Igarra area. The Pan-African orogeny (600
± 150 ma) had been attributed to the main influence that formed the meta-sediments in the study
area.
The first episode of regional metamorphism (M1) affected these sediments; pelites metamorphosed
to metapelites (that is, phyllitic schist and mica schist), pure quartz sandstone metamorphosed to
quartzite, conglomerate metamorphosed to metaconglomerate, pure and impure limestones
metamorphosed to calc-gneiss and marble respectively. Odeyemi (1988) suggested that the finely
layered quartz– biotite schist have formed the metamorphism of siltstones under quiet marine
conditions.

53
The metaconglomerate horizons suggest that the depositional basin was tectonically unstable
throughout the deposition of the sediments and the gradation of grain sizes from fine- clay-sized
particles to boulders in the metaconglomerate suggests that the pebbles might have been
transported by glacier to form tills or might have been deposited by some other means to form
turbidites which were subsequently metamorphosed.
A major fault then affected the metaconglomerate transforming some part of the rock into fault
breccias. Tension gashes were also fromed as a result of this event. The fault plane occurs between
fault breccia and quartzite at the central part of Igarra town. The alternation of metaconglomerate
and quartzite bands along some traverses suggests that the sediments that formed them were
deposited side by side before metamorphism occurred.
This was followed by another episode of regional metamorphism (M2) accompanied by
deformation (D2). Deformation (D2) led to the formation of centimetric tight to isoclinal (F 1)folds,
which are associated with prominent axial plane cleavage parallel to the axial plane of the folds.
This was followed by intrusions (of pegmatite and vein quartz) and plutonism. The intrusion of
the older granite (Igarra batholith) during the Pan-African orogeny has been suggested and proven
by field observations as the major cause of the metamorphism and deformation of the country
rocks which ultimately resulted in the present distribution of meta-sediments in the area. The
intrusions exhibit cross cutting relationships and this makes it possible for their chronology to be
easily determined.

Lamprophyre dyke was the first intrusive body and it intruded almost if not all the metasediments.
A third episode of metamorphism (M3), accompanied by deformation (D3) was then initiated by
the intrusion of the granite batholith (porphyritic granite).Contact metamorphism (M3) gave the
country rocks a spotty hornfelsic texture (contact aureole) and also caused refolding (F 2) of F1,
thus opening the centimetric tight to isoclinal F1 folds. There was a later intrusion of coarse grained
granite into metaconglomerate at a higher crustal level. This however formed the fine-grained
granite.

The event was followed by multiple intrusion of syenite. The darker syenite dyke came first
followed by the lighter syenite dyke. The evidence is a xenolith of the darker syenite in the lighter
syenite, and also the agmatitic appearance of syenite. The multiple intrusions of the syenite suggest
that the first syenite intrusion intruded a hydrous sedimentary terrain and therefore contains

54
amphibole while the second syenite intrusion intruded the already emplaced syenite with little or
no excess water and therefore lacks amphibole.

After the intrusion of syenite, minor intrusions of biotite-pyroxenite, microgranite (aplite), and
tonalite then followed. They are all dyke intrusions in the study area. The intrusion of dolerite dyke
marked the end of the series of plutonism, and marked the beginning of another series of
sedimentation.

Sediments derived from nearby weathered material, composed principally of quartz and little
feldspar was deposited on the basement rocks. These sediments were transformed via lithification
into pink sandstone (Lokoja-Bassange formation); this formed the basal sandstone. Siltstone was
also deposited on top of this basal sandstone

Then, there was a deposition of very fine-grained clay and mud (rich in carbonaceous matter).This
formed shale and mudstone. This was followed by the deposition of quartz rich sediments,
transported from a distant source on the sequence, in an estuarine environment which was
oxidizing in nature. This formed the Ajali sandstone formation

The region was then subjected to weathering. Erosion and tectonic uplift carved it to its present
topography.

Based on the field relationships between the rocks of the study area, the following chronology can
be given (from the oldest to the youngest): metaconglomerate---phyllite---quarzite---flaggy quartz
biotite schist---calc-silicate---spotted schist---fault breccia---granite suites---porphyritic granite---
coarse grained granite---syenite dyke---lamprophyre---pegmatite---dolerite dyke---quartz vein.

55
 CHAPTER 7
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

In this section, the economic importance and benefits of the rocks encountered and their
mineralogy are taken into consideration. The study area is immensely blessed with deposits of
economic importance such as quartzite, syenite, granite among others that constitute the main
economic deposits in the study area.

7.1 EONOMIC USE OF SANDSTONE AND LATERITE

Sandstone and laterite are both abundant in the study area and have versatile economic uses.
Sandstone is employed in construction, monuments, landscaping, and industrial applications such
as sandblasting. Conversely, laterite, a tropical soil or rock rich in iron and aluminum oxides proves
cost-effective for construction, particularly in the regions of the study area, and is applied in
landscaping and soil conservation projects promoting local economic growth. These materials
offer multifaceted economic benefits, sustainability, and job opportunities, making them valuable
assets across various industries.

7.2 ECONOMIC USE OF GRANITE AND QUARZITE

Granite and quarzite which is known for its exceptional durability, strength, and aesthetic appeal,
making it a highly sought-after material in a wide range of economic applications. In the
construction industry, granite is a preferred choice for kitchen countertops, flooring, wall cladding,
and building facades due to its ability to withstand wear and tear, weathering, and staining. Its use
in monuments and memorials underscores its enduring beauty and longevity. Moreover, granite is
employed in road construction as crushed stone and aggregate, enhancing the durability and
longevity of roadways. In landscaping, it serves as decorative stone, accentuating outdoor spaces
with its natural colors and textures. The economic benefits of granite and quarzites extend beyond
its physical properties; the quarrying and processing of granite generate employment opportunities
and stimulate local economies in regions where it is abundant such as the study area.

7.3 ECONOMIC USE OF METACONGLOMERATE

Metaconglomerate is formed from the consolidation of gravel or pebble-sized particles under heat
and pressure, offers unique economic applications. While it may not be as widely used as granite

56
or quartzite, its distinctive appearance and texture make it valuable for decorative purposes. In
landscaping and garden design, metaconglomerate stones add a touch of natural elegance, creating
visually striking features and pathways. Additionally, its use as ornamental stone in construction
projects or sculptures contributes to aesthetic diversity. Though its economic footprint is smaller
compared to granite and quarzite, the utilization of metaconglomerate in decorative and niche
markets can still provide economic benefits by generating local employment opportunities and
contributing to regional economies in the study area.

7.4 ECONOMIC USE OF WATER

Groundwater is indeed a valuable economic resource in the study area, owing to the highly jointed
rocks that serve as potential sources for this vital water supply. The geological characteristics,
including the presence of joints, faults, and fractures in the rocks, provide natural conduits for the
movement of groundwater. This facilitates the drilling of water boreholes that can reach down to
the bedrock to tap into this resource, which can be used for various purposes, including domestic
water supply, agriculture, and industrial use. Additionally, the constructed Ojirami Dam and
waterworks infrastructure offer further economic potential. Not only can these facilities provide a
stable and reliable source of water for the town's residents, but they can also be harnessed for
electricity generation. The dam's elevation and controlled water release can be utilized to produce
hydroelectric power, contributing to the town's energy needs. Furthermore, this source of clean
energy can be used for irrigation purposes, enhancing local agriculture and potentially supporting
economic growth in the region. Overall, the combination of groundwater resources and water
infrastructure offers a multifaceted economic benefit to the study area, ranging from improved
water access to electricity generation and agricultural development.

7.5 ECONOMIC USE OF SHALE AND MUDSTONE

Shale and mudstone find significant economic use in various industries. Shale, renowned for its
rich hydrocarbon content, has revolutionized the energy sector through hydraulic fracturing,
enabling the economic extraction of shale gas and shale oil. It also serves as a source of clay
minerals, crucial in the production of ceramics, bricks, and pottery, supporting the manufacturing
industry. Shale's geotechnical properties make it invaluable in construction and civil engineering
projects, aiding in landfill containment and slope stabilization. Mudstone, on the other hand, plays

57
a pivotal role in the construction industry, supplying materials for bricks, tiles, and building
components. Its attractive color patterns make it a sought-after decorative stone in high-end
interior design and architecture. Moreover, mudstone's geological and environmental indicators
assist researchers in understanding past conditions and sedimentation history, contributing to
scientific research and environmental assessments. Together, shale and mudstone serve as essential
economic resources with multifaceted applications.

58
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the geological report of the Igarra area in Edo State provides a comprehensive
overview of the geological characteristics and potential resources in the region. The report reveals
a wide variety of rock formations, mineral deposits, and geological structures, which have
important implications for various industries, including mining, agriculture, and construction. It is
evident that Igarra and its surrounding areas offer promising opportunities for economic
development, but it is also crucial for organizations and government agencies to ensure that
resource extraction is carried out responsibly and in an environmentally sustainable manner.
The report emphasizes the ongoing need for geological research and the responsible management
of resources in the Igarra area. As we look to the future, it is essential to consider the environmental
impact of any industrial or mining activities, while also exploring ways to harness the region's
geological resources for the betterment of local communities and the broader economy.
Moreover, the insights presented in this report can serve as a valuable resource for policymakers,
investors, and researchers interested in the geological and economic potential of the Igarra area.
With proper planning and conservation measures in place, this region has the potential to make a
significant contribution to the development and prosperity of Edo State and Nigeria as a whole.

59
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