ABSTRACT

The demand for the creation of Pakistan

was based on a historical narrative built
around the centrality of the Muslim
community in India and its distinctiveness
in terms of religious beliefs, cultural traits,
and historical traditions. A particular
understanding of the past was, in other
words, central to the idea of Pakistan.

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF

PAKISTAN
Section One

By: Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022

Teacher
O- Level Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
Beaconhouse Margalla Islamabad(BMI)
Contact: 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

History and Culture of Pakistan

Section One

Chapter Number Chapter Name Page Number

One Decline of the Mughal 02-09

Empire

The East India Company

10-20

Two The Religious 21-35

Reformers

Three The War of 36-44

Independence 1857

Four Sir Syed Ahmed Khan 45-51

Five Languages 52-56

Teacher
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD
World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
O- Level Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
Beaconhouse Margalla Islamabad(BMI)
Contact: 03336610587

1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Chapter One: Causes of the Mughal Decline

What was practice of Sutti or Satti? [4]

Suttee, Sanskrit sati (“good woman” or “chaste wife”), the Indian custom of a
wife immolating herself either on the funeral pyre of her dead husband or in some
other fashion soon after his death. Although never widely practiced, suttee was
the ideal of womanly devotion held by certain Brahman and royal castes. It is
sometimes linked to the myth of the Hindu goddess Sati, who burned herself to
death in a fire. Suttee became a central issue under the British Raj, which first
tolerated it, then inadvertently legalized it by legislating conditions under which
it could be done, and then finally, in 1829, outlawed it.

Who was Ahmed Shah Abdali? [4]

He was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded as the founder of the
modern Afghanistan. In July 1747, Ahmad Shah was appointed as King of the
Afghans. From 1748 to 1767, he invaded Hindustan eight times. He first crossed
the Indus River in 1748, the year after his ascension his forces sacked and
absorbed Lahore. In 1749, Ahmad Shah captured the area
of Punjab around Lahore. In the same year, the Mughal ruler was induced to
cede Sindh and all of the Punjab including the vital trans-Indus River to him, in
order to save his capital from being attacked by the forces of the Durrani Empire.

Who was Nadir Shah Durrani? [4]

He was one of the most powerful rulers in Iranian history, ruling as shah of1 Iran
(Persia) from 1736 to 1747. Nader Shah crushed the Mughal army in less than
three hours at the huge Battle of Karnal on 13 February 1739. After this
spectacular victory, Nader captured Mohammad Shah and entered Delhi. Nader
Shah agreed to withdraw, but Mohammad Shah paid him in handing over the keys
of his royal treasury, and losing even the fabled Peacock Throne to the Iranian
emperor. The Peacock Throne, thereafter, served as a symbol of Iranian imperial
might. It is estimated that Nader took away with him treasures worth as much as
seven hundred million rupees. He also looted the Koh-i-Noor.

What was Jizya? [4]

It was an Islamic Tax charged from non-Muslim for their protection by Muslim
rulers, Mughals also charged it in their Empire later abolished by Emperor Akbar

2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

but Aurangzeb introduced it again in India, Mughals lost loyalty of non-Muslim

population due to Jizya collection, later abandoned by Shah Alam 1. The Hindus
refused to pay the taxes because they thought it would be used against them in
wars due to Aurangzeb’s policy of expansion.

What was Mansabdari system? [4]

Mughal emperor Akbar introduced a new system officially called mansabdars

who were responsible for civil and military administration. As they were
appointed by the King himself so they were directly answerable to him. Akbar
ensured that they were not local land lords who had power in their own right.
Instead they owned their position simply because they were appointed by him.
They would easily be dismissed or lose power so it was in their power to remain
loyal. To stop them building up too much power in one area, he often transfers
them to jobs in other areas. When they die their wealth and property goes to the
emperor. This stops them from accumulating wealth but makes them
extravagant.

Who was Shivaji? [4]

Shivaji established his own independent kingdom from the declining Adilshahi
sultanate of Bijapur which formed the start of the Maratha Empire . He was
engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the Mughal Empire, the Sultanate
of Golkonda, Sultanate of Bijapur and the European colonial powers. His
military forces expanded the Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building
forts, and forming a Maratha navy. Shivaji established a competent and
progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative organisations. He
revived ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted the
usage of the Marathi and Sanskrit languages, replacing Persian in court and
administration.

Who were Zamindars? [4]

They were Landlords or tax collectors of the areas. They were Wealthy and
influential and some of them had private armies. After death of Aurangzeb they
were increasingly unwilling to accept rule of any new emperor or to make
payments to government in Delhi. Some Hindu Zamindars imposed beard tax
which annoyed Muslims in Bengal. Muslims were oppressed by zamindars from
the 1800’s onwards, especially in East Bengal.

3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Why was imposition of Jizya tax opposed by the Hindus? [7]

There were number of reasons to oppose the tax by the Hindus during rule of
Aurangzeb. One of the important reason was that the tax was imposed only on the
Hindus parallel to zakat given by the Muslims. Most of the time the amount of Jizya
was bigger than the amount of Zakat which was primarily due to corruption of tax
collectors. The Hindus regraded it unfair tax because they felt sense of alienation from
the Muslim kings. It created panic and anger in the Hindus against Mughal kings and
they refused to pay the tax.

Another important reason to oppose the tax was Aurangzeb started policy of expansion
in India and starting annexing Hindu independent areas. The Hindus from other parts
of India refused to pay the tax because they knew that the Mughals need financial
resources to carry out campaigns against their Hindu brothers. The Hindus refused to
pay the tax to save them from the Mughal armies.

Last but not the least reason to oppose the tax was exemption of the tax for those
Hindus who would accept Islam. It created unparalleled hatred in Hindus against
Aurangzeb. They blamed that the King was using the tax as bribe to Hindus for
changing their religion. There were number of examples where the Hindus changed
their religion because they were unable to pay the tax. Now many Hindus started
opposing the tax and refused to pay it.

Explain why Aurangzeb was blamed for the Mughal decline? [7]

There were many reasons under Aurangzeb which led to the Mughal decline. The
first and foremost was his intolerant attitude towards other religions. When he re-
introduced Jizya tax the Hindus showed strong resentment and opposition against the
tax. They felt being victim of discrimination and no more equal partner to fellow
Muslim subject under the king. He also banned many religious rituals like Sattee
which became another source of irritation for thr Hindus. There were number of sikh
gurus like Teg Bahadur Singh were killed. He was also blamed for demolishing many
Hindu temples during wars. These intolerant religious policies alienated Hindus from
the Mughal king which later on contributed in Mughal decline.

Another important reason was his failure attempt in Deccan wars against Marathas.
He became very unpopular because despite spending twenty-five long years staying
away from the capital he could not defeated the Marathas completed. This long
absence from the capital encouraged local mansabdars in developing corruption

4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

networks and after his death same mansabdars started rebellions against the
Mughals and announced independent states. So, right after his death the Mughal
empire had to face speedy downfall.

Last but not the least reason was imposition of strict sharia laws under his rule. He
was orthodox Muslim in favour of imposition of strict sharia laws in the state which
made him controversial in India. He wanted to convert India into Dar-ul-Islam by
imposing Islam India which was a Hindu majority state. It means that every person
had to follow Islamic laws which was unacceptable for Hindus. It was taken as an
attempt to convert Hindus into Islam forcefully. Now the king lost support of Hindus
who started opposing him which led to the decline of the Mughal dynasty in India.

Explain why the Mughal Empire declined following the reign of Aurangzeb. [7]
OR
Explain why the successors of Aurangzeb failed to prevent the decline of
Mughal Empire? [7]
OR
Explain three reasons for the decline of the Mughal Empire. [7]

There were many reasons of Mughal decline in India under successors of Aurangzeb.
The most important was incompetency of successors of Aurangzeb to run
administration of vast empire with same strength and political sagacity. The Mughal
kings had become weak, greedy for power and pleasure loving. They were spending
more on their pleasure and luxurious life style. They were so busy in merry makings
that they had left administration of the state on the shoulders of nobles who were
misusing them in the name of king. This inability to control the state effectively
contributed in Mughal decline.

Another important reason of Mughal decline was frequent wars of succession after
death of the king. The Mughals had no well-defined law of succession to replace
deceased king. The only claim to be king was every candidate to throne had to prove
his ability in battleground. These fights were expensive and drained already depleted
financial resources of the Mughals. These wars not only wasted huge amount of
money but also created division in Mughal army and the Indian masses. In this way
these wars triggered process of Mughal decline.

Last but not the least reason of Mughal decline under successor of Aurangzeb was
declining military expertise of the Mughal army. Long era of peace and prosperity
eroded military strength and expertise of the Mughal army. Once the army famous

5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

for its military strength and power to counter internal and external threats started to
decline due to absence of able general and old fighting methods. When this
incompetent military faced their competent and well-organized rivals, it could not
protect the empire. It also encouraged invaders from outside India to attack and
plunder which further weaken the Mughal empire.

The spread of Marathan power was the main reason for the decline of the
Mughal Empire.’ Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

One of the significant cause of the Mughal decline was growing military power of
Marathas od Deccan under their vibrant leader Shavaji Rao. They had unique military
techniques especially guerrilla war fighting against their enemies. They also adopted
this military strategy against the Mughals who were unfamiliar to it. The more
disciplined army, their fighting spirit and loyalty to their cause outnumbered Mughal
armies almost in every front. Consequently, the southern and central part of India
went under their control which led to the Mughal decline in India.

Furthermore, this spread of the Marathan empire severely impacted and drained
financial resources of the Mughals because whole of the southern and central India
had stopped giving taxes to the state. Tax collection had decreased significantly and
the wars were becoming more expensive with each passing day. The Mughals need
more financial resources to maintain huge Mughal army. These expensive Maratha
campaigns drained Mughal treasury completely. So, the empty treasury triggered the
Mughal decline even faster than usual.

However, the rise of Marathan empire was not the sole cause of the Mughal decline,
there were many other factors that equally contributed in the decline, like,
incompetency of successors of Aurangzeb to run administration of vast empire with
same strength and political sagacity. The Mughal kings had become weak, greedy for
power and pleasure loving. They were spending more on their pleasure and luxurious
life style. They were so busy in merry makings that they had left administration of
the state on the shoulders of nobles who were misusing them in the name of king.
This inability to control the state effectively contributed in Mughal decline.

Another important reason of Mughal decline was frequent wars of succession after
death of the king. The Mughals had no well-defined law of succession to replace
deceased king. The only claim to be king was every candidate to throne had to prove
his ability in battleground. These fights were expensive and drained already depleted
financial resources of the Mughals. These wars not only wasted huge amount of

6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

money but also created division in Mughal army and the Indian masses. In this way
these wars triggered process of Mughal decline.

Similarly, declining military expertise of the Mughal army under successor of

Aurangzeb was another cause of Mughal decline. Long era of peace and prosperity
eroded military strength and expertise of the Mughal army. Once the army famous
for its military strength and power to counter internal and external threats started to
decline due to absence of able general and old fighting methods. When this
incompetent military faced their competent and well-organized rivals, it could not
protect the empire. It also encouraged invaders from outside India to attack and
plunder which further weaken the Mughal empire.

Last but not the least reason of Mughal decline was arrival of the British who was
one the most well-organized and experienced rival. At first they came for trade but
gradually became involved in political matters of India due to incompetency of
Mughal kings. They had well-trained and well-equipped army under most
experienced military leadership. The military strength of the British not only enabled
them to occupy India but also helped them to manage administration effectively.
Hence, the military strength of British helped them in defeating Mughals and other
potential local strong rival in India.

Logical Conclusion.

Select any one reason to justify the conclusion

Polices of Aurangzeb were the only reasons for the Mughal decline. Do you
agree? Discuss. [14]

There were many reasons under Aurangzeb which led to the Mughal decline. The
first and foremost was his intolerant attitude towards other religions. When he re-
introduced Jizya tax the Hindus showed strong resentment and opposition against the
tax. They felt being victim of discrimination and no more equal partner to fellow
Muslim subject under the king. He also banned many religious rituals like Sattee
which became another source of irritation for thr Hindus. There were number of sikh
gurus like Teg Bahadur Singh were killed. He was also blamed for demolishing many
Hindu temples during wars. These intolerant religious policies alienated Hindus from
the Mughal king which later on contributed in Mughal decline.

Another important reason was his failure attempt in Deccan wars against Marathas.
He became very unpopular because despite spending twenty-five long years staying

7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

away from the capital he could not defeated the Marathas completed. This long
absence from the capital encouraged local mansabdars in developing corruption
networks and after his death same mansabdars started rebellions against the
Mughals and announced independent states. So, right after his death the Mughal
empire had to face speedy downfall.

Similarly, imposition of strict sharia laws under his rule was another important reason
of the decline. He was orthodox Muslim in favour of imposition of strict sharia laws
in the state which made him controversial in India. He wanted to convert India into
Dar-ul-Islam by imposing Islam India which was a Hindu majority state. It means
that every person had to follow Islamic laws which was unacceptable for Hindus. It
was taken as an attempt to convert Hindus into Islam forcefully. Now the king lost
support of Hindus who started opposing him which led to the decline of the Mughal
dynasty in India.

However, policies of Aurangzeb were not the sole cause of the Mughal decline, there
were many other factors that equally contributed in the decline, like, incompetency
of successors of Aurangzeb to run administration of vast empire with same strength
and political sagacity. The Mughal kings had become weak, greedy for power and
pleasure loving. They were spending more on their pleasure and luxurious life style.
They were so busy in merry makings that they had left administration of the state on
the shoulders of nobles who were misusing them in the name of king. This inability
to control the state effectively contributed in Mughal decline

One of the significant cause of the Mughal decline was growing military power of
Marathas od Deccan under their vibrant leader Shavaji Rao. They had unique military
techniques especially guerrilla war fighting against their enemies. They also adopted
this military strategy against the Mughals who were unfamiliar to it. The more
disciplined army, their fighting spirit and loyalty to their cause outnumbered Mughal
armies almost in every front. Consequently, the southern and central part of India
went under their control which led to the Mughal decline in India.

Another important reason of Mughal decline was frequent wars of succession after
death of the king. The Mughals had no well-defined law of succession to replace
deceased king. The only claim to be king was every candidate to throne had to prove
his ability in battleground. These fights were expensive and drained already depleted
financial resources of the Mughals. These wars not only wasted huge amount of
money but also created division in Mughal army and the Indian masses. In this way
these wars triggered process of Mughal decline.

8|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Last but not the least reason of Mughal decline under successor of Aurangzeb was
declining military expertise of the Mughal army. Long era of peace and prosperity
eroded military strength and expertise of the Mughal army. Once the army famous
for its military strength and power to counter internal and external threats started to
decline due to absence of able general and old fighting methods. When this
incompetent military faced their competent and well-organized rivals, it could not
protect the empire. It also encouraged invaders from outside India to attack and
plunder which further weaken the Mughal empire.

Logical Conclusion.

Select any one reason to justify the conclusion

9|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

The East India Company(EIC)

What was East India company? [4]

East India Company was a trading company founded by a group of British

merchants. In 1600 the Company was granted permission by British government
to trade with Eastern countries. The first traded trading ship landed at Surat in
1608, but the permission from Mughal was given in [Link] trade proved very
profitable and trading posts were setup at Madras, Bombay and at Calcutta. The
Company started keeping an army of Indian soldiers to protect their trading
interest. During the 18th Century the East India Company gradually grew into a
military and political power.

Who was Roberet Clive? [4]

Roberet Clive was commander of E.I.C army which defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-
Daula in battle of Plassey in 1757 and became governor of Bengal. His opponents
carried on an investigation on corruption charges but he was not found guilty. He
was a soldier and first British administrator of Bengal, who was one of the
creators of British power in India. In his first governorship (1755–60) he won the
Battles against powerful Indian rulers and in his second governorship (1764–67)
he reorganized the British colony.

What was battle of Plassey 1757? [4]

In this battle the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive met the
army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawab of Bengal. Clive had 800 Europeans and 2200
Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in his camp at Plassey was said to have about
50,000 men with a train of heavy artillery. Unfortunately, Mir Jafar commander
of Nawab’s army met with Clive, and the greater number of the Nawab’s soldiers
were bribed to throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and even turn
their arms against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated. Battle of Plassey
marked the first major military success for British East India Company.

What was Black Hole incident of Calcutta? [4]

Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula attacked Fort William, Calcutta in 1756 with help of

French soldiers. Some 64 prisoners including two women and several wounded
soldiers were marched at sword point to the filthy dungeon at Fort William. This
was a little cell, measuring 18 feet by 14 feet 10 inches, designed for no more
than three petty criminals. The heat at this time of year was suffocating. Prisoners

10 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

trampled on each other to get nearer one of the two tiny windows or to the small
amount of water they had been left. Their guards mocked them as the prisoners
gasped for air and pleaded for mercy. At 6am the next morning, when the door
was opened, dead bodies were piled up inside. Its known as Black Hole of
Calcutta.

Who was Mir Qasim? [4]

Mir Qasim was the Nawab of Bengal from 1760 to 1763. He was installed as
Nawab with the support of the British East India Company, replacing Mir Jafar,
his father-in-law, who had himself been supported earlier by the East India
Company after his role in winning the Battle of Plassey for the British. In battle
of Buxar in 1764 E.I.C army defeated combine army of Nawab of Bengal Mir
Qasim, Nawab of Oudh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II at Buxar. British
influence increased. British captured Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and extended its
influence in Oudh by dissolving him as Nawab of Bengal.

Who was Hyder Ali? [4]

Hyder Ali was ruler of Mysore state which organized a strong army with the help
of French and defeated British in two battles of Mysore. He was the innovator of
military use of the iron-cased Mysorean rockets. In 1766 the Marathas, ʿAlī Khān,
Nizam of Hyderabad, and the British entered a triple alliance against him but he
soon bought off the Marathas. In April 1769 he secured from the British a promise
of aid in an attack, but when the Marathas invaded his territories in 1771, the
British did not send assistance.

Who was Tipu Sulatan? [4]

Tipu Sultan also known as the Tiger of Mysore was a ruler of the Kingdom of
Mysore and a scholar, soldier, and poet. Tipu introduced a number of
administrative innovations during his rule, including his coinage, and a new land
revenue system which initiated the growth of Mysore silk industry. Tipu
expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and wrote the military manual Fathul
Mujahidin, considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery. In the Fourth
Anglo-Mysore War, the combined forces of the British East India Company and
the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu, and he was killed on 4 May 1799 while
defending his fort of Sriangapatam.

11 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Who was Lord Wellesley? [4]

Lord Wellesley (as Governor General) came to India in 1798 at a time when the
British were locked in a life and death struggle with France all over the world.
Wellesley persuaded local princes / rulers to sign subsidiary alliances. Local
rulers were also forbidden to make any other alliances. In 1799 Wellesley invaded
Mysore killing Tipu Sultan and gaining control of his lands. Wellesley also
defeated the Nawab of Oudh and took control of their territory.

Describe Subsidiary Alliances. [4]

The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was introduced by Lord Wellesley. Under the
subsidiary alliance system, the ruler of the allying Indian State was compelled to
accept the permanent stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay
a subsidy for its maintenance. As a consequence of Subsidiary Alliance, number
of soldiers and officers were deprived of their hereditary livelihood, spreading
misery and degradation in the country. The Subsidiary Alliance system was, on
the other hand, extremely advantageous to the British. They could now maintain
a large army at the cost of the Indian states.

What was regulating act of 1773? [4]

First step taken by the British government to regulate and control the company's
affairs in India. It prohibited the servants of company from engaging in any
private trade or accepting presents or bribes from the "natives". The Act raised
Governor of Bengal, Warren Hastings to Governor-General of Bengal and
included the presidencies of Madras and Bombay under Bengal's control. It laid
the foundations for a centralized administration in India. Governor of Bengal
became the Governor General of Bengal with an executive council of four to
assist him.

Who were Zamindars? [4]

They were Landlords or tax collectors of different areas. They were very wealthy
and influential and some had private armies. After death of Aurangzeb they were
increasingly unwilling to accept rule of any new emperor or to make payments to
government in Delhi. Zamindars from Bengal imposed Beard tax on Miuslims
which annoyed them. Muslims were oppressed by zamindars from the 1800’s
onwards, especially in East Bengal.

12 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

What was India Pitts Act 1784? [4]

Pitt’s India Act proved to be a landmark because it gave the British government
control of policy on Indian matters. The dual system developed into an alternate
arrangement of give and take, becoming ever stronger on the government side as
greater ability of influence and power. The act gave direct control of British
Government on Indian possessions of land controlled by EIC by appointing of
Governor General to administer administrative matters of India. It also appointed
Commander-in-Chief and Provincial Governors and now EIC company could
continue with Trade only.

Who was Warren Hastings? [4]

He was first Governor General or Viceroy of India. He Introduced a number of

reforms in administration, revenue, finance, commerce and the judiciary. He also
developed policies relating to Oudh and Rohilla. He was involved in several wars
including the Anglo-Maratha and the Anglo-Mysore. He moved the central
government to Calcutta under direct British control and remodelled the justice
system. In 1774 he acquired the new title of governor-general, with
responsibilities for supervising other British settlements in India.

What was Treaty of Lahore? [4]

The Treaty of Lahore was a peace-treaty marking the end of the First Anglo-Sikh
War in 1846. The Treaty was concluded, for the British, by the Governor-General
Sir Henry Hardinge and the seven-year-old Maharaja Duleep Singh Bahadur. The
territory to the south of the river Sutlej and the forts and territory in the Jalandhar
Doab between the rivers Sutlej and Beas were handed over to British. The control
of the rivers Sutlej and Beas and part of the Indus passed to the British.

What was Doctrine of Lapse? [4]

The doctrine of lapse was a policy of annexation initiated by the East India
Company in the Indian subcontinent about the princely states, and applied until
the year 1858, the year after Company rule was succeeded by the British
Raj under the British Crown. According to the doctrine, any Indian princely
state under the suzerainty of the East India Company (EIC))would have its
princely status abolished (and therefore be annexed into British India) if the ruler
was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a male heir". The latter
replaced the long-established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to

13 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

choose a successor. In addition, the EIC decided whether potential rulers were
competent enough. The doctrine and its applications were widely regarded as
illegitimate by many Indians, leading to resentment against the EIC. Sitara,
Jhansi, Nagpur and Oudh states were captured by British under this doctrine.

What was annexation of Sindh? [4]

In 1843 E.I.C army under Charles Napier captured Sindh after two battles with
Amirs of Sindh. British were worried due to expansion policy of Sikh ruler of
Punjab Ranjit Singh. In 1841 Afghanistan invasion due to growing Russian
influence in the area but humiliated defeat of British forces at the hands of the
Afghans. The British wanted to restore her pride by taking Sindh which was ruled
by Amirs who had treaty of friendship with Sindh. Sir Charles Napier provoked
the Amirs to break the treaty and resultantly annexed Sindh. It is considered
shameful act of British.

What was Queen's proclamation of 1858? [4]

It was read on Nov 1858 at Allahabad after failure of War of Independence 1857.
Pardon was given to all expect those who were involved in murder of British.
Doctrine of Lapse and annexation policy was abolished and religious freedom
was ensured. It was promised not to interfere in the religious beliefs of the people
and due regard to ancient property rights and customs. The British government
would abide by all treaty obligations and agreed to no further territorial
acquisition. Guarantee the right to appointments in public service were also given.

Who were Thugees? [4]

Thuggees were actions and crimes carried out by Thugs of India during 18th and
mid-19th century. They were organised gangs of professional robbers and
murderers in India. This term, describing the murder and robbery of travellers by
a group of Kali worshippers who were popular in the northern and eastern regions
of India. Thugs were said to have travelled in groups across the Indian
subcontinent operating as gangs of highway robbers, tricking and
later strangling their victims. During the 1830s, the thugs were targeted for
eradication by the Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck, and his
chief captain William Henry Sleeman.

14 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Why were the British able to replace the Mughals as the dominant force in the
Sub-Continent by 1850? [7]

There were number of reasons which made British to replace the Mughals as dominant
force of India, first and the foremost was their best military strategy and well-trained
army. The army was not only well-equipped but also highly motivated with their cause
to spread British rule. One the other hand Mughal army was disunited and ill-trained.
So, every time whenever both armies met the British outnumbered them. The lack of
vision to fight, inexperienced soldiers and ill-planning made Mughal army
unproductive against British army. This ineffectiveness of the Mughals made British
easy to replace them as dominant force of the sub-continent.

Similarly, effective British administrative system was another important reason for the
British to replace them as dominant force of India. They introduced one of the best and
effective administrative system in Indian occupied areas like, Bengal, Oudh and other
areas. They introduced strict system of checks and balances on government officials.
They also introduced hierarchy of administrators like governor-general, provincial
governors, civil servants and highly organised police system to control the areas. The
British restored peace and economic stability which helped them in winning hearts of
Indian people. these steps strengthened British control over India.

Last but not the least, fastest and the most modern transportation and communication
system was another reason to replace British as dominant force of India. They
constructed a vast network of roads and railways in 1850s in all major parts of India.
This network was well-connected to almost all port cities. It benefitted British trade on
one hand as they could transport Indian raw material more easily and political
dominancy in India on the other because now they could mobilise their troops timely
during any emergency. This speedy transportation of raw materials and British armies
helped them to dominate Mughals in India.

Explain why the East India Company got involved in the sub-continent
during the seventeenth century. [7]

There were many factors that motivated British in taking interest in India. The
most important was its natural resources and raw materials. India was known as
Golden Sparrow which had abundance of natural resources, like, Jute, silk, cotton
and gypsum. These resources were available at lower prices in India while had
great demand in European markets. The British had been told stories of Indian

15 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

wealth and blessings of its profitable trade. So, British decided to try their luck
inn India and got attracted to it.

Another important reason to get involved in India by the British was industrial
revolution. There was mushrooming of industries in England. They need raw
materials to fulfil industrial needs on the one hand and big markets to sell their
furnished goods on the other. They also need Indian spices to preserve and dry
their meat. India was one of the best spice producing country in the world. It was
also one of the biggest market which could consume huge amount of British
goods. In this way spice trade and profitable trade motived British to take interest
in India.

Last but not the least was British trade rivalry with other European trade
competitors like French, Dutch and Spanish. In the beginning British decided to
trade in Indonesia but local rulers were weak and European traders were more
strong so British badly defeated and expelled by the Dutch. Now British had only
one option that was India because local rulers were very strong there and there
were equal chances for British to get their share in Indian trade. India’s strategic
location was vital due to sea trade routes like Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and
Indian Ocean. So, significant strategic location was one of the important reason
of British attraction in India.

How successful were the British attempts to take control of lands in the sub-
continent between 1750 and 1856? [14]
OR
How successful was Indian resistance to British attempts to take control of
lands in the subcontinent? Explain your answer. [14]

British Success/ Indian Failure

British were successful in expanding their rule in India from 1750 to 1857 in
different ways. The first opportunity came in 1757 when battle of Plassey took
place. In this battle the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive met
the army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawabs of Bengal. Clive had 800 Europeans and
2200 Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in his entrenched camp at Plassey was said
to have about 50,000 men with a train of heavy artillery. Unfortunately, Mir Jafar,
met with Clive, and the greater number of the Nawabs soldiers were bribed to
throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and even turn their arms
against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated. Battle of Plassey marked

16 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

the first major military success for British East India Company in expanding their
rule in India.

It was followed by battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim the Nawab of Bengal took help
from Nawab Shuja-ud– daulah and the Emperor Shah Alam II. But the English
under the General Major Hector Munro at Buxar defeated the combined army on
22 October, 1764. Mir Kasim fled and died in 1777. After winning the Battle of
Buxar, the British had earned the right to collect land revenue in Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa. This development set the foundations of British political rule in India.
After the victory of the English in Buxar, Robert Clive was appointed the
governor and commander in chief of the English army in Bengal in 1765. He is
claimed as the founder of the British political dominion in India. Robert Clive
also brought reforms in the administration of the company and the organization
of the army which helped British greatly in expanding their influence in India.

Similarly, British wanted to make sure that Afghanistan didn’t fall into Russian
hands. British agreed with Ranjit Singh (ruler of Punjab) that Afghanistan should
remain independent. A rebellion broke out in Afghanistan in 1841 in which
British troops were killed. British felt that their pride had been hurt in Afghanistan
and decided to turn in Sindh. Sindh was ruled by collection of Amirs who had
signed a treaty with British in [Link] General Sir Charles Napier provoked
the Amirs of Sindh so much that they attacked British residency in [Link]
were defeated and Sindh was annexed by British.

Besides, Marathas were also defeated and Maratha power destroyed by British in
several wars during 1817- 1818. Holkar’s forces were routed at Mahidpur
December 21, 1817 and Baji Rao II, who was trying to consolidate Marathas,
finally surrendered in June 1818. British abolished the position of Peshwa and
Marathas were limited to the small kingdom of Satara. This ended the mighty
Maratha power.

Indian Success/British Failures

There is no doubt that British defeated Indians and took over India at the end but
this is also an established fact that they had to face sever resistance by strong
Indian independent rulers. One of them was Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-Daula
who made military alliance with French and attacked at Calcutta a British trade
post. He successfully defeated British and took over the area. This successful
attempt of the Nawab showed British that taking over India was not easy task. It

17 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

also showed that the Indians were ready in giving tough resistance to British in
protecting their lands.

Another important Indian success to protect their lands was strong and
independent Sikh rule in the areas of Punjab, modern day KPK and Kashmir
under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. British had no dare to attack on his areas. They
offered peace to Raja Ranjit Singh and signed Treaty of Perpetual Friendship with
him by accepting his authority on the areas. This was another success of local
Indian against British to protect his lands.

Logical Conclusion

Do agree with one fact of your choice

India Pitts Act 1784 was the most important event of British expansion till
1857. Do you agree? Discuss. [14]

Pitt’s India Act proved to be a landmark act inn extending British rule in India
because it gave the British government control of policy without patronage. The
dual system developed into an alternate arrangement of give and take, becoming
ever stronger on the government side as greater ability of influence, and power.
The inquiry provision produced a national inquiry on Indian affairs every 20
years, marking successive stages in the reduction of the company’s political
power. The act gave direct control of British Government on Indian possessions
of land controlled by EIC by appointing of Governor General to administer
administrative matters of India. It also appointed Commander-in-Chief and
Provincial Governors and now EIC company could continue with Trade only.

Another, opportunity came in 1757 when battle of Plassey took place. In this
battle the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive met the army of
Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawabs of Bengal. Clive had 800 Europeans and 2200
Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in his entrenched camp at Plassey was said to
have about 50,000 men with a train of heavy artillery. Unfortunately, Mir Jafar,
met with Clive, and the greater number of the Nawabs soldiers were bribed to
throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and even turn their arms
against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated. Battle of Plassey marked
the first major military success for British East India Company.

Similarly, British wanted to make sure that Afghanistan didn’t fall into Russian
hands. British agreed with Ranjit Singh (ruler of Punjab) that Afghanistan should

18 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

remain independent. A rebellion broke out in Afghanistan in 1841 in which

British troops were killed. British felt that their pride had been hurt in Afghanistan
and decided to turn in Sindh. Sindh was ruled by collection of Amirs who had
signed a treaty with British in [Link] General Sir Charles Napier provoked
the Amirs of Sindh so much that they attacked British residency in [Link]
were defeated and Sindh was annexed by British.

It was followed by battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim the Nawab of Bengal took help
from Nawab Shuja-ud– daulah and the Emperor Shah Alam II. But the English
under the General Major Hector Munro at Buxar defeated the combined army on
22 October, 1764. Mir Kasim fled and died in 1777. After winning the Battle of
Buxar, the British had earned the right to collect land revenue in Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa. This development set the foundations of British political rule in India.
After the victory of the English in Buxar, Robert Clive was appointed the
governor and commander in chief of the English army in Bengal in 1765. He is
claimed as the founder of the British political dominion in India. Robert Clive
also brought reforms in the administration of the company and the organization
of the army.

The British wanted full control of south India to ensure their spice trade. Lord
Wellesley became the Governor General of India in 1798. Tipu Sultan tried to
secure an alliance with the French against the English in India. Wellesley
questioned Tipu’s relationship with the French and attacked Mysore in 1799. The
fourth Anglo-Mysore War was of short duration and decisive and ended with
Tipu’s death on May 4, 1799 who was killed fighting to save his capital.

Besides that, Marathas were also defeated and Maratha power destroyed by
British in several wars during 1817- 1818. Holkar’s forces were routed at
Mahidpur December 21, 1817 and Baji Rao II, who was trying to consolidate
Marathas, finally surrendered in June 1818. British abolished the position of
Peshwa and Marathas were limited to the small kingdom of Satara. This ended
the mighty Maratha power.

Punjab was the next target. Ranjit Singh had signed a perpetual friendship in 1809
but after his death in 1839, the rival chiefs argued themselves over who should
be a king. Army attacked British possessions south of River Sutlej and provoked
the British to invade Punjab. War began but British remained victorious. Gulab
Singh Dogra, a chief who helped the British and was given Kashmir as a reward.
In 1849, after a revolt against British, Punjab, NWFP were annexed and became

19 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

part of British Empire on 30 March [Link], Deccan, Oudh and the local
Nawabs had been forced to sign treaties with EIC; this gave their external affairs
to Britain.

Logical Conclusion

Do agree with one fact of your choice

20 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Chapter 02: Religious Reformers

Shah Waliullah(1703-1762)
Who was Shah Walliullah? [4]

He was a Muslim religious scholar who worked for revival of Islam in India after
death of Aurangzeb. He believed that most of the problems of Muslims were due
to their incomplete Knowledge and understanding of the Holy Quran. He tried to
stop the Muslims dividing into sects. He Studied the differences between Sunni
and Shia sects objectively and wrote an account of the first four caliphs in a way
acceptable to both groups. He tried to revive Islam in the prevalent economic
system by stressing on social justice for peasants and the labour class.

Why were there attempts to revive Islam in the sub-continent during the
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries? [7]

There were number of reasons which forced reformers to come forward for
religious and social reformation of Indian Muslim society. Most of them believed
that the problems of Muslims were due to their incomplete Knowledge and
understanding of the Holy Quran. As the Holy Quran is in Arabic whereas
common Muslims had little understanding of the language and knew Persian
instead. Shah Waliullah wanted that the Quranic teachings be made accessible to
the common people so they may act on them.

Another important reason was that Muslim community was divided into sects,
such as Sunni and Shia. They were vulnerable to attacks on their religion. This
had created disunity in Indian Muslims. There was a great need of unity to protect
the Muslims from other communities. Thus the reformers wanted them to put
aside their differences so that a more united and strong community could be
created. This noble cause of Muslim unity inspired the reformers to reform the
society.

Last but not the least reason to reform Indian Muslim Society was many un-
Islamic practices had crept in Indian Muslims due to constant interaction with
Hindus and other non- Muslim communities. The Muslims had forgotten the
moral and spiritual principles of Islam. There was no clear cut distinction between
Islamic and un-Islamic culture. Many Muslims were following practices of both
religions. Now it was need of the time to take steps to reform Muslims of India.
Hence the reformers wished to revive Islam to purify the Islamic Society.

21 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Why did Shah Waliullah wish to revive Islam in the sub-continent? [7]

There were number of reasons which forced Shah Waliullah to come forward for
religious and social reformation of Indian Muslim society. He had strong belief
that the problems of Muslims were due to their incomplete Knowledge and poor
understanding of the Holy Quran. As the Holy Quran is in Arabic whereas
common Muslims had little understanding of the language and knew Persian
instead. Shah Waliullah wanted that the Quranic teachings be made accessible to
the common people so they may act on them.

Another important reason was that Muslim community was divided into sects,
such as Sunni and Shia. They were vulnerable to attacks on their religion. This
had created disunity in Indian Muslims. There was a great need of unity to protect
the Muslims from other communities. Thus the reformers wanted them to put
aside their differences so that a more united and strong community could be
created. This noble cause of Muslim unity inspired the reformer to reform the
society.

Last but not the least reason to reform Indian Muslim Society was many un-
Islamic practices had crept in Indian Muslims due to constant interaction with
Hindus and other non- Muslim communities. The Muslims had forgotten the
moral and spiritual principles of Islam. There was no clear cut distinction between
Islamic and un-Islamic culture. Many Muslims were following practices of both
religions. Now it was need of the time to take steps to reform Muslims of India.
So, Shah Waliullah wished to revive Islam to purify the Islamic Society.

Why did Haji Shah Walliullah have such a major influence on the revival of
Islam in the subcontinent? [7]

Shah Waliullah had major influence on revival of Islam in the sub-continent for
his many valuable services for the Muslim community. To begin with, translation
of Holy Quran into Persian was his most notable service for the Indian Muslims.
This translation into the local language improved understanding of true teachings
of Holy Quran despite sever opposition of the Ulemas. Now it was easier for
common Muslims to act on Islamic teachings. Thus Islam was revived among the
locals. This also paved way for his sons to translate it into Urdu, making it
available to even more people.

Another valuable service of Shah Waliuulah was that he tried to stop the Muslims
dividing into sects. He deeply studied the differences between Sunni and Shia

22 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

sects objectively and wrote an account of the first four caliphs in a way acceptable
to both groups. He wrote 51 books on different aspects of Islam like Fiqha and
Hadis. Significant among them were the Hujjatullah ul Baligha and Izalat ul
Akhfa. This helped Muslim understand Islamic principles and act on them.

Moreover, he tried to unite the Muslims against the Marathas and Sikhs so Islam
could be protected and revived. The Marathas had become a nightmare for the
Muslims. It was he who wrote letters to invite Ahmed shah Durrani from Persia
and strong independent Muslim nobles of Indian to form military alliance against
the Marathas. This alliance defeated the Marathas and the Muslim empire was
saved from the tyranny of the Marahthas and it survived further for around 100
years.

Creation of peaceful co-existence between Muslim sects was more important

service of Shah Waliullah than any other. Do you agree? Discuss. [14]

Shah Waliullah had major influence on revival of Islam in the sub-continent for
his many valuable services for the Muslim community. To begin with, translation
of Holy Quran into Persian was his most notable service for the Indian Muslims.
This translation into the local language improved understanding of true teachings
of Holy Quran despite sever opposition of the Ulemas. Now it was easier for
common Muslims to act on Islamic teachings. Thus Islam was revived among the
locals. This also paved way for his sons to translate it into Urdu, making it
available to even more people.

Another valuable service of Shah Waliuulah was that he tried to stop the Muslims
dividing into sects. He deeply studied the differences between Sunni and Shia
objectively and wrote an account of the first four caliphs in a way acceptable to
both groups. He wrote 51 books on different aspects of Islam like Fiqha and
Hadis. Significant among them were the Hujjatullah ul Baligha and Izalat ul
Akhfa. This helped Muslim understand Islamic principles and act on them.

Similarly, he taught at the Madrassa Rahimiya for many years. It was so important
because it paved a pay for the youth to familiarize themselves with the
fundamental principles of Islam and glorious past of Muslim civilization. He
brought solidarity and pride in them regarding their religion. He became beacon
of hope for many forthcoming leading lights i.e. Haji Shariatullah and Syed
Ahmed had studied from the same Madrassa.

23 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Moreover, he tried to unite the Muslims against the Marathas and Sikhs so Islam
could be protected and revived. The Marathas had become a nightmare for the
Muslims. It was he who wrote letters to invite Ahmed shah Durrani from Persia
and strong independent Muslim nobles of Indian to form military alliance against
the Marathas. This alliance defeated the Marathas and the Muslim empire was
saved from the tyranny of the Marahthas and it survived further for around 100
years.

Last but not the least notable service of Shah Waliullah for Islam was correction
in the prevalent economic system by stressing on social justice and equal
treatment for the peasants and the labourers. He made labourers and craftsmen
more aware by stressing that they should be paid justly and urged traders and
business to adapt a fair Islamic system of trading. He encouraged Muslim traders
to adopt Islamic economic principles by eliminating corruption in business
activities.

Logical Conclusion

Agree with one fact

24 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi (1786-1831)

Who was Syed Ahmed Barailvi Shaheed? [4]

He was a Muslim religious reformer and man of action who launched Jihad
Movement to liberate Muslim majority areas of Punjab and NWFP from Sikh rule
under Raja Ranjeet Singh. The movement was aimed at the rejuvenation and
restoration of Muslim power in India. He joined a Pathan military force led by
Amir Khan where he learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery.
He travelled Rajastan, NWFP, Sindh, Balochistan and Afghanistan to raise
Mujahiden force for the movement. He was martyred at Battle of Balakot in 1831
due to treachery of the local tribes.

What was the Jihad Movement? [4]

Syed Ahmed Barailvi founded the Jihad Movement, which Called for armed
struggle to overthrow non-Muslim oppression and restore Muslim Power. Main
objective of the movement was to liberate Muslim majority areas of Punjab and
NWFP from Sikh rule under Raja Ranjeet Singh. The movement was aimed at
the rejuvenation and restoration of Muslim power in India. He believed that once
this was done Islam could be revived and saved from beliefs and customs contrary
to Islamic beliefs which had crept into everyday Life. He travelled Rajastan,
NWFP, Sindh, Balochistan and Afghanistan to raise Mujahiden force for the
movement. He was martyred at Battle of Balakot in 1831 due to treachery of the
local tribes. Although the movement could not achieve its immediate objective
yet it left long term impacts on Indian Muslims.

Who was Maharaja Ranjeet Singh? [4]

Ranjit Singh was a strong Sikh ruler of Punjab, Kashmir and parts of NWFP. He
was able to modernize his army with the help of French. He was so powerful ruler
that the British had to sign treaty of friendship by accepting his empire till river
Sutlej. Muslim of Punjab were not allowed to perform Azan and cow slaughtering
during his rule. The Sikh rule came to an end soon after his death in 1839.

Why did Syed Ahmed Barailvi Shaheed wish to revive Islam in the sub-
continent? [7]

Syed Ahmad Barelvi Shaheed was born in 1786. He was greatly impressed by the
preaching and thoughts of Shah Waliullah. He joined the private army of Nawab

25 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Amir Khan of Tonk state where he learnt the art of war. He also learnt about the
European weaponry including the art of artillery. Syed Ahmad Shaheed started
preaching true Islam. However, he was of the opinion that there should be a
political power behind the preaching for the revival of Islam and Muslim power
in India. He founded the Jihad Movement for the restoration and revival of
Muslim power in India.

Similarly, he wanted to establish an Islamic state based on Islamic principles. In

addition, the aim of the Jihad Movement was to liberate the Muslims of the
Punjab and N.W.F.P from the Sikh rule. At that time Punjab and N.W.F.P were
under the Sikh rule of Ranjit Singh. Muslims were facing great difficulty in
following their religion in this area. Therefore, Syed Ahmad chose Punjab and
N.W.F.P for his activities. He also expected help from the Afghan and Pathan
tribes of N.W.F.P.

Last but not the least, he was a man of action and an ideal person to act as leader
to work against the British power in India. He wanted to ensure that the Muslims
should be ruled by fellow Muslims. He believed that the freedom of the Muslims
could only come because of armed struggle against the non-Muslim forces which
were oppressing them. He believed that there was a need to end the evils that had
corrupted Islamic society. He founded the Jihad Movement, which Called for
armed struggle to overthrow non-Muslim oppression and restore Muslim Power.
He believed that once this was done Islam could be rejuvenated and rescued from
beliefs and customs contrary to Islamic beliefs.

How successful was Jihad Movement in achieving its objectives? [14]

OR

Was the Jihad Movement a complete failure? Discuss. [14]

Failures:

There were number of failures of the Jihad Movement but the most important was
the movement could not achieve its prime objective of independence of Muslim
majority areas of Punjab, NWFP and Kashmir from Sikh rule. The Muslims were
still under oppressive Sikh rule where they were denied to practice their religion
freely. The Sikhs were now even more strong after defeating Syed Ahmed
Shaheed in Battle of Balakot in 1831. In this way the Jihad movement had failed
to get its prime objective of independence of Muslim areas.

26 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Similarly, the Jihad Movement had failed in establishing independent Muslim

state based on Islamic principles. The movement had to face betrayal even from
the Muslim fellows just for worldly benefits. Raja Ranjeet Singh used his agents
to spread misunderstandings between mujahideens and supporters of the
movement from local Pathan tribes. Ranjeet Singh secured a religious decree
from the scholars who were against teachings of Shah Waliullah. He spread the
decree through his agent by declaring the Jihad Un-Islamic because it was started
on the teachings of Shah Waliullah. So the movement couldn’t create
Independent Muslim state.

In addition, the mujaheedins captured many areas of Peshawar and Attock. Two
early victories at Hazroth and Okara raised morale of the Mujahideenis, but, they
could not hold firmly captured areas and one by one the Sikh armies recaptured
all the areas. Syed Ahmed Shaheed had also failed to impress local Pathan tribes
due to very strict Sharia laws. These tribes turned against the Mujaheedins and as
a result these areas became a battleground between them. So resultantly Syed
Ahmed Shaheed had to leave the area. It showed weak administrative ability of
Syed Ahmed which resulted in failure of the movement.

Another important failure of the movement was that the Mujaheedins could not
maintain unity among themselves. The army was combination of different
cultures, races and backgrounds. Only religion was a common binding force in
the army of Syed Ahmed. They had differences even on minor things which
mostly turned into serious disagreements. This disunity resulted in drastic defeats
at the hands of the Sikh armies because mostly the Mujaheedins had serious
differences war strategy and issue of command. So results were drastic as it
weakened the whole concept of Jihad Movement.

Successes:

One of the important success of Jihad Movement was its brave challenge to Sikh
rule under Raja Ranjeet Singh who was the strongest ruler of the time. He was so
strong that even the British had to sign treaty of friendship with him. Only Syed
Ahmed dared to challenge Sikh cruelties and tried to save fellow Muslims. The
Jihad Movement also gave courage to the oppressed Muslims to challenge Sikh
hostilities courageously. So, it was a Success of the movement that took practical
step against the Sikh rule.

27 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Another success of the movement was it created unity in Indian Muslims in the
time when almost everyone was deeply divided and motivated by his personal
interests. The noble character, piety and strong knowledge of Quran and Sunnah
of Syed Ahmed was great motivating factor for the Muslims to join him. It was
his character that inspired the Muslims and in very short span of time Mujahideen
army reached around 80,000 soldiers. The collection of such a huge Muslim army
was great success of the movement.

Last but not the least success of the movement was it gave hope, courage and
inspiration to future movements launched for protecting rights of the Indian
Muslims. The Indian Muslims got inspiration from devotion and determination
of the Mujahideens. The same devotion was shown by the Indian Muslims in
1947 when they passed a resolution calling for independent Muslim state based
on ideology of Islam. It was a great success of the movement that it became
forerunner of Pakistan Movement.

Disunity between Mujahideens was the most important reason for failure of
Jihad Movement. Do you agree? Discuss. [14]

There were many reasons that contributed in failure of the movement. The most
important one was SASB was not well trained in military tactics. He was a
religious scholar and most of the fighters were teachers, or spiritual leaders. This
made it difficult for the Mujahideen forces to fight against the Sikhs and come up
with clever strategies to defeat them. On the other hand, the Sikhs were tough and
well trained under Ranjit Singh who was a strong military ruler.

Another reason for the failure that the Muslim army was disunited. The
Mujahideens were of different cultures and backgrounds. The soldiers often
mistrusted each other and were reluctant to agree with one another. As a result,
due to internal conflicts there wasn’t always full support from everybody which
resultantly weakened the Muslim forces. There were often fights among
Mujahideens after defeat and every group tried to put blame of the defeat on the
others. This disunity weakened the movement

Furthermore, elders of local Pathan tribes did not tolerate being in an army that
they weren’t ruining themselves. Early victories of Syed Ahmed increased his
popularity and influence around the tribes which created jealousy among the
tribal heads. They weren’t ready to compromise on their authority on the tribes

28 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

which strained their relations with Syed Ahmed. This weakened the Muslim
forces as there was less support from the local sardars followed by their tribes.

In addition, SASB imposed high taxes on locals to bear military costs and
maintenance of huge army. They local people were expecting a tax free area under
Muslim rule. They were shocked by the taxes and resented to pay. Thus, he started
punishing those people who refused to pay taxes. As a result, SASB lost support
of the local people which further weakened his forces and resulted in failure of
the Movement.

Moreover, SASB’s army was not as sincere to him. There were attempts by Yar
Muhamad Khan the governor of Peshawar to assassinate SASB. He thus had to
tackle with internal threats as well as external ones. Thus, his attention was
diverted from his main goal, which was to defeat the Sikhs. Yar Muhammad’s
army betrayed him in battle in Akora, weakened his fighting and causing his
defeat. He also tried to poison SASB but the failed attempt got him killed at hands
of Mujahideens. It further created disunity in the army.

When SASB was moving to Balakot, traitors informed Sikhs of the Muslim’s
route. Thus, the Sikhs prepared themselves and strengthened their forces which
made it easier for them to defeat the Muslims. So, when they launched their
surprise attack at Balakot, the Muslims were unprepared for this unexpected
attack, and were defeated. Sikhs outnumbered the Muslims in this battle. The
weaker Mujahideen lost, and SASB was killed.

29 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Was SASB the most important thinker to revive Islam in India by 1850?
Give reasons for your answer. [14]
OR

How Successful were religious reformers in reforming Muslim society of

India in 18th and 19th century? [14]

OR
Did Shah Waliullah contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone else
in the sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer. [14]

OR
Did Syed Ahmed Shaheed contribute more to the spread of Islam than
anyone else in the sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer. [14]

OR
Did Haji Shariat Ullah contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone
else in the sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer. [14]
One of the important success of Jihad Movement was its brave challenge to Sikh
rule under Raja Ranjeet Singh who was the strongest ruler of the time. He was so
strong that even the British had to sign treaty of friendship with him. Only Syed
Ahmed dared to challenge Sikh cruelties and tried to save fellow Muslims. The
Jihad Movement also gave courage to the oppressed Muslims to challenge Sikh
hostilities courageously. So, it was a Success of the movement that took practical
step against the Sikh rule.

Another success of the movement was it created unity in Indian Muslims in the
time when almost everyone was deeply divided and motivated by his personal
interests. The noble character, piety and strong knowledge of Quran and Sunnah
of Syed Ahmed was great motivating factor for the Muslims to join him. It was
his character that inspired the Muslims and in very short span of time Mujahideen
army reached around 80,000 soldiers. The collection of such a huge Muslim army
was great success of the movement.

Another important contribution of SASB was he gave hope, courage and

inspiration to future movements launched for protecting rights of the Indian
Muslims. The Indian Muslims got inspiration from devotion and determination
of the Mujahideens. The same devotion was shown by the Indian Muslims in

30 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

1947 when they passed a resolution calling for independent Muslim state based
on ideology of Islam. It was a great success of the movement that it became
forerunner of Pakistan Movement.

Similarly, by the end of 18th century and start of 19th century, most of the parts
of Mughals Empire had been captured by non-Muslims like the British and the
Sikhs. SASB wanted restoration of Muslim rule in India and for this purpose, he
founded Jihad movement. He decided to liberate the Punjab from the dreadful
role of Ranjit Singh. He made Nowshera his head quarter in 1826 and was able
to defeat the Sikhs in a few battles. He was defeated and killed in the battle of
Balakot in 1831. Although he could not restore the Muslims rule in India but he
kindled a flame of freedom in the heart of Muslims who continued their struggle
for the independence.

Another important religious reformer was Shah Waliullah who had major
influence on revival of Islam in the sub-continent for his many valuable services
for the Muslim community. To begin with, translation of Holy Quran into Persian
was his most notable service for the Indian Muslims. This translation into the
local language improved understanding of true teachings of Holy Quran despite
sever opposition of the Ulemas. Now it was easier for common Muslims to act
on Islamic teachings. Thus Islam was revived among the locals. This also paved
way for his sons to translate it into Urdu, making it available to even more people.

Another valuable service of Shah Waliuulah was that he tried to stop the Muslims
dividing into sects. He deeply studied the differences between Sunni and Shia
objectively and wrote an account of the first four caliphs in a way acceptable to
both groups. He wrote 51 books on different aspects of Islam like Fiqha and
Hadis. Significant among them were the Hujjatullah ul Baligha and Izalat ul
Akhfa. This helped Muslim understand Islamic principles and act on them.

Similarly, he taught at the Madrassa Rahimiya for many years. It was so important
because it paved a pay for the youth to familiarize themselves with the
fundamental principles of Islam and glorious past of Muslim civilization. He
brought solidarity and pride in them regarding their religion. He became beacon
of hope for many forthcoming leading lights i.e. Haji Shariatullah and Syed
Ahmed had studied from the same Madrassa.

Moreover, he tried to unite the Muslims against the Marathas and Sikhs so Islam
could be protected and revived. The Marathas had become a nightmare for the

31 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Muslims. It was he who wrote letters to invite Ahmed shah Durrani from Persia
and strong independent Muslim nobles of Indian to form military alliance against
the Marathas. This alliance defeated the Marathas and the Muslim empire was
saved from the tyranny of the Marahthas and it survived further for around 100
years.

Another important religious reformer who had great influence on the Indian
Muslims was Haji Shariat Ullah. By the start of 19th century the Muslims of
Bengal had also gone away from Islam by living with the non-Muslims. They had
accepted their rituals and practices and had lost inclusive identity of Islam. He
was highly grieved and disturbed by seeing the Muslims. He laid foundation of
Faraizi movement, which put stress in the performance of duties and a pious life
after Tauba. He advised the Muslims to shun all the superstitions and un-Islamic
customs and practice. His efforts brought visible change and many Muslims
shaped their lives according to Islam.

Similarly, during the days the peasants were living a miserable life in Bengal.
Most of the property owners in the Bengal were Hindus who had terrible
treatment with the Muslims. They had usurped the rights of Muslim peasants. The
Muslims were denied equal share in the production. He awoke the Muslims and
advised them not to be silent for their rights. He played a vital role in creating
awaking and awareness among the poor Muslim peasants for the protection of
their rights.

Logical Conclusion

Agree with one reformer of your choice.

32 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Haji Shariatullah (1781-1840)

Who was Haji Shariatullah? [4]

Haji Shariat Ullah was born in Faridpur district of Bengal in 1781. He left for
Mecca at an early age and stayed there for a very long period. His stay in Hejaz
was an opportunity for him to learn the true ideal of Islam. He decided to improve
the conditions of poor Muslims by reviving the true spirit of Islam. On his return,
he called upon Bengali Muslims to follow the basics of IslamHis first message
was to give up un-Islamic practices and to stick to duties towards religion. His
followers were called Faraizi by virtue of his emphasis on duties towards religion
(Faraiz). He was deadly against relationship between Mystics and their disciples
(Pirs and Murids). He asked Muslims to replace this with relationship between
Teacher and his Students

Who was Mohsin-ud-Din or Dodhu Mian? [4]

He was son of Haji Shariatullah who took leadership of Faraizi movement and
spread it on more organised way. He divided East Bengal into areas called circles
and put each circle under Khalifas. They were responsible for the social and
spiritual welfare of the people in their areas. He also helped the peasants to oppose
the excessive taxes imposed by the Hindu and British landlords. When unrest
spread in Bengal, he threatened to declare Jihad against the British government.
He was arrested and died in prison.

Who was Titu Mir? [4]

Mir Nasir known as Titu Mir was a great freedom fighter and follower of the
Faraizi Movement from Bengal. He launched his Struggle against oppression of
Hindu Zamindars and the British colonial system. He formed army to fight with
Hindu landlords the British. He built bamboo fort to protect his army from his
enemies and defeated British forces many times. The British used full might of
her Cavalry and modern weaponry to defeat him.

What was the Faraizi Movement? [4]

It was a religious reformation movement started by Haji Shariat Ullah to reform

Muslim society of Bengal. It Emphasized on performing of only Faraiz of Islam.
It asked Muslims to give up all un-Islamic practices which had crept in them. The

33 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

followers of the movement came to be known as Faraizi’. The movement rejected

the expressions of Pir (Master) and Murid (Disciple) and advised Muslims to be
replaced with the title of Ustad (Teacher) & Shagird (Student). It also encouraged
the Muslims tyo adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for all the past
sins and a pledge to lead a righteous and God-fearing life in future.

Why did Haji Shariatullah wish to revive Islam in the sub-continent? [7]

There were many reasons which motivated Haji Shariat Ullah to reform Muslims
of Bengal. Early eighteenth century was a miserable period for the Bengali
Muslims. They were economically, socially and educationally crippled under the
British rule. They were also oppressed and tortured by Hindu landlords. These
landlords had imposed heavy taxes on poor Muslim peasants. The Muslins even
had to pay many unfair religious taxes like beard tax and marriage tax. He wanted
to save poor Muslim peasants from these cruel taxes.

Another important reason which motivated him was that religious belief had gone
weak as Islam was badly influenced by Hinduism. There was no clear distinction
between Islamic and un-Islamic practices. Majority of the Muslims were
performing both practices at a same time. These Muslims had become
superstitious and were far from the true ideal of Islam. This was very disturbing
for him and he decided to reform Muslim society of Bengal.

He was belonged to prominent religious family of Bengal. He left for Mecca at

an early age and stayed there for a very long period. His stay in Hejaz was an
opportunity for him to learn the true ideal of Islam. He decided to improve the
conditions of poor Muslims by reviving the true spirit of Islam. On his return, he
called upon Bengali Muslims to follow the basics of Islam. His first message was
to give up un-Islamic practices and to stick to duties towards religion. So he
started Faraizi Movement.

Why did Haji Shariatullah have such an important influence on the revival
of Islam in the sub-continent? [7]
He was a religious reformer who had great influence on the Indian Muslims. By
the start of 19th century the Muslims of Bengal had also gone away from Islam
by living with the non-Muslims. They had accepted their rituals and practices and
had lost inclusive identity of Islam. He was highly grieved and disturbed by
seeing the Muslims. He laid foundation of Faraizi movement, which put stress in
the performance of duties and a pious life after Tauba. He advised the Muslims

34 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

to shun all the superstitions and un-Islamic customs and practice. His efforts
brought visible change and many Muslims shaped their lives according to Islam.

Similarly, during the days the peasants were living a miserable life in Bengal.
Most of the property owners in the Bengal were Hindus who had terrible
treatment with the Muslims. They had usurped the rights of Muslim peasants. The
Muslims were denied equal share in the production. He awoke the Muslims and
advised them not to be silent for their rights. He played a vital role in creating
awaking and awareness among the poor Muslim peasants for the protection of
their rights.

Last but not the least Faraizi Movement in the nineteenth century was major
attempt aimed at the revival of Islam. A great many people were influenced by
the teachings of both Haji Shariat Ullah and his son Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmad. They
very successfully helped Bengali Muslims set their religious belief right. It was
surely through this movement that Islam returned to its original form. It made
them conscious of their religious identity and created a spirit in them for the
fighting of holy war (Jihad).

35 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Chapter:03
The War of Independence 1857
What happened at the battle of Kanpur? [4]
Nana Shab was adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II. He revolted against
British at Cawnpore, Nana Shab defeated general Wheeler’s forces. He offered
safe exit to the British soldiers if they would surrender their weapons. He also
agreed that British women and children could go unharmed by boat to Allahabad.
but rebels fired on them causing death of 200 British women and children as soon
as they got out of the fort.
Who was Lakshmi Bai or Rani of Jhansi? [4]
Rani of Jhansi Lakshmibai was adopted daughter of ruler of Jhansi. she was not
accepted as ruler and the state of Jhansi was captured by British under doctrine
of Lapse. She refused to accept the decision and revolted against the British. She
joined the War of Independence with support of another prominent Indian leader
Tantia Tope. She fought with bravery in disguise of male commander. She was
killed by British in battle of Gawalior.
What was greased cartridge issue? [4]
In Jan 1857 British introduced a new cartridge of En-field rifle. The soldiers had
to chew it before use. Soon a rumour spread in India that the cartridges were
greased with pig and cow fats. Indian soldiers refused to use the cartridges
because pig was forbidden for Muslim and cow was sacred for Hindus. The
British were so angry on this refusal so they started punishing the Indian soldiers.
Mangel Pandey an Indian soldier was executed which led to the revolt in Meerut
in May 1857.
Describe India Act of 1858. [4]
It was a proclamation of Queen in which pardon was given to all expect those
who were involved in murder of British. In the Act Doctrine of Lapse and
annexation policy was abolished. It was stated that the government would pay
due regard to ancient property rights and customs of the Indians. The government

36 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

would abide by all treaty obligations and agreed to no further territorial

acquisition.
Who was Mangel Pandey? [4]
Mangal Pandey was an Indian soldier who played a key part in the events
immediately preceding the outbreak of the Indian rebellion of 1857. He was a
sepoy (infantryman) in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment of the
British East India Company. He was first Indian soldier who refused to use
greased cartridge and encouraged other Indian soldiers to do the same. He also
attacked his British officer to kill him but could not succeed. He was arrested and
later on executed. His execution triggered events of War of Independence 1857.
Who was Nana Sahib? [4]
Nana Saheb was an Indian Peshwa of the Maratha empire, aristocrat and fighter,
who led the rebellion in Kanpur (Cawnpore) during the Great Revolt of 1857. As
the adopted son of the exiled Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II, Nana Saheb believed
that he was entitled to a pension from the East India Company. The Company's
refusal to accept him as ruler and continue the pension after his father's death led
him to join the rebellion. He forced the British garrison in Kanpur to surrender.
He murdered the survivors, gaining control of Kanpur for a few days. He later
disappeared, after his forces were defeated by a British force that recaptured
Kanpur.
Why did the war of Independence 1857 break out? [7]

The British introduced the new Greased cartridges and it was rumored that they
were made of cow and pig fats. The Indian soldiers had to open those cartridges
with mouth before loading them into the rifles. As cow was considered sacred by
the Hindus and the pig is forbidden in Islam so it created resentment among the
Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Hence it created uprising in the army because the
soldiers considered it an insult to their religion.

The British had also introduced the Doctrine of Lapse in 1852 according to which
the British could confiscate the territory of any local ruler if he didn’t have any
natural real heir. Due to this they took the lands of Nagpur, Sitara, Jhansi and

37 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

even Oudh although its ruler had the real heir. This didn’t please the Indian
landlords because they felt that their lands were forcefully being taken away by
the British so they rebelled.

Last but not the least, Satti was a Hindu tradition in which the widow was burnt
alive along with the dead body of her husband. The British banned it being
considering inhuman practice. Although it was an inhuman tradition, yet the
Hindu emotions were deeply attached to it. They felt that their religion as well as
their culture was at stake. They got annoyed by this and felt that the British were
trying to interfere in their religion and culture. Thus, they rebelled and started the
war of independence against the British.

Other Reasons of the War of Independence 1857

Political Reasons:

First of all, the Doctrine of Lapse was one of the main political reason for the
outbreak of the WOI. The British had introduced a policy called the Doctrine of
Lapse. It stated that if any local raja died without having any male heir the British
themselves would appoint a new Nawab in his place. Thus in 1856, despite
knowing that the Nawab of Oudh had many sons the British took over the control
of Oudh on this lame excuse that the Nawab had not ruled the people properly
and that the Nawab was not good to his people. Moreover, the states of Nagpur,
Sitara and Jhansi also fell in the hands of the British due to this doctrine. The
Indians got resented and they felt that the British were simply the greedy land-
grabbers. The hatred against the British boiled up so much due to this that the
people rebelled and took arms against them.

Similarly, no-one from the Indians was being appointed as an officer on the high
posts under the British Raj. This was extremely unfair to the Indians and they
were not given any say in the administrative affairs. No matter how hard the
Indians worked they were not rewarded properly. Due to this the anger grew
among the Indians and they wanted to take action against the British. Therefore,
they started the WOI.

Further by the 1857, the Mughal emperor had little power left but still was an
important symbolic figure. The British moved the Royal family from the Red Fort
of Delhi to a more obscure Qutub Sahib. The Indians saw this as an act of
disrespect for their leader and hence such a mistreatment resulted in unrest.

38 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Economic Reasons:

Agrarian Policy: - The new agrarian policy introduced by the British Government
shook the foundations of the village communities. The Zamindars were now
asked to provide documents to proof about their land holdings. If they failed to
do so, then their properties were confiscated. In addition, the rates of taxes on the
lands were also increased by abolishing land division of agriculture lands due to
which thousands of zamindars were in great problem.

Destruction of Local Industries: - As a result of the industrial revolution in

England, cheaper and superior goods now flooded in Indian markets. The skilled
workers were banned to work in Indian industries. The Indian farmers could only
sale cotton to British traders. So, the local industries could not compete with the
imported goods, as a result the local industries badly suffered.

Unemployment: - The British did not trust the Indians due to this factor Indians
were not appointed on important jobs especially on the higher posts. The higher
posts were now reserved for the British only. This policy resulted in unemployed
and many educated Indians were now without a job. Due to destruction of local
industries (cottage industries) left millions of people jobless especially among
lower classes.

Military Reasons:

First of all, most of the soldiers in the East India Company’s army were the native
Indians. The sepoys and sawars were particularly Indians but the officer class was
exclusively the British. These officers usually treated the Indian sepoys just like
slaves. This caused great resentment as the Indians thought the British wanted to
show themselves as superior class and that they have control over the Indians.
The Indians despite having the required criterion for being the army officers were
ignored. It angered them so much that they started the WOI.

Furthermore, there were regular rumours that the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh
soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity. This was extremely offensive
to all of the soldiers belonging to these religious classes. This caused confusion
and fear among the Indians who thought the British were in India to convert them
to Christianity. Therefore, the soldiers revolted and started the mutiny of 1857.

39 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Similarly, the British had introduced the Greased Cartridge which was the
immediate military reason for the outbreak of the WOI. Before the cartridge could
be loaded its end had to be bitten off. It was rumoured that the cartridges were
made up of the fats of pig and the cow. Pig is forbidden in Islam and the cow is
holy animal in the Hinduism. Thus the Muslim and the Hindu soldiers refused to
bite them off due to which they were forced to do so. It created so much anger
that the soldiers revolted and started the WOI.

Moreover, the British were sending the Indians outside India. This was especially
objectionable for the Hindus who were not willing to go to Afghanistan. They
wanted to stay inside Mother-India. The Muslims were also not ready to fight
against their fellow Muslims. Thus they disliked it and decided to fight against
the British.

Social Reasons:

First and the foremost was that the British had replaced the Persian with the
English as the official language of the administration and the language in which
the education should be instructed. The Indians especially the Muslims were very
angry due to this because this language had a political affinity with their glorious
past and history. Therefore, they decided to take an armed uprising against the
British and started the WOI.

Another reason of the WOI was forced modernisation of India. The British
government introduced modern educational schools where co-education was
given. The education was also based on secular ideas whereas traditional Indian
education was based on religious ideas. Observing of Pardah was also stopped
which was a popular custom in India. It created sever anger against the British
and they took arms against the British.

Similarly, Arrogant attitude of the British towards the Indians. They considered
Indians the slave and inferior and considered themselves educated and superior
and didn’t use to get mixed with the Indians. Due to this they gave Indians low
jobs and it created resentment.

Religious Reasons:

Propagation of Christianity: - Although in the beginning the English had shown

respect towards all religions, yet with the passage of time they changed their
mind and devised ways of propagation of Christianity in India. The missionaries

40 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

were sent to India from England for preaching. They did their preaching mainly
on the public places with the support of British Government. Bible was included
in the syllabus of different school. The British Government now passed a law
according to which the converts were allowed to keep their ancestral properties.

Anti-religious Laws: - The British Government introduced certain laws which

were against the prevailing religions of the sub-continent. For example, the
windows were allowed to remarry which greatly offended the Hindus. so, did
the banning of the sati custom in 1829. The British Government banned Pardah
which created unparalleled anger in Indians against the British.

Was the lack of unity and co-ordination the main reason for the failure of
WOI? Explain. (14)

The Indians started the WOI with great zeal but as greater the enthusiasm there
was, the lesser the unity was there among t hem. They were bent upon driving the
British out of the sub-continent however they didn’t show any co-ordination
among them to win this war.

First of all, some local rajas didn’t take part at all in this war. Instead of helping
the Indians they actually helped the British troops. Such rajas were more
interested in extending their own control over their territories and their rule
actually depended upon supporting the British. Therefore, such rajas extended
full support to the British for example the Raja of Kashmir sent 2000 troops to
help the British. This showed the British strength and the disunity among the
Indians due to which it was quite easier for the British to win the war.

Similarly, there was lack of solid unanimous aim behind this war. Each of the
communities i.e Hindus, Sikhs and the Muslims were fighting for their own
respective purposes and had no common aim. Since there was no unanimous aim
to fight among them therefore the Indians didn’t co-operate with each other
properly and fought in different groups e.g. Nana Sahib and Lakshmi Bai of
Jhansi had their own purposes. It became easier for the British to finish the
Indians this way. That’s why the British were successful and the WOI failed.

Furthermore, it was an unplanned war with lack of proper co-ordination on the

part of Indians which gave enough time to the British to recover themselves. The
war took one year to end giving a lot of time to the British to recover and to plan
well. Hence, the British planned properly and fought gallantly against the natives
who had no proper planning and won this war easily.

41 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

However, there were some other reasons as well which contributed in the failure
of the WOI.

The Industrial Revolution had modernized and strengthened the British. They had
modern weapons as compared to the traditional weapons of the Indians. This
made it easier for the British to reduce the Indian strength to insignificance as the
Indians had not used or experienced such weapons before. Therefore, the Indian
traditional weapons could not compete modern British weaponry and failed to
win the war.

Then, the British officers were fighting the war with concrete experience of
fighting throughout the world. The British officers and soldiers were thus well-
trained, well-equipped, well-planned and well-united as compared to the poorly-
equipped, less-united and poorly-trained Indians. The supreme commander of the
war was last Mughal king Bahadur Shah Zafar II who was more than 90 years old
with zero fighting experience. Therefore, the chances for winning the WOI for
the Indians were less than the British.

Moreover, the British army members were clear with an aim to win and rule.
They had an air of confidence to win this war. Their confidence and clarity along
with their experience and disunity of the Indians helped them a lot and made them
superior in this war over the confused Indians.

Furthermore, the lack of public support for the Mughal army commander Bakht
Khan was another reason. Most of Indians especially the educated people showed
lack of interest to him in common and to war in general. They were rather loyal
to the British.

Another reason was the lack of funds which was not available to fulfil various
requirements. Most of the rebels fighting in this war were unaware of the war
techniques. On the other hand, the British were far better than the Indians in the
war affairs. The policies of Lord Canning were very effective that he was able to
control the Indians in a limited time and area.

Thus, it is easy to conclude that the lack of unity and co-ordination of the Indians
on one side and the British proper planning, unity, experience and their
superiority on the other hand were the main reason why the Indians were unable
to win the war of independence.

42 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

The War of Independence 1857 achieved nothing. Do you agree? (14)

The war of independence was although a complete failure regarding the

independence point of view yet it gave certain benefits to the natives as well. First
of all, it brought important changes in the policy and administration of the British
government in the sub-continent. The most important was that the Indians were
able to get rid of the East India Company’s tyrannical rule. Now India directly
became a colony of Britain according to the proclamation of 1858.

Similarly, to the great content and satisfaction of landlords, princes and many
other property holders, the British changed their policy of annexations. The queen
declared them their present territorial possessions. As a result, now the Indians
could have their ancestral lands with ease. In this way the policy of annexation
through Doctrine of Lapse was abolished. Thus it was one of the significant
advantage which was the result of mutiny of 1857.

Furthermore, the greased cartridges due to which the revolt started were removed
and their supply was stopped. Also the policy of forceful conversion of people to
Christianity was also stopped by the British. Thus the anger due to which the war
had caused, came to an end and the Indians were successful in reminding the
British not to interfere in their religion. Thus it was a great achievement.

Moreover, new reforms and constitutional changes were introduced. The

proclamation of 1858 was also passed which said the Indians would be allowed
to become a part of Indian government. This ensured that the Indians would now
get a chance to be part of Indian government and would have a political say as
well. Then, the act of 1861 also restored the legislative powers to the governors
of Madras and Bombay. In this way lack of communication between the British
and the Indians ended. Similarly, new legislative councils were also established
in many provinces such as Punjab and Bengal. Thus Indians were given some
political say as well which was the result of the mutiny of 1857.

Apart from that educational works were also started for the betterment of the
Indians e.g. the British made three universities in Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.
It showed that the Indians were successful in reminding that instead of imposing
their powers, the British should share their progress through the knowledge and
science and technology.

43 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

However, failure of WOI also brought certain negative measures for the Indians.

Foe governing India, the secretary of state a member of British cabinet was now
incharge of the Indian affairs. He was called viceroy and Indians had little say in
it. He was helped by the Indian Civil service in which mostly the British were
working because by 1870 there was only one Indian in ICS.

The number of Indian soldiers were reduced in the army from 1:5 to 1:2 and many
British were employed. Even recruitment from less trustworthy areas like Oudh
was stopped. Moreover, the higher posts to the Indians were refused.

Further Viceroy Lord Lytton ended import duties on the British cotton goods
entering India. These duties earlier had made British goods costly and local cotton
was popular but abolition of these duties meant that the British cotton was now
cheaper and their wealth and business further grew.

The British became strict in their policies after the WOI. The reactionary attitude
of the British was especially towards the Muslims because they were considering
them as responsible for the WOI. Mostly the British stopped recruiting them and
they stopped funding the Muslim institutes which shows that they wanted to keep
them illiterate. It favoured the Hindus and soon they found themselves at
advantage because they started accepting the British education.

44 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Chapter 04

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

What was the Scientific Society? [4]

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded a scientist society at Ghazi Pur in 1863. Main
work of the society was translation of scientific writings from English, Persian or
Arabic into Urdu the main language of the Muslims. Muslims knew knowledge
of science was being improved. It also helped in reducing Muslim hatred towards
British as they read about scientific works and realized that they were more than
just invaders but had done a lot for humanity through scientific inventions.

What was Tehzib-ul-Akhlaq? [4]

It was a journal written by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. This journal included articles
from influential Muslims who agreed with Sir Syed that there was a need for new
approach regarding education. Some Ulemas refused to accept services of the
journal and criticised it. It played a major part in bringing about an intellectual
revolution amongst the Muslim thinkers.

What was Tabyin-ul-Kalam? [4]

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote Tabyin-ul-Kalam to explain Bible. He pointed out
the similarities between the Islam and Christianity. The Muslims had a fear that
the British would replace Islam with Christianity so he wrote this book to
remove religious misunderstandings between both communities.

What was the Mohammaden Educational Conference? [4]

It was established by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Main aim of the conference was to
publicize the new educational Methods being used at MAO. This helped improve
Muslim education standards. It also played a major role in establishing a Muslim
political platform in the days before the League was established as it attracted
famous orators and writers who discussed the political problems of the Muslims
in India. It was after the 29th session of the same organization in December 1906
at Dhaka that major leaders gathered to form the Muslim League, which was the
founding party of Pakistan.

45 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

What was the Loyal Mohammadens of India? [4]

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote Mohammadens of India in which he gave details
of the loyal services of Muslims which they did for British rulers. He tried his
best to convince the British that all the Muslims were not against the them and
the government. He also gave various examples of those Muslims who saved
British families from the revolutionaries. He also gave his example that during
the war he saved British women and children and in return British were giving
him large states with revenue but he rejected the offer.

What was the Urdu-Hindi Controversy? [4]

In 1867, the Urdu-Hindi Controversy arose in which Hindus demanded that

Urdu should be replaced by Hindi. He rejected and opposed the demand started
efforts to protect Urdu. He also established Urdu Defence Association to
protect and promote Urdu. After the controversy he changed his views about
Hindu-Muslim unity and in 1868 he gave his Two Nation Theory in which he
explains that Muslims and Hindus were two different nations. They have
different religion, culture, practices and language therefore Muslims should
have separate homeland where they can easily practice Islam.

Describe importance of educational services of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. [4]

MAO College proved beneficial for the Muslims in many ways. It Provided
quality educations to the Muslims of India and after graduating from this institute
they could get better jobs in the government departments. It became a symbol of
unity for Muslims in the absence of the Muslim League. Many future leaders of
Pakistan such as Liaqat Ali Khan and Ayub Khan were educated there. Many
historians believe that this institution contributed the most for the formation of
Pakistan. It also helped to improve British Muslim relationship.

Why did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan develop his Two Nation Theory? (7)

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the pioneer of the two nation theory. He developed
the two nation theory due to the following reasons.

First of all, Urdu had been the official language of the sub-continent for the last
many years. But the Hindus wanted to replace it with Hindi. This view wasn’t
shared by the Muslims and their dream of living along with the Hindus as a one
nation was shattered. Urdu was a historic language for the Muslims which
represented their history, culture and their superb past. Therefore, they wanted

46 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Urdu to remain as the official language. Although Sir Syed was far from
disputation but this Urdu-Hindi controversy of 1867 had deep effect on him and
he realized that the Muslims and Hindus could never agree on something and had
different views, so he presented the two nation theory.

Similarly, the Hindus wanted to be in the parliamentary system. This idea was
rejected by the Muslims as they were a minority and knew that the Hindus being
a majority would dominate them. Sir Syed observed that the Hindus cared about
their own interests only. He knew that if the parliamentary system was imposed
there, the Muslims would always remain a minority and they would always be
treated as the slaves. Therefore, he presented the two nation theory to stress that
that the Muslims were not a minority but were a separate nation.

Last but not the least, the congress had started demanding the introduction of
competitive exams for the government jobs. Since the Muslims were far away
from English language and the western education as compared to the Hindus so
it clearly meant that only Hindus would get benefits from it. Therefore, he
realized that the Hindu mind set wanted to suppress the Muslims economically
and socially. Due to all of this, Sir Syed presented his two nation theory.

Why did Sir Syed try to improve the British-Muslim relationship? (7)

Sir Syed was a great advocate of the British-Muslim relationships. He wanted to

eliminate their differences and wished to bridge the gap between them. He
worked for their relationships due to the following reasons.

First of all, Sir Syed knew that the British were not there in India for a few days
or weeks only. He knew that the British had become so strong that they would
rule the Indians for a long time. He had this thing in mind that if the Muslims
wanted their demands to be fulfilled from the British then they would have to be
in good terms with the British. He wanted the Muslims to grow and their demands
in all fields to be fulfilled and this aim could be achieved only if they had been in
good terms with the British. Therefore, he tried to improve the relationships
between the Muslims and the British.

Similarly, the British held the Muslims responsible for the WOI of 1857 and were
severely hostile towards them. On contrary they favoured the Hindus a lot. The
Hindus were given jobs in all of the offices on high posts but the Muslims were
ignored [Link] Indian Civil Services, there were 70 Hindus but 1 Muslim till 1870.
The Hindus were also enjoying large economic benefits as well and were

47 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

prospering rapidly but no funds were allocated to the Muslims by the British and
their financial situation was extremely deplorable. Thus, Sir Syed tried to improve
the Muslim-British relationships so that the hostility of the British towards the
Muslims be reduced and the Muslims could gain benefits like the Hindus.

Last but not the least, the Muslims viewed the British as foreign invaders. The
Muslims felt themselves to be the true rulers of India and they felt that the British
had grabbed the power from them due to which their prestige was lost. Therefore,
the Muslims were unwilling to acquire their western education. But Sir Syed
wanted to ensure that the benefits and advantages of the British rule particularly
in the areas of education, science and technology be extended towards the
Muslims. Therefore, he wanted to improve the relationship of the British and the
Muslim community and worked hard to achieve this goal.

Why was Sir Syed accused as pro-British? (7)

First of all, during the War of Independence 1857, Sir Syed saved the lives of
some British children and women. In return the British offered him estate with a
large income. Although, he refused the offer yet the other Muslims felt anger that
they were fighting against the British but he was working for the interests of the
British. That’s why he was accused as pro-British.

Similarly, Sir Syed believed that the armed uprising against the British was
pointless as they were the super-power of the time. He knew that they had most
advanced weapons and trained and experienced generals and army and none
could defeat them. He knew that this defeat could harm the Indians in the future
but the Indians especially the Muslims suspected him that he was trying to
establish the British rule upon them. Therefore, he was accused as the pro-British.

Furthermore, Sir Syed was in favour of the western education. He introduced the
western and scientific education in the Muslims so that they couldn’t be
considered as inferior and lower class people. He wanted the Muslims to enjoy
the same benefits which were enjoyed by the Hindus due to their English and
western education. Thus, he wanted them to get this education so that they could
be given jobs in the civil service. However, the Muslims thought it a propaganda
of the British and they felt that he was trying to westernize them by fulfilling their
agenda.

48 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Was the attempt to achieve a better understanding with the British the most
important contribution that Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made to the Muslim
cause during the nineteenth century? Explain your answer. [14]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan can be credited for many services he rendered to uplift the
status of Muslims in British India. Some worth mentioning contributions such as
sensitizing Muslims to Western education and his work linked to increasing
political awareness among Muslims all required to enhance understanding
between the rulers and the subjects. This enhanced understanding led to further
political concessions for Muslims and particularly getting rid of the blame of
being sole aggressors in the Indians revolt of 1857.

Sir Syed suggested that the British should try to understand Muslims better. Sir
Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the Sub-Continent could only
be improved if the relations with the British were improved. Hence Sir Syed made
a two pronged effort to bring the British and Muslims closer. On one side he
advised the Muslims not to think of armed struggle because the British were too
strong. He was aware that the British knew very little about Islam. Indeed, on a
visit to England he was so offended by an English Book on the life of Holy
Prophet (PBUH) that he immediately wrote his own work correcting many errors.

It was also true, however, that Muslims in India knew very little about
Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing Tabyin-ul-Kalam, in which he
pointed out the similarities between Islam and Christianity and stated not to hate
Christianity because to sit and eat with Christians was not forbidden in Islam

Sir Syed explained to the British that the Muslims were not solely responsible for
the war of Independence 1857. In the book he wrote for this purpose called the
Causes of Indian Revolt. Sir Syed explained that the wrong British policies were
the cause of uprising. He further explained that the British did not understand the
needs and desires of Indian people while making laws and policies because there
were no Indian members in Viceroy’s legislative council. He also explained that
the British Indian army was mismanaged and solders rose up against their
officers.

In another book Sir Syed described at length the loyalty of the Muslims to the
British. Sir Syed also founded the “British Indian association” to bring the British
and Muslims closer. He also tried to clear up the misunderstanding among the

49 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

British who resented being called “Nadarath” by Muslims. The Britain thought it
was an insult, but Sir Syed pointed out that the word came from “Nasir” an Arabic
word, meaning Helper. So the term was the reflection of the positive image
Muslims had of the British, not an insult. Sir Syed was successful in his effort
and the misunderstanding was greatly removed.

Removal of misunderstanding between the British and the Muslims was very
important service rendered by Sir Syed as it helped revive the social and
economic conditions of the Muslim. Muslims were side-lined because of the
mistrust and suspicion which had developed. They became natural enemies, the
Muslims disliked everything linked to the British, including modern and English
education. Sir Syed’s work was able to reduce this deep-seated resentment which
prevailed against the British among the Muslims.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan took steps to change Muslims attitude towards receiving
British education. He opened schools at several places and started the scientific
society at Ghazipore in 1863. Its main purpose was to make scientific writings
available to a wider market by translating them from English, Persian or Arabic
to Urdu.

He also started publishing a magazine called the Aligarh institute Gazette in 1866.
This was to introduce modern sciences among the Muslim public. Sir Syed went
to England in 1869. He stayed there for 17 months and observed the system of
the British universities so that a university could be established on the same lines.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan opened the school at Aligarh which became M.A.O
(Mohammaden-Anglo Oriental) school in 1875 where English, Modern sciences
and as well as Islamic teachings were taught. It was later raised to the status of
university in 1920. Following the lead for Sir Syed Ahmad many Muslim high
schools and Islamia colleges were opened in many big cities of India for Muslim
students.

Sir Syed established ‘Mohammaden Educational Conference’ which was an

organization to discuss the problems of the Muslims education in India. This
greatly helped the Muslims who started getting good jobs, improved their
economic condition and improve their status in the society. Infect the propagation
of modern education among Muslims also became a big factor in achieving an
understanding between the British and Muslims and bringing them closer.

50 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan guided the Muslims in political sphere as well. He advised
the Muslims to keep away from congress. He opposed Western type of democracy
because it meant that the Muslims will always be in minority and will be at the
mercy of Hindus. He believed that Muslims would never win any election
because of the Hindu Majority. He, therefore, advocated the separate seats and
separate electorates which was the forerunner of the future demand for a separate
homeland. Sir Syed also strongly opposed the replacement of Urdu by Hindu in
1867 and gave his Two Nations Theory. He always kept the interests of Muslim
supreme in his mind

Therefore, it can be said that Sir Syed’s contributions in education, political

development of Muslims and social betterment of Muslims had very beneficial
effect, however his contributions towards improving the relationship between the
Muslims and the British was a task which impacted the betterment of Muslims
the most. His contributions in politics and education were not only supported by
the improved relations between the British and the Muslims, they got further
directed because of the improvement in the relationship

51 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Chapter 05

Languages

What steps were taken to foster the growth of Urdu by the government? [4]
The government has taken steps to foster the growth of Urdu. It is the medium of
instructions in many educational institutions in Pakistan. A dictionary of office
terms in Urdu has been published and steps have been taken to move away from
English as the language of administration. Urdu is the medium for radio and
television programmes. Urdu plays and films are very popular. Urdu novels,
poetry, magazines and newspapers are widely read. Urdu is taught up to MA,
MPhil and PhD in different institutions (such as the Urdu University). Thus
scholars research the language and explore different aspects of its poetry and
prose, modernizing it. It is the compulsory subject to pass grade 10 and 12 in
educational institutions. Therefore, the language is promoted as students get
familiar with its literature and grammar.
What steps were taken to foster the growth of Sindhi by the government? [4]
Sindhi literary board was a step towards Sindhi’s development as it published
different books and magazines in Sindhi and Sindhi literary figures like Fakir
NabiBaksh and G. Allama became well known. Bazm-e-Talibul Mawla was
established to publishe books in Sindhi and have thus become known because of
their services towards Sindhi literature. Sarmast Academy was established as
tribute to Sindhi poets. It also promotes the language by printing his words and
making them available to the common people. The Sindhiology department
teaches Sindhi literature at Jamshero University up to MA level which helps
students learn more about the language.
What steps were taken to foster the growth of Punjabi by the government?
[4]
Books on academic subjects like Law, Medicine, Science, History and
Philosophy published in Punjabi. Thus developed as it’s been used as a means of
imparting education. The Punjabi University teaches it up to master’s level. Thus
the language is promoted as students and scholars do research in different aspects
of its literature, which helps to modernize the language. Radio Pakistan in Lahore,
plus TV shows. These promote it though dramas and serials and news. Punjabi
theatre and films are also widely appreciated by because of their quality. Thus,
by using it as a source of information and entertainment it’s understanding has

52 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

been improved among the masses. Quran was translated into Punjabi by
Muhammad Ali Faiq. Thus promoted on religious lines as Punjabi Muslims read
it with interest.

What steps were taken to foster the growth of Pashto by the government?
[4]
Establishment of Peshawar University and the post graduate Pashto literature
classes promote the language and literature among the masses and it is thus more
widely known. Academy for the promotion of Pashto Literature was set up in
1954 and this prepared a widely accepted and known Pashto dictionary which
helped creating vocabulary and increasing understanding of Pashto amongst the
people. Pashto tv channels newspapers magazines songs and movies are
introduced which plays an important role for promotion of this language.

What steps were taken to foster the growth of Balochi by the government?
[4]
Broadcasts in Balochi on radio Pakistan Karachi was started to promote the
language. Quetta Television help to make it more important through news,
entertainment programmers. Balochi Literary Association was set up and there
are now weekly and monthly magazines published in the languages under it.
Thus, this association promoted Balochi by encouraging different writers and
helping in gaining more resources. Many notable poets and writers such as Ishaq
Shamim and others are also making Balochi widely available to the interested
people through their works, thus promoting it.

Why did Pakistan choose Urdu as its national language in 1947? [7]

One of the reasons why Urdu became the national language in Pakistan is its long
history. It was widely used in Mughal period and dates back as far as the sultans
of Delhi. In its early stages it was used by the Muslim armies and became widely
spoken and understood in many parts of the sub-continent. So it was natural that
such a well-known and established language would be chosen.

Another reason for Urdu being chosen was its high status. Some of the finest early
poets such as Amir Khusrou wrote in Urdu and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s school
at Aligarh became a centre for Urdu study. Many religious books, including the
Quran, were translated into Urdu. So it was considered an important language
with a rich literary tradition.

53 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

Perhaps the major reason for Urdu being chosen was the fact that it was so closely
associated with the Pakistan Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan supported it and
the Muslim league was formed not only to defend Muslim interests, but also to
protect Urdu. The Quaid-e-Azam was particularly keen to promote Urdu as he
saw it was it as a unifying force. Since Pakistan was a new country, it was very
appropriate to pick a language which had played a part in unifying Muslims.

Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistan government

since 1947? [7]

One of the reasons was that it was felt by the Pakistan government that in order
to preserve the work done by the famous writers and poets in different languages,
the languages should be promoted. The literature they produced must be kept
alive for the coming generations. Works like of Munir Niazi, Atta Shad, Ashfaq
Ahmad and others in areas of regional languages should be protected. So because
of this thinking, govt. of Pakistan had made every possible attempt to promote
the regional languages.

Similarly, some languages played an important role in the history of Pakistan. For
example, Pushto literature had played a very important part in creating opposition
to British rule and in the movement for independence. There to elevate the
standard of such languages, govt. of Pakistan has tried to promote the regional
languages since 1947.

Last but not the least, at the time of partition, there were some languages that
were at the brink of decline. Like Balochi, which was at its decline at the time of
partition. So govt. felt that it should be kept alive and not lost forever. Hence the
language was promoted.

How successful has Pakistan been in promoting its regional languages? [14]

Since 1947, the Pakistan government has taken strong measures for the
development and promotion of its regional languages, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto
and Balochi, though some others like Brohi, Persian, Kashmiri and Siraiki are
also spoken.

Punjabi, which is widely understood in Punjab, Azad Kashmir and few areas of
N.W.F.P, has been promoted by the Govt. through media. Punjabi films, dramas
and theatres have been become very popular. Newspaper, journals and magazines
have also been very significant in promoting Punjabi culture & literature. New

54 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587

poets and writers like Munir Niazi, Ahmad Rahi, [Link], Ashfaq Ahmad,
Bano Qudsia and others have produce master pieces of poetry and writings in
Punjabi. The Holy Quran has also been translated into Punjabi by [Link] Faiq.
Punjabi is taught up to MA level in Punjab University and Punjab Academy has
translated and produced many books in Punjabi. This way round its promotion is
quite significant.

Pashto, language spoken in N.W.F.P, has also been given due important in
promotion and development. Peshawar University was established after 3 year of
independence where Pashto is taught up to MA level. Pashto Academy was set
up in 1954 which has prepared a well-renowned dictionary under Maulana
[Link]. Pashto dramas and films have also gained importance. Pashto papers,
journals and books have also helped Pashto language to promote. New writers &
poets have also added to this contribution by producing classic poetry and stories
Pashto typewriter has also been prepared. Hence Pashto has greatly been
promoted over the year.

Sindhi, spoken in Sindh, have also been nourished and nurtured through
promotion and development since 1947. Sindhi literary board was set up in 1948
which had produced many books with coordination of poets like F.N Bux and G.
Allone. Sindhi library in Karachi has helped Sindhi literature spread. Many folk
writings have also been produced. Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Muola have been set up
which translates books into Sindhi. Sindhiology Dept. in Jamshoro University
and development & promotion of Sindhi literature and culture through modern
means. Example: TV, radio, newspapers e.t.c.

Balochi language which was at its decline before partition was given special
attention for its promotion. Radio Pak Karachi now also broadcast in Balochi.
Quetta TV centre have been producing marvelous dramas to help, develop and
translate many books to Balochi and new poets like Atta Shad and writers have
greatly contributed towards its promotion.

Thus, Pakistan has been very successful in promotion of its regional languages.
These languages have developed a lot due to Government policies designed for
this purpose. On the other hand, poets & writers have also aided in this promotion
and development.

55 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022 BMI 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Ch.6

Pakistan Movement Develop During the Early 20th Century

What was the Swadeshi Movement? [4]

The Swadeshi movement was a part of the Indian independence movement, promoting self-
sufficiency and contributing to Indian nationalism. It began in response to growing discontentment
among Indians before the Government decided to partition Bengal, officially starting on August 7,
1905. Swadeshi Movement was a boycott of British goods and bought only Indian produced goods.
British sugar, salt and cloth especially suffered and cotton in particular. British cloth was burnt on
bonfires. People picketed the shops selling foreign goods. Mahatma Gandhi saw it as essential for
self-rule (swaraj). The movement gained momentum as wealthy Indians donated funds.

What was the Simla Deputation? [4]

The Simla Deputation was a gathering of 35 prominent Indian Muslim leaders led by the Aga Khan
III at the Viceregal Lodge in Simla in October 1906. The deputation aimed to convince Lord Minto,
then Viceroy of Jndia, to grant Muslims greater representation in politics. They demanded that
Any kind of representation, direct or indirect, and in all other ways affecting their status and
influence, should be commensurate not merely with the numerical strength but also with their
political importance. The deputation demanded Separate Electorates in all local and provincial
elections. the Simla Deputation led to the creation of the All-India Muslim League in December
1906.

Describe main objectives of All India Muslim League at time of its establishment. [4]

To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims in India. To represent Muslim
needs and aspirations to the government of India. To promote feelings of Loyalty to the British
Government. To remove any misunderstandings amongst the Muslims as to the intensions of any
government measures. To prevent the rise of hostility in Muslims towards other communities in
India

What was the India Council Act 1909? [4]

The Indian Councils Act 1909, commonly known as the Morley–Minto or Minto–Morley Reforms,
was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that brought about a limited increase in the
involvement of Indians in the governance of British India. It was named after Viceroy Lord Minto
and Secretary of State John Morley. The Act itself conferred some political reforms. Both central
and provincial legislative councils were increased in size and had their memberships expanded.
Under the Act, Muslim members were to be elected by only Muslim voters, dividing the electorate.
The elected Indians were allowed to table resolutions, debate budgetary matters, and ask
supplementary questions, which they were previously prevented from doing so. Nevertheless, they
were not permitted to discuss foreign policy or relations with the princely states. The British
executive also retained an absolute veto over all legislation.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was the Silk Letter Movement/Conspiracy? [4]

It was a revolutionary movement launched by the Deobandi sect of Sunni Muslims in India from
1913 to [Link]’s aim was to liberate India from the British rule with the help of Germany, the
Ottoman Turkey and Afghanistan. The Punjab CID uncovered the conspiracy by capturing letters
written by Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi to Maulana Mahmud Ul Hassan. These letters were written
in silk cloth, hence the name “Silk Letters Conspiracy”. Both the leaders visited Afghanistan and
persuaded the Afghan Amir to initiate an insurrection in the tribal belt of India. However, like
many other similar secret attempts, this too was foiled by the British.

What was the India Council Act 1919? [4]

The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms were reforms introduced by the British Government in India
to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India. The reforms take their name
from Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for and Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy of India
between 1916 and 1921. A Legislative Assembly of 145 members was established in which 103
members were elected and 42 were nominated for three years. Right of separate electorates was
granted to the Muslims and the Sikhs. The governor-general was to be the chief executive authority
and could veto any resolution passed by the central legislative council. The Council of State was
comprising of 60 members in which 33 were elected and 27 were nominated members.

What was the Rowlatt Act or India Defense Act 1919? [4]

The Rowlett Act was a law implemented by the British government in colonial India in March
1919 in order to keep the troublemakers under control. The purpose of the Act was to deal with
revolutionary activities. According to the Act, suspected people could be arrested without warrant
and kept in prison without trial. They could be stopped from attending meetings and could be
ordered to live in a particular place. This was a repressive measure that infuriated the political
leadership and common Indians. Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Council in
protest. In the Punjab the protest was very strong which led to the infamous Amritsar Massacre of
1919.

Describe the system of Diarchy. [4]

Diarchy means a government by two authorities. In India, it was started in the government of India
act 1919 on a provincial level. The reserved subjects such as Justice, Police, Revenue, Power
Resources and Press and Publication were most important and were controlled by Provincial
Governors and their Executive councils and the transferred subjects were less important such as
Local Government, Education, Public Health, Public Works and Forests were controlled by Indian
Ministers. Diarchy was dropped at the provincial level and brought at the central level in the Govt
of India act 1935.

What was the Lucknow Pact 1916? [4]

The Lucknow Pact was an agreement reached between the Indian National Congress and the
Muslim League (AIML) at a joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in December 1916.
Through the pact, the two parties agreed to allow representation to religious minorities in the
provincial legislatures. The Muslim League leaders agreed to join the Congress movement

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

demanding Indian autonomy. The Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in electing
representatives to the Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils. The Congress also agreed to
the idea of one-third seats for the Muslims in the Councils despite the fact that the Muslim
population represented less than a third. Apart from that, the Congress agreed that no act affecting
a community should be passed unless three-quarters of that community's members on the council
supported it.

What was the Amritsar Massacre 1919? [4]

On the afternoon of April 13, a crowd of at least 20,000 men, women, and children gathered in the
Jallianwala Bagh, which was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit. It is not
clear how many people there were protesters who were defying the ban on public meetings and
how many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival.
Dyer and his soldiers arrived and sealed off the exit. Without warning, the troops opened fire on
the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds until they ran out of ammunition. It is not
certain how many died in the bloodbath, but, according to one official report, an estimated 379
people were killed, and about 1,200 more were wounded. After they ceased firing, the troops
immediately withdrew from the place, leaving behind the dead and wounded.

Who was General Dyer? [4]

Dyer was brigade commander at Jalandhar, southeast of Amritsar, in early 1919. Following the
outbreak of rioting and violence in Amritsar in April which included the killing of four Europeans
and the beating of a woman missionary. He moved his troops to that city to restore order there and
banned all public gatherings. On April 13 Dyer’s troops confronted a gathering of thousands of
Indians in an enclosed area in the city, and he ordered them to open fire. According to an official
report, his troops killed 379 unarmed Indian men, women, and children and wounded some 1,200.
The government of India ordered an investigation of the incident (the Hunter Commission), which
in 1920 censured Dyer for his actions and ordered him to resign from the military. the House of
Lords praised Dyer and gave him a sword inscribed with the motto “Saviour of the Punjab.”

Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905? [7]

The main reason for the partition of Bengal was that since it was a large province with a population
of 85million people, so it was not possible for one governor to control it. The population of Bengal
comprised of both Muslims & Hindus. Among them 58million was Hindus and 27million were
Muslims. The British claimed that Bengal was too large to govern as one province. It was very
hard to rescue public during times famine and plague with poor means of communication. The
government realized that it would be more efficient to govern it as two smaller provinces.

According to Hindu version Bengal was partitioned to weaken the solidarity of Bengali Hindus.
Bengal was the hub of creating national awakening posing real threat to the rulers. British played
the communal card to widen the hostilities between Hindus and Muslims, division along religious
line weakened Congress to curb the growing sense of Hindu nationalism. It was also made to
address the miseries of Muslims’ sense of deprivation in eastern Bengal. This community was
neglected and isolated due to under governance previously. The British wanted to gain the favor
of Muslims as the political scenario had been changed.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

British also closely observed the political activities of the INC in the 1890’s when leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak had to be in prison as they delivered provoking speeches in which they demanded
self-rule for India. Therefore, the British decided to distract the attention of the INC towards a new
issue. Accordingly, Lord Curzon, in 1903, advised the British government to divide Bengal along
communal lines and so, Bengal was divided in 1905 into a Muslim majority East Bengal and Hindu
majority West Bengal.

Why did Congress (INC) oppose the partition of Bengal? (7)

Ans. The INC did not like the partition and opposed it fiercely. For the INC, it was yet another
example of the old British policy of “divide and rule”. By doing so the British were strengthening
their grip on the Indian political affairs while dividing the two major communities, Hindus and
Muslims. The British power lay in the communal differences of India. The INC also viewed the
partitioned as a step against the Indian nationalism. It believed that all people living in India were
primarily Indians regardless of the cultural and religious differences and identities. So, all
communities living in Bengal were equally Indians whether they were Hindus or Muslims. It
viewed the whole country as “mother India” and therefore, condemned the partition of Bengal as
a kind of vivisection of their motherland. It declared 16th Oct 1905 as a day of mourning.

The Hindu dominated INC was also unhappy over the loss of monopoly over the economy and
politics of Bengal. In East Bengal, Muslims were a decisive majority and had formed their own
government. Therefore, their economic condition began to improve. They decided to develop the
Chittagong port in order to compete with the Calcutta port of West Bengal. All this scenario was
worrying for the INC who launched an aggressive campaign against the British.

How did the Hindus oppose the Partition of Bengal between 1905 and 1911? [7]

The Hindus launched an intensive movement against the partition of Bengal. They termed the
partition as degrading and an insult to the national character of the Hindu population. Religious
colour was given to the agitation and the partition was termed as the dissection of the Sacred Cow
Mother, in order to arouse deep opposition by the Hindu masses. They considered the partition as
an attempt to sow the seeds of hatred and discontentment among the Indian people to weaken the
national movements for independence.

The day of partition was declared as a national tragedy. Strikes were held throughout the country.
The Indian National Congress also jumped in to support the agitation against the partition. The
Hindu students put up violent demonstration against the partition. The Congress severely criticized
the partition in its annual session of 1906.

The Hindus agitation soon turned into a violent reaction. The people disobeyed Government orders
by refusing to pay taxes and rentals. Communal clashes erupted at a number of places which
aggravated the law and order situation in the country. Bombs were thrown and attacks were made
on the lives of the British people. Swadeshi Movement was organized by which the foreign goods
were boycotted. The train carrying the Governor of the Eastern Bengal was derailed and an attempt
was made on Viceroy’s life which failed.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

How did British react to the Hindu protest against the partition of Bengal? (7)

The British took many quick measures to deal with the Hindu protest. They placed restrictions on
newspapers and public meetings. Between 1906 and 1908 several editors were arrested, trialed and
imprisoned for writing articles against the British policies. The Press Act of 1908 gave more
powers to the government to restrict freedom of expression and media. Between 1905 and 1909
thousand people were arrested and jailed. The Government grants to schools and colleges
participating in the Swadeshi Movement were discontinued.

Mr Tilak was arrested in June 1908, and after a speedy trial, was given six years’ imprisonment.
Many radical leaders left India in these circumstances as jails were filled with those the British
considered as revolutionaries. The British themselves deported many suspects without framing
them in a case or conducting a trial against them.

The British got worried over the growing protest by the Hindu-led INC. They realized that use of
force against Hindus would not be sufficient. Therefore, they decided to win the support of the
moderate Hindus by drafting new constitutional reforms. The Viceroy Lord Minto worked with
the Secretary of State of India, John Morley. Finally, the Indian Council’s Act 1909/ the Morley-
Minto Reforms were introduced to win the support of the Hindu community.

Why was the Muslim League founded in 1906? [7]

Ans: Fear of Hindu parties was one of the important reason of establishment of Muslim League.
Muslims were worried due to activities of Hindu militant (extremist) groups like Tilak and Arya
Samaj. Tilak was trying to ban cow slaughtering and Arya Samaj was trying to change Muslims
to Hindu by force. Muslims realized that their religion and culture were in danger so they set up a
Muslim League to protect Muslims culture and religion in India.

likewise, Role of Congress in Indian national politics was another reason that encouraged Indian
Muslims to form their own political party. Congress had become a Hindu party and once the Hindu
had begun opposition to the partition of Bengal, it was certain that the Muslims would form their
own party to pass on their views to British government. The Congress was trying to declare Hindi
as official language. The partition of Bengal was in interest of Muslims but Congress was opposing
it. Muslims realized the Congress was only working for Hindu rights. It was necessary to set up a
Muslim party to protect Muslim interests and political right.

Success of Simla deputation also contributed in establishment of the league. When British
government announced to increase role of Indians in government through election, Muslims were
worried because they were in minority. Muslim leaders decided to take some serious action. At
Simla positive reply of Viceroy Minto towards Muslim demand of separate electorate realized
Muslims the importance of joint efforts so they established Muslim league to protect Muslim
rights.

Two Nation theory was another reason of formation of the league. Muslim belief in two nation
theory was increasing with the passage of time. Educated Muslim class wanted to play an
independent role in Indian politics, they wanted to improve their relation with British and get better
terms for Muslims. Muslim league was setup in 1906. Some Hindu claimed that British were

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

behind the setting up of the Muslim League to act as opposition of Congress. But it was the
Muslims themselves who had set up Muslim League.

Why was the Simla Delegation of 1906 an important turning point for the Muslims of the
sub-continent? [7]

As the Muslims supported the Partition of Bengal which was an act of British government.
Muslims also opposed the Boycott of British goods and declared their loyalty due to this they got
on better with the British. In fact, Simla Deputation was in line with the kind of thinking which
was developing among the Muslims during that time that is they have certain interests and they
must stand up to protect their rights and unless they do that the objective will not be achieved.
Simla Deputation was the first systematic attempt on the part of Muslims to present their demands.
The delegation emphasized that Muslims should not be viewed simply in numerical terms but they
should take into account their historical importance and the kinds of contribution the Muslims have
made to British India. It also guaranteed Muslims an Independent role in the Politics.

Representation more than their population because of their importance So that that representation
have some significance, some importance and the representatives are able to play an important
role, they demanded the introduction of Separate electorate in India, Reservations of Muslims seats
in government jobs, Special share in Municipal or district boards University senates and
syndicates, They also demanded that they should have Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive
Council, The last significant demand made was that the college at Aligarh should be elevated to
the status of Muslim University at Aligarh . The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands.
It encouraged the Muslims to launch struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian National
Congress.

Success of Simla deputation also contributed in establishment of the league. When British
government announced to increase role of Indians in government through election, Muslims were
worried because they were in minority. Muslim leaders decided to take some serious action. At
Simla positive reply of Viceroy Minto towards Muslim demand of separate electorate realized
Muslims the importance of joint efforts so they established Muslim league to protect Muslim
rights.

Why did the Congress Party oppose the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909? [7]

Morley-Minto reforms arrived in India back in 1909. It was an attempt by the British to solve the
constitutional problem in India. Congress part however showed strong resistance against these
reforms due to many reasons.

First and formost was the reforms increased the number of Indians in the viceroy's council but it
actually had no real power. The British saw this as an advisory council which could only give and
present their opinions to the British and play no part in governing the country as they were t ready
to give the Indians some political power. Moreover, the council was purely advisory and The
British intended that the Indians could voice their opinions in the Councils but Congress wanted
more responsibility which the government were not prepared to give. This annoyed many who
were looking towards self-rule as they had no power in changing governmental policies and could
only give advice to the British as real power remained in their hands.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Similarly, in the reforms separate electorates were granted to the Muslims. It cheered the Muslims
but angered the congress very much as they did not support separate electorates for Muslims. The
Congress was in favor of joint electorate and claimed that the party represented the whole of India
and that awarding separate electorate to a community in minority was an undemocratic move.
Also, some Hindus disliked the relative high posts of Muslims in the councils despite the fact that
Muslims had a lower percentage and had small numbers in the population. The Muslims were
granted 6 reserved seats in the Imperial Council which the Hindus thought were more as compared
to their population.

Last but not the least in those years Hindus had started demanding self-rule and independence
while the reforms gave no option to any effective power to Indian people to run the government.
As the viceroy's council was purely advisory Congress wanted more power which the British were
not ready to give. the move annoyed many Indians who were looking and now wanted self-rule
for India and they saw the Morley - Minto reforms against them.

Why was the Partition of Bengal reversed in 1911? [7]

The partition of Bengal created a Muslim-majority province, the East Bengal. The elite Hindus of
West Bengal, who were collecting taxes from Muslim peasants in east Bengal, would now lose
their influence in the new province. They, therefore, rejected the decision and launched a series of
violent protests and demonstrations against the partition. The tide of anger rapidly spread to other
parts of India. The reaction was so strong that it gave birth to the development of extremism. A
number of small extremist groups came into existence that launched attacks on the British officials.
They succeeded in killing a few ones. Lord Minto, the future viceroy, escaped an assassination
attempt. Many extremists were imprisoned for long time, but the situation was alarming to the
British. Finally, they had to bow down before the Hindu agitation and thus revoked the Bengal
partition.

The British reversed the partition of Bengal due to economic reasons also. The Hindus of West
Bengal started Swadeshi Movement, which also spread to other parts of India. It was a massive
campaign for boycotting the British goods and using home-made products. The Hindus responded
to the movement enthusiastically. The use of local products became a matter of pride. Foreign
clothes were thrown on bonfires. By 1908, imports from Britain had fallen off significantly and
sales of British goods in Indian markets dropped drastically. So, the British had to reverse the
decision.

The British took several measures to bring the situation under control but political unrest kept on
growing. Restrictions were imposed on newspapers and public gatherings. Editors were
imprisoned. The prisons were filled with revolutionary activists. Tilak was also arrested in June
1908 and put behind the bars for 6 years. Apart from repressive measures, the British turned to
reconciliation also by introducing Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 to win support of the Hindus,
but the reforms also could not pacify them. The situation was becoming difficult for peaceful
administration and ultimately the British had to move towards annulment of the partition.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Explain why the Lucknow Pact of 1916 came about. [7]

When Bengal was partitioned in 1905, Hindus reacted against the decision and they went on violent
protests and boycotts of British goods. On the other hand, the Muslims remained loyal to the British
rule. The British could not sustain the pressure of demonstrations and reversed the decision of
partition in 1911. This was a betrayal to the Muslims’ loyalty. They realized the British rulers
could no longer be trusted. Now they had to devise a new strategy for achieving their goals. They
wanted to turn towards the demand of self-rule but they needed constitutional protection – separate
electorate and provincial autonomy – from Hindus after the British would leave India. Muslim
League, therefore, signed the Lucknow Pact in 1916 in which Congress agreed on granting the
Muslims 1/3 reserved seats in the central legislative council.

At the time of the pact, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an idealist who believed that Hindus and
Muslims could work together. He wanted that all religious groups should live together in harmony.
He was a strong supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity. He believed that joint demands would put more
pressure on the British. Therefore, he persuaded the Congress and the Muslim League for the
Lucknow Pact in 1916. He believed that this pact would lead to united Indian nation.

Congress was keen to gain the support of Muslim League for its demand of self-rule in India. It
hoped that it would be difficult for the British to reject the joint demand of self-rule for longer
time. Therefore, it was ready to give concessions to Muslim League for its own objective of home-
rule. That is why Congress went into Lucknow Pact with Muslim League in 1916.

Why were the Indians not given self-rule in 1919? [7]

The WW 1 had ended in 1918, and the British had suffered huge losses during the four years of
the War. Their top priority was to pay attention to the repair and reconstruction of Britain that had
been damaged by the Germans, and that made India a secondary issue for them. Britain very well
knew about many other colonies ruled by the Europeans had started asking for independence
thinking the British had been weakened by the War. It was not easy and simple to leave India
abruptly at that time. Therefore, they rejected the Indian demand of self-rule.

Indian subcontinent was still a source of heavy income for the British. Its resources had a strong
attraction for the British, and so, it was rightly called the Jewel in the Crown. Strategic location of
India was vital for the trading interests and naval force of the British. There were sea trade routes
from India towards the Far East, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa. They could not afford
to pull out of India at this crucial time when they desperately needed revenue to keep their
economic growth in a good shape. Moreover, several Indians, especially the Muslims and Sikhs
were bulk of the British army. Along with these Indians, there were several thousand British
employees in India, including missionaries, civil servants, businessmen and military officers. If
India was given self-rule without a thorough planning, these British serving in India would have
turned from an asset to a liability.

Finally, the question of British prestige was also a considerable factor. The British thought their
prestige was likely to be damaged before the rest of the world if they had given in before the
growing demand of self-rule by the Indians. Such a step might have conveyed a message of weak
position of the British in India, and that too, after their victory in the WW1. It is equally true the
Indians in 1919 were not politically mature and trained to run the state affairs on their own.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Therefore, the British decided to keep their control over India by making new laws like the
Montford reforms of 1919.

Bengal was partitioned because of geographical factors”. Do you agree? Give reasons for
your answer. (14)

Bengal was one of the largest provinces of British India with a huge population of more 80 million
spread over a small area. It was increasingly becoming difficult to administer such a big and
densely populated province by a single a governor. Administrative difficulties included, collection
of revenue / taxes, providing relief and rehabilitation to a population repeatedly hit by cyclones
and floods, controlling the law and order situation that was gradually deteriorating. Since there had
been earlier examples of dividing huge territories like Khandesh and Narbada, the British began
to consider partitioning Bengal into two provinces. So, in 1903 Viceroy Lord Curzon proposed
partition of Bengal into two provinces.

The British were also closely observing the growing disparity between the Hindus and the
Muslims. Hindus dominated the politics and economy of Bengal while keeping Muslims
underdeveloped and poor. The period 1900-1911 was a period of improved British – Muslim
relations. Perhaps British wanted to give Muslims an opportunity to prosper in the newly created
province of East Bengal with Assam and three districts Dhaka, Chittagong and Mymensingh where
they would be in a majority and hence would be able to farm their own government (which exactly
happened). The other part, West Bengal, remained a Hindu majority province. Muslims now began
to develop a new seaport at Chittagong.

Finally, the British were also mindful of the INC demand of self-ruled in the 1890s. For example,
INC leaders like Mr. Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak used to deliver impassioned and provoking speeches
to incite the people for pressurizing the government for self-rule. Such leaders were arrested and
British decided to distract the INC attention from its demand for self-rule. Thus, when Lord Curzon
in October 1905 announced the partition of Bengal, the INC guns were directed against the
partition instead of demand for self-rule.

To conclude, it may be proved that the major reason for the partition of Bengal was the
geographical factor because it is a universal practice to make new and smaller administrative units
for the sake of better administration. After the partition it prove to be true because the Muslim
community felt great relief and was fully grateful to the British even though the Hindu dominated
INC got busy in undoing this wise decision of the British.

The Muslim League was established in 1906 because the Hindus had their own political
party. ‘Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
The Muslim League was founded on 30th December, 1906. The pro-Hindu INC policies were a
major reason for the formation of Muslim League (ML). The INC had been demanding
enforcement of Hindi as the official language replacing Urdu in various provinces. It also opposed
the partition of Bengal in 1905. This was shocking for the Muslims as they realized the hidden
INC aims of denying Muslims to make any progress. The way the INC launched the Swadeshi
Movement with country-wide protests and strikes, proved to be an eye-opening experience for the
Muslims. The reaction of Hindus meant they could not tolerate Muslims making progress. So, the

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Muslims increasingly felt the need of their own political party that could counter any anti-Muslim
activities and campaigns.
Another reason for the formation of ML was the success of the Simla Delegation. In October 1906
about 36 Muslim delegates led by Sir Aga Khan called on the Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla. This
delegation demanded a greater share of Muslims in the councils and the government jobs. It also
demanded separate electorates for the Muslims in view of their political importance and numerical
weakness against the Hindu majority. Lord Minto’s encouraging response convinced the delegates
that the organized efforts were more likely to be successful. For this a political party was needed.
By the start of the twentieth century the activities of the Hindu extremist party, Arya Samaj (Hindu
Society), had become more intense. The purpose of this party was to purify India from non-Hindu
elements, especially Muslims. With the passage of time it began to use force against the weak
Muslims and there were reports of forcible conversion of Muslims into Hindus. Muslims felt
insecure about their cultural and religious identity and realized that a political party could protect
and promote their cultural and political rights.
In February 1906, the Liberal Party won elections in England. It was generally more sympathetic
towards the Indians and especially, at times, towards Indian Muslims. It announced that it would
expand the legislative councils by including more Indians. Muslims realized it was time to think
of making their own political party because the INC had not been sincere towards them. In order
to join the legislative councils elections had to be contested through the platform of a political
party. Therefore, prominent Muslim leaders gathered at the residence of Nawab Salimullah Khan
in Dhaka to attend the 20th session of the MEC (Muhammadan Educational Conference). There
they decided to convert the MEC into a political party name All India Muslim Confederacy that
was soon renamed as All India Muslim League. Its main objective was to protect political and
socioeconomic interests of the Indian Muslims while keeping them loyal to the British.
It may be concluded that ML was founded mainly because the Hindus had their own political party.
In view of the prevailing circumstances it was vital for Muslims to constitute a party that could
voice their concerns and safeguard their political and cultural identity and rights. Eventually the
ML became the founding party of the Pakistan Movement that led to the creation of Pakistan.
Partition or reversal?' Were the reasons why Bengal was partitioned in 1905 more important
than those regarding its reversal in 1911? Explain your answer. [14]

Reasons for the partition of Bengal were very important. Bengal was a province with a huge
population spread over a small area. There was Hindu majority in the western, and Muslim
majority in the eastern part. The British thought it wise to divide Bengal along communal lines in
such a way that East Bengal would become a new province with a Muslim majority, and West
Bengal with a Hindu majority.

Bengal was also divided due to administrative reasons as it was difficult to govern by a single
governor. With two governors ruling two provinces, it became easier to collect revenue and to
maintain law and order in a highly populated province. As a result of partition, Muslims felt greatly
relieved as they became a majority in the newly created province of East Bengal and Assam where
they could prosper by making their own government. The partition also affected the Hindu
monopoly on trade, economy and politics of Bengal as Muslim began to develop the Chittagong

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

port to compete with the Calcutta port in west Bengal. Hindus, therefore, considered
the partition as another example of the British policy of "divide and rule", because it helped British
establish their rule over India more firmly. Hindus also believed that partition was aimed at striking
at the roots of Indian nationalism and unity. Partition had divided the province into two units with
a distinct religious majority in each unit. The INC considered all people living in Bengal only as
Bengalis regardless of their religious identity. So, the Hindus reacted violently.

As for the reversal of partition, it mainly came about as a result of the ever-growing Hindu pressure
on the British. The Hindu-dominated INC organized a country wide anti-partition campaign.
Regular protests and strikes were held, and boycott of British goods, titles and institutes was
organized on a large scale. They rejected the partition by linking it with the British strategy of
dividing Indians into sub-groups and creating communal differences.

The Hindu anger was further reflected in the Swadeshi movement. In this a boycott of British
goods was observed. At many places, the British factory-made cotton cloth was thrown in the
bonfire and this caused a significant drop in the sale of British goods. Gradually, the movement
adopted terrorist activities when an attempt was made to assassinate Lord Minto. British goods
and institutes were boycotted as a token of protest over the partition. Though the Muslims were
assured of the irreversibility of the partition, the circumstances forced the British to reconsider this
administrative decision. Pressure grew with time as all these activities were paralyzing the state
machinery and there was a visible threat to the British prestige and power in India. The British,
therefore, annulled the partition in December 1911 in the Delhi Darbar and the announcement was
made by King George V himself.

When analyzed objectively, it can be concluded that the reasons for partition of Bengal were more
important because the Muslim community began to develop a sense of "distinct identity" of their
own, and also because they were alerted of the possible consequences of a Hindu-dominated India.
The partition gave a hint to the Muslims about partition of India along communal lines.

The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were more important than any other political
developments between 1909 and 1919.' Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your
answer. [14]

The Montague-Chelmsford reforms (M.C reforms) were jointly drafted by John Montague,
Secretary of State of India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy. They became operative in 1919.
They enlarged the size of the legislative councils, increased the number of voters to 5.5 million
and granted the right of separate electorate to Sikhs, too. In the Centre, a bicameral set up was
introduced with an upper house, the Council of State and a lower house the legislative assembly.
The Council of State had 60 seats, 33 of whom were elected. The Legislative Assembly had 145
members, with 103 being elected for a period of 3 years. These 103 included 32 Muslims. Council
of Princes was setup with 108 members where Princes could debate important topics.

At provincial level, Diarchy was introduced. In this, subjects were divided between the governor
(reserved subjects) and ministers (transferred subjects). Enlargement of the councils, increased
number of voters and protection of minorities were welcomed. The real powers were, however,
still with the British, as the Viceroy could pass any law he liked in the Centre. Governors of the

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

provinces, likewise, could veto any law they disliked. The Council of Princes, too, didn’t have
powers and eventually it became a kind of a ‘talking shop’.To make things worse, the Rowlatt Act
was enforced. It gave powers to the police to arrest anyone without warrant and detain him without
the right of bail. The Act led to the tragic Amritsar massacre.

However, some other political developments also took place during the same time period. Before
the 1919 Act, the British had introduced the Indian Councils Act 1909, also known as the Morley-
Minto reforms (M.M. Reforms). Under this act, size of the provincial and central legislative
councils was increased: for larger provinces 50 and for smaller provinces 30 members. The
Imperial Council was increased to 60 members by adding more non-official members. Also, the
Central Executive Council was expanded by adding 60 new members, including many Indians.
Muslims were given the right of separate electorates. The councils, however, had little powers.
The members could ask questions and express their opinion and advise the government on some
issues. INC was not satisfied with these provisions and it sharply criticized the provision of
separate electorates for Muslims. For INC, it was an undemocratic concession, but for Muslim
League, it was recognition of their political importance.

The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between INC and Muslim League. Due to the efforts
of Jinnah, ML and INC held their joint session at Qaiser Bagh Baradari, Lucknow. INC was led
by Ambeka Charan Mahajan and ML was represented by Mr. Jinnah. Both parties agreed on a
charter of common demands, called the Lucknow Pact. The Pact asked the British for provincial
autonomy, enlargement of the councils by including more Indians. A very important clause was
the acceptance of separate Muslim electorates by the INC. It also agreed to give Muslims one-third
seats in the Centre. The Lucknow Pack marked a great occasion of Hindu-Muslim unity. It also
showed the desire of self-rule among Indians, as there were two more Home Rule Leagues during
the same period one by Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak and the other by Mrs. Annie Besant It, however,
also reflected that Hindus would be ready to accept any degree of partition of India along
communal lines in future.

With objective analysis, it seems that the Mont-ford reforms were the most important political
development, because the introduction of Diarchy and bicameral set up showed the British
willingness to grant Indians more rights, though rather slowly.

The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were only political developments that created anger in
Indians against the government in 1919.' Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your
answer. [14]

Many Indians had fought with the British in the First World War and they expected much greater
concessions. The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League had recently come together
demanding self-rule. The 1919 reforms did not satisfy political demands in India. The British
repressed opposition, and restrictions on the press and on movement were re-enacted through the
Rowlatt Acts introduced in 1919. These measures were rammed through the Legislative Council
with the unanimous opposition of the Indian members. Several members of the council including
Jinnah resigned in protest. These measures were widely seen throughout India as a betrayal of the
strong support given by the population for the British war effort.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Gandhi launched a nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Acts with the strongest level of protest
in the Punjab. The situation worsened in Amritsar in April 1919, when General Dyer ordered his
troops to open fire on demonstrators hemmed into a tight square, resulting in the deaths of at least
379 civilians. Montagu ordered an inquiry into the events at Amritsar by Lord Hunter. The Hunter
Inquiry recommended that General Dyer, who commanded the troops, be dismissed, leading to
Dyer's sacking. Many British citizens supported Dyer, whom they considered had received unfair
treatment from the Hunter Inquiry. The conservative Morning Post newspaper collected a
subscription of £26,000 for General Dyer and Sir Edward Carson moved a censure motion on
Montagu which was nearly successful. Montagu was saved largely due to a strong speech in his
defense by Winston Churchill.
The Amritsar massacre further inflamed Indian nationalist sentiment ending the initial response of
reluctant co-operation. At the grass roots level, many young Indians wanted faster progress
towards Indian independence and were disappointed by lack of advancement as Britons returned
to their former positions in the administration. At the Indian National Congress annual session in
September 1920, delegates supported Gandhi's proposal of swaraj or self-rule – preferably within
the British Empire or out of it if necessary. The proposal was to be implemented through a policy
of non-cooperation with British rule meaning that Congress did not field candidates in the first
elections held under the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms in 1921.
How successful were political developments in seeking a solution to the problems in the sub-
continent between 1909 and 1919. Explain your answer. [14]
The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 were jointly drafted by the Viceroy Lord Minto and the
Secretary of State for India, John Morley. Under these the size of the central and provincial
legislative councils was enlarged. The Imperial/Central Council was increased to 60 members.
Provincial Councils and the Central Executive Council were also increased by adding more
members. The Muslims were given the right of separate electorates. This means more Indians were
included in the government affairs and they could express their opinions too. Granting of separate
electorates to Muslims was a major step towards the development of Muslim nationalism.
However, the INC opposed this because it viewed this as an undemocratic step. The councils could
not make, amend or annul any laws. Therefore, the INC opposed the reforms as it wanted more
Indians in the councils and more power for the council members.
The Lucknow Pact was signed between the ML and the INC in 1916. Both parties gathered in
Lucknow with Jinnah representing the ML and Ambeka Charan Mahajan led the INC delegation.
Both parties agreed to demand provincial autonomy and enlargement of councils in India. The INC
accepted the separate electorates for Muslims and even agreed to one third seats in the government.
For the first time both major parties had shown such a unity. It was a reflection of the campaign
for self-rule in India. This success was greatly attributed to Jinnah who was hailed as “the
ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity”. However, it also showed the depth of communal divide in
India because the right of separate electorates was linked with the distinct Muslim identity.
Secretary of States John Montague and the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford introduced the Mont-Ford
Reforms as the Government of India Act 1919. As Indians expected some reward for their
contribution in the WW1, the British gave them some concessions in the new reforms. In the
Centre, a bicameral set up was introduced with an upper house, the Council of States, and a lower
house, the Legislative Assembly. There was majority of the elected people in the Assembly. At
provincial level, Diarchy was introduced in which some of the reserved subjects of the provincial

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

governors were transferred to the ministers. This was claimed to be a step towards self-rule.
Separate electorates were also extended to the Sikhs. Both the INC and the ML opposed these
reforms as they had expected more political rights for the Indians.
The British had anticipated this disappointment. Therefore, they implemented the infamous
Rowlatt Act that empowered the police to arrest anyone without a warrant and detain the arrested
person for an indefinite period. The Indian anger grew as Jinnah and Gandhi sharply criticized the
Act. Hundreds of Indian protestors were killed in the Jillianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
If viewed objectively, it seems that all these political developments were a failure because they
eventually escalated to dissatisfaction among Indians over whatever was offered to them by the
British. The political deadlock persisted despite efforts by both the British and the Indians.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Ch.07
The Khilafat Movement 1919-1924
What was the All India Khilafat Conference? [4]
It was held in Delhi in November 1919, led by the Ali brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar
and Maulana Shaukat Ali. They hoped to try and persuade the British to keep their promises about
maintaining the respect of the Turkish Empire. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Gandhi attended
it as representatives of the INC. Gandhi hoped to keep Hindus and Muslims united in his non-
violent campaign against the British. Azad warned the Conference that the British PM Lloyd
George planned to punish Turkey for fighting against the British in the WW1. The Conference
passed a resolution for sending a delegation to Britain to tell it about the strength of the Muslim
support for the Khalifa and the institute of Khilafat.
What was the Khilafat Movement? [4]
It was started in 1919 by the Muslim religious leaders of India to save the respect of Turkey and
the institute of Khilafat. Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad were its major leaders. Gandhi merged his noncooperation campaign with it. Three
Khilafat Conferences were held, a delegation was sent to the British PM Lloyd George in February
1920 to persuade him for a fair treatment of Turkey. Thousands of Muslims migrated to
Afghanistan in the Hijrat Movement in 1920. Jinnah and the ML stayed away from it but supported
the cause of the Khilafat Movement. The Movement ended in 1924 with the abolition of the
Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk.
What was the Moplah uprising? [4]
Ans. It was a violent uprising by the Moplahs, Muslim peasants in South India during the Khilafat
Movement. Their anger was against Hindu landowners and the British. In August 1921, nearly
10,000 Moplahs at Tirur destroyed the police station and seized all arms and also destroyed Hindu
property including temples. The British troops reacted quickly and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs
while several more were wounded. There were only 100 British casualties.
What was the Hijrat Movement? [4]
Ans. It was a religious move that was started by the Muslim leaders of the Khilafat Movement in
August 1920. The leaders urged Muslims to leave Dar ul Harb, India, and migrate to the
neighbouring Dar ul Islam, Afghanistan. Around 18000-20000 Muslims migrated, selling their
houses and leaving their jobs. They were promised a better future but the Afghan government
refused to accommodate them. Many died on their way back to India.
Who was Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI? [4]
He was the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from July 1918-1922. His decision to
support Germany against Britain in the WW-I proved disastrous as Turkey lost control over
Baghdad, Jerusalem and Constantinople (Istanbul). The Ottoman Empire was abolished by the
Allies under the treaty of Sevres, August 1920. As he lost popularity, the Turkish Grand National

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Assembly under Kemat Attaturkdeposed the Sultan and sent him into exile to Italy. Attaturk
abolished the Khilafat in 1924. He died in May 1926 and was buried in Damacus.
Q. What was the Chauri-Chaura incident? [4]
Chaura-Chauri is a village in Gorakhpur district, UP. A violent incident took place there in
February 1922 during the peak phase of the Khilafat Movement. An angry mob participating in
the non-cooperation movement of Gandhi attacked the local police station. The police opened fire,
and in retaliation the mob set fire to the police station. This resulted in burning alive of 22
policemen and killing of 3 civilians. Gandhi, who had conditioned his support for non-cooperation
movement with Ahimsa / Ahinsa or non-violence, withdrew from the movement. This greatly
weakened the Khilafat Movement.
Q: What was Non-Cooperation Movemet? [4]
It was primarily launched by Gandhi 1920 onwards, also followed by the Muslim leaders after
Gandhi’s merger of non-cooperation with the Khilafat Movement. The third and last Khilafat
Conference was held in July 1921 in Delhi. The leaders of the movement urged people to boycott
British educational institutions, stop working in the police or cooperating with the British in any
other way. All major leaders of the Khilafat movement were arrested after the conference.
Muhammad Ali Jauhar was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. His defiant statements during
his trial made him a hero among the Muslims.
Q: Why was the Khilafat Movement founded? [7]
The Indian Muslims wanted to keep the Khilafat alive. Turkey’s decision to support Germany in
the WW1 had put the Indian Muslims in a predicament as they feared harsh treatment of Turkey
in case of the defeat of Germany. They, therefore, had conveyed their reservations to the British
in the beginning of the War. The British promised that no harm would be done to the
Caliphate/Khilafat and the Muslims troops fought for the British on this reassurance. However,
after the War, through the peace treaties such as the Treaty of Sevres, it became evident that Britain
and France would punish Germany and abolish the Turkish Empire by dividing its slices among
the victors.
The Indian Muslims had a special respect for the Turkish/Ottoman Empire as the Sultan of Turkey
was also the spiritual head or Khalifa of the entire Muslim world. He was the custodian of all the
holy places of Islam in Arabia and other Middle Eastern states. Therefore, any punishment of
Turkey meant an insult of the Khalifa and that tantamounted to hurting the religious sentiments of
the Muslims. Therefore, in an attempt to maintain the respect and its Khalifa, the prominent
religious leaders of India, like the Ali brothers, hastily organized the All-India Khilafat Conference
in 1919.
Finally, the Indian Muslims had long been developing fears about the British policy towards them
not only in India but in other parts of the world, too. The governor of UP, Sir James Meston,
ordered demolition of the eastern part of a mosque in Kanpur as part of a project of widening a
road in the city. A Hindu temple on the same road was spared when Hindus pressurized the British

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

government. This generated anger among Muslims as it reflected a disregard for the Muslim holy
places by the British. Consequently, many Indian Muslim leaders began to believe that British
wanted to induce a fear of Hindus so that Muslims could be forced to cooperate with the British
wherever needed. For this reason, leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad sharply criticized the
Muslims who had joined the British army. Clash of views between Russia and Britain about
governing Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) further added to their worries as the two powers did not
consider the feelings of the Muslim population of these states.
Why did the Khilafat Movement fail by 1924? [7]
Ans. The Movement was not well organized. Gandhi had supported the Movement on the
condition of Ahimsa/non-violence while merging his non-cooperation movement of Swaraj/self-
rule. However, the violence at Chauri-Chaura in 1922 forced him to withdraw his support. About
22 policemen were burned alive by an angry mob that had taken control of the Police station in
this town of Gorakhpur district. Gandhi’s support had strengthened the Khilafat Movement
significantly, and therefore, his withdrawal proved fatal for it as it lost the support of the Hindu
majority. Thus, trusting Gandhi also reflected lack of political insight in the leaders of the Khilafat
Movement.
In August 1920, about 18,000 Muslims left for Afghanistan after selling their properties and
leaving their jobs after their leaders had declared India as Dar ul Harb/a land under the enemy rule.
They also promised them a bright future by asking them to cultivate the fertile lands in
Afghanistan. However, most of these migrants were pushed back by the people and the
Government of Afghanistan as the country did not have enough resources to accommodate a
growing number of migrants. Many died during the long journey and those who managed to reach
back their homeland, faced serious economic problems as their homes and jobs had been occupied
by others. They lost enthusiasm in the movement and trust in the leaders.
Finally, the last nail in the coffin of the Khilafat Movement was driven by the Turkish Military
leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a military revolution, Turkey
became a republic and the last Khalifa Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI was deprived of political
powers. Attaturk, in the meantime, had regained some of the lost Turkish territories and forced the
Allies for a new peace treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the
Turkish people. In 1924, the new Turkish Government led by Kemal Attaturk, abolished the
institute of Khilafat and later sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be a decisive blow to
the Khilafat Movement since it showed that the Turks didn’t care for the struggle of the Indian
Muslims. That is why some historians have described the Khilafat Movement, as a wrong ideology,
romantic and out of touch with realities. The Indian Muslims were greatly disillusioned by this act
of a fellow Turkish Muslim and it sealed the fate of the Khilafat Movement.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The Khilafat Movement (KM) was founded mainly due to the deep-seated fears among the
Muslims about the anti- Muslim British policies. Explain why you might agree and disagree?
[14]
Ans. Muslims were suspicious of many of the British policies. Indian Muslims had been
developing fears about the British policy towards Muslims not only in India but in other parts of
the world. The governor of UP, Sir James Meston, ordered demolition of the eastern part of a
mosque in Kanpur as part of a project of widening a road in the city. A Hindu temple on the same
road was spared when Hindus pressurized the British government. Many Muslims requested the
governor not to demolish any part of the mosque but did not accept their request. This generated
anger among Muslims as it reflected a disregard for the Muslim holy places by the British.
Consequently, many Indian Muslim leaders began to believe that British wanted to induce a fear
of Hindus so that Muslims could be forced to cooperate with the British wherever needed. For this
reason, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad sharply criticized Muslims who had “cooperated with the
Satans of Europe”. As a result of such statements, there were a large number of desertions by
Muslim soldiers in the British army when they were asked to fight against fellow Muslims in
Turkey. The neighbouring Muslim states, Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) had been the subject of
clash between Russia and Britain. Both powers agreed on the way the two Muslim states should
be run without consulting or considering the opinion of Muslim majority in the two states.
Therefore when, the WWI ended. the British aims about the fate of Turkey became public,
prominent Muslim leaders in India did not hesitate in organizing a powerful Khalifat Movement
whose aim was to save the sacred institute of Khalifat. Roots of KM are to be traced in the
beginning and the end of WWI (World War One, 1914 – 1918). Since Turkey had decided to
support Germany in the War, the Indian Muslims felt themselves in a predicament as they
developed a fear that Indian Muslims might be forced to fight against the Turkish Muslims if they
were pitted against each other during the War. To this was added the fear of harsh treatment of
Turkey by the British-led Allies in case of British victory. On the British reassurance the Muslims
soldiers decided to support the British army So they sought reassurance about the respect of
Turkey. After the war, the peace treaties of Versailles and Sevres unfolded the British plans of
abolishing the Turkish empire alongwith punishing Germany and Austria. The Muslims felt
disillusioned about the British promises and immediately founded a Khalifat Committee to launch
the KM.
Turkey was not just the only Muslim empire in the World, it was also the last seat of the institute
of Khalifat for many centuries. Sultan of Turkey was the Khalifa (spiritual head) of the Muslim
world and in that capacity, he was custodian of the Holy places of Islam in Arabia and other parts
of the Middle East. His name was pronounced in the Friday sermons throughout the Muslim world
as a token of respect for his dignified status. This was so because of the sanctity of institute of
Khalifat since the days of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (632 AD – 661AD and onwards). Thus,
Indian Muslims, like Muslims of the other part of the world, had great respect for Turkey in general
and the Khalifa in particular. Therefore, they felt themselves morally and religiously bound to
make all out efforts to save the Khalifat.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

In view of all these, we may conclude that the fear about the anti-Muslim British policies was the
most important reason for the foundation of the KM because the Indian Muslims had started
believing that the British were bent upon weakening the Muslims so that their imperial designs of
ruling various parts of the world could be
effectively materialized.
The Khilafat Movement failed because Gandhi withdrew his support. Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer. (14)
Gandhi withdrew his support at a critical moment. Initially Gandhi had conditioned his support for
the Khilafat Movement with Ahimsa (non-violence). When in February 1922, an angry mob took
control of a police station in the UP town of Chauri Chaura and burned 22 policemen alive, Gandhi
reacted on this violent event and announced the withdrawal of his support for the Khilafat
Movement. It was a deadly blow to the movement. Gandhi was perhaps using this movement in
order to strengthen his Swaraj Movement. Now, just as Gandhi’s support was vital for the
movement, his withdrawal proved fatal because he had unified the two largest communities of
India Hindus and Muslims. In the following years, violent communal clashes between the Muslims
and Hindus erupted which marred the Khilafat Movement, for example, the Moplah uprising in
Southern India.
Failure of the Hijrat Movement also damaged the stability of the Khilafat Movement. In 1920,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and other leaders declared India as Dar-ul-Harb (literally, “battle field”
and, in Islamic Sharia, “a land under enemy/non-Muslim rule). They asked the Muslims to migrate
to the nearest independent Muslim state Afghanistan. The exact figures aren’t known but it’s
estimated that anywhere from around 15000 - 20000 Muslims resigned from their jobs, sold their
properties and left for Afghanistan. Many students left their studies and joined the migrant
Muslims. These Muslims had been promised a good future in Afghanistan where, by cultivating
the fertile lands, they could start a new phase of life. Unfortunately, these promises proved fake as
Afghanistan was a resource-deficit country with a rugged landscape and without any fertile land.
In the beginning the migrant Muslims were welcomed but as their number grew they were pushed
back. Many were accommodated in Peshawar and neighbouring towns of modern day KPK but
many died during the long and dangerous journey. Those who managed to get back to India found
their jobs and homes occupied. This Hijrat Movement brought economic disaster and miseries to
thousands of Muslims and also damaged the creditability of the Khilafat leaders. Indian Muslims
also realized that Muslims of others states were not as much concerned about the Khilafat as they
themselves had been.
In southern India the Muslim peasants of the Arab origin became violent in August, 1921. They
were enthusiastic religious Muslims, who were angry with both the powerful Hindu landlords as
well as the British authorites. At Tirur nearly 10,000 Moplahs destroyed the local police station
and seized arms and ammunition. They also damaged the Hindu property including temples. The
British troops soon took strict action as they killed more than 4,000 Moplahs and wounded several
others. The British suffered around 100 casualties. The violence damaged the cause of the Khilafat

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Movement by dividing Muslims and Hindus in all parts of India. The Hindu community gradually
withdrew its support for the Khilafat Movement.
Finally, the last nail in the coffin of the Khilafat Movement was driven by the Turkish Military
leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a military revolution, Turkey
became a republic and the last Khalifa Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI was deprived of political
powers. Attaturk, in the meantime, had regained some of the lost Turkish terror ties and forced the
Allies for a new peace treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the
Turkish people. In 1924, the new Turkish Government led by Kemal Attaturk, abolished the
institute of Khilafat and later sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be a decisive blow to
the Khilafat Movement since it showed that the Turks didn’t care for the struggle of the Indian
Muslims. That is why some historians have described the Khilafat Movement, as a wrong ideology,
romantic and out of touch with realities. TheIndian Muslims were greatly disillusioned by this act
of a fellow Turkish Muslim and it sealed the fate of the Khilafat Movement.
It may be concluded that the Khilafat Movement failed mainly due to the abolition of the Khilafat
by Kemal Attaturk because the Indian Muslims found it pointless to continue a movement whose
vary foundation had been lost. They also felt totally isolated as Muslims of other states did not
support them against their expectations.
The Khilafat Movement did not achieve any major objective. Do you agree? Give reasons
for your answer. [14]
The Khilafat Movement was a failure. Due to the poor leadership and its defective planning the
Movement adversely affected several Muslims. The failed Hijrat Movement brought economic
disaster for thousands of Muslims as they had left their jobs and properties before migrating to
Afghanistan. They were greatly disappointed when they were returned by the people and the
Government of Afghanistan. They stopped trusting their leaders who had made false promises of
a bright future in Afghanistan.
Another negative impact of the failure of the Khilafat Movement was the short-lived Hindu-
Muslim unity. The Khilafat leaders had immediately welcomed Gandhi’s offer of merging his non-
cooperation campaign with the Khilafat Movement, though he had subjected his support to non-
violence. Therefore, the lack of insight of the Khilafat leaders became evident when Gandhi
withdrew his support after the violent incident at Chauri Chaura. His withdrawal at a critical
moment damaged the Movement on one hand, while it drove a wedge between Hindus and
Muslims. Communal violence erupted shortly afterwards in other parts of India, too. For example,
in Southern India about 4000 Moplah Muslims were killed in similar acts of violence. Moreover,
the primary objective of saving the institution of Khilafat was not achieved as a Turkish Muslim,
Kemal Attaturk abolished it in 1924.
However, there were also some significant benefits of the Khilafat Movement. The policy of non-
cooperation brought Hindus and Muslims closer to each other and their joint efforts pressurised
the British a lot because they were the two largest communities of India. This joint struggle also
indicated rejection of the British rule. Therefore, the Movement may be seen as the first step on
the road to independence. The Khilafat Movement changed the image of the Muslims to a great

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

extent and they began to realize their political power. They got united for a common cause that
they wanted to be respected by the British. They were no more seen as ‘pets of the British’ and
they began to realize that they did not have to rely on either the Hindus or the British to gain their
rights. In fact, the temporariness of the Hindu-Muslim unity came as a blessing in disguise to them
because they realized that in future they would have to work independently. This proved true when
they made a demand for Pakistan in March 1940.
It may be concluded that despite some of its positive effects, the Khilafat Movement on the whole
was a total failure because the ultimate goal of restoration of the institute of Khilafat could not be
achieved. Instead, Muslims learned a hard lesson that their attempt for starting a Pan-Islamic
Movement was only a dream that was not destined to materialize.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The Pakistan Movement in the Years 1927-1939

What were the Delhi Proposals? [4]
In the wake of growing communal violence, Jinnah organized an All Muslim Party Conference, on March
20, 1927, in Delhi. He presided over the session. It was aimed at safeguarding the political rights of the
Muslims while attempting to improve relations with the Congress. The proposals included: making Sindh
an independent province, political reforms in the NWF and Balochistan to grant them provincial status and
one third seats for Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly. The ML would drop its demand for
separate Muslim electorates on the acceptance of these proposals. These would later become part of
Jinnah’s fourteen points.
What was the Simon Commission Report? [4]
Ans. The Conservative government sent a constitutional commission of seven members headed by Sir John
Simon in 1927. The Simon Commission prepared a report amidst opposition by the major Indian political
parties. It recommended a federal form of government for India, abolition of diarchy and separate
electorates for Muslims but no one third Muslim seats in the government it also opposed making Sindh and
the NWF as provinces. INC and ML rejected it and the Nehru Report was prepared in its response in 1928.
What was the Nehru Report? [4]
It was drafted by the Nehru Committee, headed by Mr. Motilal Nehru and approved by the All-Party
Conference in September 1928. It asked for Dominion status or self-rule for India, a federal form of
government with a bicameral parliament and Hindi as the official language of India. It also rejected the
separate electorates for minorities though it recommended a system of reserved seats in the central
parliament. This meant there would be no separate electorates or one third seats in the Central Government
for Muslims. Gandhi gave a deadline of one year to the British to accept it. In January 1929, the All India
Muslim Conference rejected the report.
What was Gandhi’s Salt March? [4]
It marked the start of the second phase of the non-cooperation campaign of the INC. The British did not
comply with the Nehru Report and, therefore, Gandhi was given charge of the campaign. He started his Salt
March as part of his Satyagraha (truth force) on 12 March 1930 from his Ashram (retreat) near Ahmedabad
and marched for 24 days to reach the coastal town of Dandi. He was accompanied by thousands of his
followers. Primarily its aim was to condemn the unfair Salt Laws of the British, but gradually it began to
reject all unfair laws of the British rule. The British banned the INC and arrested several INC leaders
including Gandhi and Nehru.
What was Gandhi’s Satyagraha campaign? [4]
When the Khilafat Movement was gaining momentum, Gandhi developed a type of peaceful protest against
the British, called the Satyagraha. It is a Hindi word meaning ‘truth-force’ and involves non-violent
resistance. According to Gandhi, it meant putting one’s soul against the tyrant, and therefore, had spiritual
dimensions. Its supporters were required to have a high degree of self-sacrifice. It was demonstrated by sit-
ins, peaceful strikes including hunger strike, protest marches and boycotts. Gandhi urged his followers to
accept any torture by police as a way of self-purification. His Salt March was a part of it. Though Jinnah
disagreed, the campaign gave Gandhi international fame.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What were Jinnah’s 14 Points? [4]

In January 1929, Jinnah presented his 14 Points in the ML session in Delhi and they were formally accepted
in March 1929. Jinnah demanded maximum safety of political rights of all minorities, especially Muslims.
He demanded one third Muslim seats in the Central Government, preservation of the existing provincial
boundaries and no acceptance of a law about any community unless it was approved by three fourth
members of the same community.
What was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact? [4]
Gandhi could not attend the first Round Table Conference of November 1930, as he was in jail. The Viceroy
Lord Irwin wanted his participation in the next RTC. So, he held a number of meetings with Gandhi in
February 1931 and urged him to call off his non-cooperation movement. Finally, Gandhi agreed and the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5th March 1931. Irwin promised to release most political prisoners and
return the property seized by the government during the protests of the noncooperation movement. Gandhi
also gave up his demand for full independence in return for a promise that in a federal India, Indians would
have a genuine say in the government affairs.
What was the Communal Award? [4]
It was announced on 16th August 1932 by the British PM Ramsay MacDonald after the failure of the second
RTC as he wanted to resolve the political crisis of India. It gave the right of separate electorates to all the
minorities in India and the principle of weightage was also applied. Though, Muslim majority in Bengal
and Punjab was reduced, the ML accepted it in order to reach a political settlement for the future of India.
The INC rejected it and Gandhi protested against the declaration of the Untouchables as a minority. He
began a strike of Maran Bharatt (fasting unto death).
What was the Government of India Act 1935? [4]
After discussing the summary of the three RTCs in the British Parliament, the Government of India Act
1935 was passed in August 1935. It introduced a federal form of government for India with an upper house,
the Council of State and a lower house, the Legislative Assembly. Diarchy was shifted to the Centre. A
greater degree of provincial autonomy was given and three new provinces were created: Sindh, the NWFP
and Orissa. Right of vote was given to 25 % of the Indians. The real powers were still with the British as
the Viceroy could veto any law made by the provinces. It was sharply criticized by both the ML and the
INC.
What was the Wardha Scheme? [4]
It was a part of the INC rule, 1937-1939. Gandhi introduced it as a Basic Education scheme at Wardha for
the INC ministries. This scheme made Hindi the medium of education, removed any religious education
and made cotton-spinning by hand a part of the school curriculum. In some schools of the CP (Central
Provinces), Muslim students were required to bow before the portrait of Gandhi in a worship manner. Even
the Urdu language was undermined under this policy. Thus it became evident that even with legal
safeguards Muslims could not trust the INC to protect their rights. Therefore, it was one of the reasons of
hatred against the INC rule.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was the Day of Deliverance? [4]

After the resignation of all INC ministers, Jinnah called on the Muslim community to celebrate this on 22
December 1939. He appealed to all local, district and provincial branches of the ML to hold public meetings
to support this declaration. He also appealed to celebrate the occasion in all gatherings in a peaceful and
sober way. The INC objected to this celebration.
Why was the Simon Commission sent to India? [7]
While introducing the 1919 Act the British had promised to review the Act after ten years. However, after
the Khilafat Movement, the communal violence in India became so serious by 1927 that it threatened any
cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Major Indian parties had already rejected the 1919 Act and
wanted fresh political reforms. The Indians wanted a greater degree of provincial autonomy by abolishing
the confusing clause of Diarchy of the 1919 Act. The Conservative Government, therefore, decided to
advance the date of reviewing the 1919 Act by two years.
Moreover, Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India feared a defeat of the Conservative Party in
the upcoming elections and thought that the Labour Party might grant too many political concessions to the
Indians. The ruling Conservative Party government usually was not in favour of accepting most of the
demands of the Indians. The Labour Party, on the other hand, was usually viewed relatively as more
sympathetic towards the Indian question.
Therefore, the Conservative Government constituted a committee of seven members of the British
Parliament under Sir John Simon in 1927. It also included Clement Attlee of the Labour Party, who would
become committed to Indian independence in 1934. The Simon Commission reached India by the start of
1928 and prepared a set of proposals for the future constitution of India. The report was, however, rejected
by the major political parties of India.
Why was the Simon Commission Report rejected? [7]
The Simon Commission Report did not satisfy the major political parties of India. In fact, all the seven
members of the Commission were British. The INC and the ML, therefore, rejected the team by declaring
it an “all white body”. The Indians wanted their participation in the process of making the future constitution
for India but Lord Birkenhead had predicted the disunity among Indians would foil all efforts of the
Commission. So, all major political parties of India took it as an insult to their self-respect and rejected the
Commission and its report.
In February 1928, the Commission was confronted by several protesters in Pondicherry. Similar protests
were organised in several other cities. A strike began, and many people turned out to greet the Commission
with black flags. A prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led a huge protest in Lahore. He was beaten
by the police very harshly and died of the injuries in November 1928.
The recommendations of the Report failed to satisfy the major political parties because they were not
acceptable to either the INC or the ML in totality. The INC wanted a federal form of government with most
of the powers with the Centre whereas the ML wanted a weak Central government with a greater degree of
provincial autonomy. The ML also was disappointed as the Report recommended separate electorates for
Muslims but did not favour one third Muslim seats in the central legislative assembly. The report also
declared that there was no need of making Sindh and the NWF as new provinces.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why was the Nehru Report rejected? [7]

Ans. The Nehru Report ignored many political interests of the Indian Muslims. Although it had been drawn
up by an All-Party Conference, there was no significant Muslim representation in the conference. Jinnah
was in England to see his wife who was on her death bed. Only Sir Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi
represented the Muslims but they were not major leaders of the ML. they, too, were perhaps forced to accept
the report.
The Report asked for too many sacrifices from the Muslims. The INC was turning its back on the agreement
it had made in the Lucknow Pact of 1916 by rejecting the separate electorate for Muslims and their one
third seats in the Central Government. It also reiterated its old demand of making Hindi the official
language. This negated the INC claim of representing and respecting all communities living in India.
Jinnah desperately tried to maintain the Hindu-Muslim unity by proposing four democratic amendments in
the report in January 1929. He demanded one third Muslim seats in both the houses of the central legislature,
Muslim seats in the Punjab and Bengal according to their size of population, residuary powers to be with
the provinces, and making Sindh and the NWF as full provinces. Unfortunately, the INC did not accept
these proposals and Jinnah very rightly termed it ‘the parting of the ways’.
Why did Jinnah present his 14 Points in 1929? [7]
They were presented in response to the Nehru Report. Jinnah wanted to maximally safeguard the political
rights of Indian Muslims. Earlier, the Nehru Report drafted by and the All-Parties Conference greatly
disappointed Jinnah. It asked for too many sacrifices from Muslims. It rejected the separate electorates for
Muslims as well as one third Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. It only promised reserved
seats and religious liberty for all minorities. Moreover, his four proposed amendments in the Nehru Report
had been rejected by the INC.
Jinnah, therefore, wanted to lay down the basis of any future negotiations with the INC or the British. He
demanded adequate Muslim share in all the legislatures, the government and state services. Since the 14
points were presented shortly after the rejection of the Nehru Report, it was evident that the gulf between
Hindus and Muslims was getting unbridgeable. This meant that events would be moving towards a
separatist movement as the 14 points contained so many demands for the safety of the Muslims.
This way, they would eventually become the basis of the demand of Pakistan in 1940 by the ML. Jinnah
had tried his best to work together with the INC but its leadership always adopted an uncompromising
attitude. While unfolding these points in January 1929, Jinnah had adopted a threatening tone by saying,
“No scheme for the constitution of the Government of India will be acceptable unless all the following
basic principles are given effect to.” Thus, these fourteen points became an essential part of the
manifesto/objectives of ML.
Explain why there were three Round Table Conferences between 1930 and 1932. [7].
The Indian political community rejected the Simon Commission Report of 1927. The Congress and the
Muslim League both refused to accept the recommendations of the Simon Commission. Different political
parties gave vent to their feelings different ways. The Indian political situation seemed deadlocked. The
British government refused to contemplate any form of self-government for the people of India. This caused
frustration among the masses, who often expressed their anger in violent clashes. This political chaos forced
British to come up with some decisions so, in order to review the Simon Commission Report, they
announced the holding of an RTC which was held between November1930 – January 1931. It was attended
by Muslim League but not the INC because Gandhi was in jail for his noncooperation movement.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

In the absence of INC, the largest political party of India, it was not possible to make any major decision
regarding the future constitution of India. Gandhi was, at that time, the most prominent spokesman and
leader of the INC. Therefore, some arrangements had to be made to involve him in the political proceedings
organized by the British in England. Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail and persuaded him to call off his non-
cooperation movement. Both reached a settlement called the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931. Under this
Gandhi was released and allowed to go to London to attend the second RTC.
The second RTC was held September – December 1931. After some successful rounds of talks there was
deadlock between the Gandhi and Jinnah over the issue of the rights of minorities. Jinnah wanted concrete
constitutional protection of minorities but Gandhi insisted that granting of religious liberty to the minorities
would be sufficient. Both leaders firmly struck to their guns and the RTC failed. Therefore, one more RTC
was needed thatwas held in November – December 1932 in order to reach some consensus about the future
Constitution of India. However, this conference was held only as a formality because the Labour Party, that
had been enthusiastic for the conferences, had been replaced by a national government after the elections.
It was attended by only 46 delegates including Allama Iqbal and Sir Agha Khan representing the Muslims.
Why was the Second Round Table Conference of 1931 unsuccessful? [7]
The second conference was held from September – December 1931. Gandhi was able to attend the RTC as
a result of the Gandhi – Irwin Pact of March 1931. Muslims were represented by Sir Aga Khan, Allama
Iqbal and Jinnah. During the talks Gandhi adopted a very rigid and inflexible attitude regarding the issue
of minorities in India. He insisted that religious liberty was enough for all the minorities whereas Jinnah
demanded an adequate constitutional protection of all minorities including Muslims. In other words, Gandhi
stood by the Nehru Report and further worsened the atmosphere by claiming to represent the INC and to
speak for all Indians including Muslims. This stance of Gandhi annoyed both Allama Iqbal and Jinnah who
firmly held their viewpoint of safeguarding the rights of Muslims.
By the time the second RTC was held, the Labour Government, that had been enthusiastic about the RTCs,
had now been replaced by a coalition or national government dominated by the Conservative Party. The
Conservatives were not much interested in the proceeding of the RTC and their lack of interest also
contributed towards the failure of second RTC. Hence, the communal issue was once again postponed
leading to a deadlock. Therefore, the only major outcome was the creation of two Muslim majority
provinces, Sindh and the NWFP (now KPK).
Why was the Government of India Act 1935 so important to the future of the Sub-continent? [7]
The Government of India Act 1935 was the last major legislation that the British government passed before
independence was granted. It was very important because Federal form of government and a kind of
parliamentary system meant that British were pressurized to grant India self-rule. The provincial
governments were, to some great extent self-governing units except for the emergency powers of the
Governors and the Viceroy. The Central Assembly and the Council of States were greatly enlarged by
including more Indians.
A five times increase in the number of voters ensured that more Indians, 25% of total population including
5 million women, had the right to elect their own representatives as compared to the previous number of
voters, though 3/4th of the total population was still deprived of this right. This increase was, however,
strengthened by the creation of three new provinces – Sindh, the NWFP, (both Muslim majority provinces)

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

and Orissa. Thus, an increase in the number of provinces was coupled with increased degree of provincial
autonomy, India was seen to be nearing independence.
This Act laid the basis of future negotiations between the Indians and the British and thus paved the way
for India eventually getting decolonized from the British rule. The Princes States could decide to participate
in political affairs for the first time. Most importantly, the Act was such a comprehensive and effective
document that both India and Pakistan would base their respective constitutions on this document.
Why did Indians reject the Government of India Act 1935? Why was there so much opposition to the
Government of India Act of 1935? [7]
The Government of India Act 1935 was opposed by the major Indian political parties. For them many of
its clauses did not grant Indians the powers they had expected. The main reason for its rejection was that
Indians demanded complete independence but the British retained real powers such as the foreign relations
and defence that Indians wanted to have under their control. In reality, the British very cleverly maintained
their control on the key positions in the Indian government.
Moreover, the provincial ministers were apparently given more control over all departments, the Governors
of the provinces could interfere with the provincial governments in the name of emergency. The state of
emergency could only be declared by a provincial governor. The Governors could veto any legislation made
by the Indians that they thought was against the interests of the British. This meant the Indians were given
much lesser powers than they had expected. Though the number of voters was increased by five times,
3/4th of Indians were still deprived of voting right due to the strict property qualification. So, a great
majority of Indians were not empowered to decide their future by electing representatives of their choice.
The state princes also resented the loss of their powers. Due to these reasons both ML and INC opposed the
Act and sharply criticized it. According to Jinnah it was simply “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and
totally unacceptable”. Nehru, initially declared the Act as “Charter of Slavery” and later on became more
sarcastic by saying “it is like a machine with strong brakes but no engine.” This shows how much
disappointed the major political parties were with the Act.
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was the only beacon of hope for Hindu- Muslim Unity between 1914 and
1930. Do you agree? [14]
The Lucknow Pact was signed in 1916. In 1913, the Muslim League added self-rule to its demands on the
advice of Jinnah, and it shared a common ground with INC. In 1916, both parties held their annual sessions
jointly in Lucknow. Due to the support of Jinnah from the League and Mahajan from the Congress, the
Lucknow Pact was drawn up. The Congress agreed for separate Muslims electorates and 1/3rd Muslim
seats in the Centre. There would be a protection of minorities and all provinces would have provincial
autonomy. No law could be passed if 3/4th of the members did not support it. The pact was a move towards
self-rule and brought the Muslims and Hindus together for the first time in a cordial atmosphere. The
Muslim rights were protected and this way the INC showed an accommodative attitude towards Muslims.
The pact was high water walk for Hindu Muslim unity.
In 1909, the Morley-Minto reforms had promised more governing powers to the Indians. Therefore, in
1919, the Montague-Chelsmford reforms gave some more powers and share in the councils/assemblies to
the Indians. They proposed a system of two houses for the Central Legislature. It introduced a system of
‘Diarchy’ in provinces. According to this, the ‘transferred’ subjects (education, healthcare and agriculture)
were to be given to the Indians and ‘reserved’ subjects (finance, law, justice and foreign relations) were left
with the governors. Although the number of voters increased, the system was discriminatory. The reforms

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

disappointed both the League and Congress and both still did not have substantial power. Hence, the Mont-
Ford Reforms kept the Hindus and Muslims together as both had opposed them.
The Khilafat Movement, 1919-1924, also brought Muslims and Hindus on one platform after Gandhi’s
decision to support Muslims through his non-cooperation movement. The ML, however, did not support
the Khilafat Movement practically. Moreover, there were incidents of Hindu-Muslims riots after Gandhi
withdrew his support following the violent incident Chaura Chauri.
In May 1928, members of all the political parties met in an All-Party Conference to draft the constitution,
which the INC thought could govern India. It was drawn up by Pundit Motilal Nehru in September 1928
and was called the Nehru report. It included demand for immediate dominion status for India; a two
chamber-parliament; the protection of minorities through a system of reserving seats but no 1/3rd seats for
Muslims and no separate Muslim electorates. It also recommended federal form of government but with a
strong centre and limited provincial autonomy. The recommendations of the Nehru report were a
disappointment for the Muslims as they asked for too many sacrifices from them. The three main points,
including the introduction of Hindi as a National Language were against the Muslims. Therefore, Jinnah
commented on it by saying that it marked “parting of the ways”.
In 1929, Jinnah put forward the 14 points in an answer to the Nehru report. Before these 14 points, he had
proposed 3 very reasonable amendments to the Nehru Report. These points were introduced to protect the
political rights of Muslims. In the 14-points Jinnah demanded for the federal form of government, provincial
autonomy, Muslims representation by 1/3 seats in all cabinets and no law about a community to be approved
without 3/4th members of the same community in the legislative assembly approving it. These 14 points
were opposed by the Congress, because they clearly reflected the political aspirations of the Muslims. Thus,
it was an occasion of failed Hindu-Muslim relations though Jinnah still believed in joint struggle.
Hence, it can be concluded that Lucknow pact was the only beacon of hope. Not only did it unite Muslims
and Hindus in 1916, it demonstrated the possibility of a united front against the British by the two largest
communities of India. Such a spirit would never be seen again in future.

The first RTC of 1930 was more successful than those of 1931 and 1932. Do you agree? Give reasons
for your answer. [14]
The RTC’s were held in London. The first RTC was held in November 1930 at the House of Parliament
London. It was attended by 89 delegates including Mr. Jinnah and Sir Aga Khan. The purpose was to review
the Simon Commission Report. The RTC was successful because federal form of government for India was
approved and the state princes promised to join the federation of India on the condition of protection of
their rights. However, its main failure was the absence of INC as Gandhi was in jail for his non-cooperation
movement. INC wanted a guarantee of implementing everything agreed in the RTC such a guarantee could
not be given. In the absence of INC, no major decision could be reached. Also, there was no significant
progress on the details of the federal form of government and the reservations of the princely states.
In order to include the INC, Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail to persuade him to cooperate with the British.
Both reached an agreement, the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, signed in March 1931 under which Gandhi called off
his non-cooperation movement and was allowed to attend the Second RTC that was held in September -
December 1931. It was successful in the sense that all important political parties and leaders attended it.
They included, Jinnah, Iqbal, Sir Aga Khan, Gandhi and state princes. Also, three new provinces were
created, Orissa, Sindh and the NWFP/KPK. Diarchy was shifted from provinces to the Centre.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

However, the RTC had failures too. The deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah over the question of rights
of minorities. Gandhi refused to provide any special protection to minorities and suggested that religious
liberty was sufficient for them. He also insisted that the INC alone represented all Indians. Jinnah and other
Muslim leaders were infuriated over the stubborn attitude of Gandhi. Another failure was the replacement
of Labour Government by a national government dominated by Conservative party that was not very much
concerned about the RTC. Instead the British want that if Indians did not reach a consensus, the British
would impose their own terms.
Before the third RTC the British PM Ramsay MacDonald, announced the communal award in 1932. This
was about the representation of minorities. INC rejected it but ML accepted it though the Muslim majority
in Punjab and Bengal was reduced. The third RTC was held in November 1932 but was attended by only
46 delegates with Muslims being represented by Sir Aga Khan and Iqbal. The only success of the third RTC
was that it was held against all odds and that it was attended by some delegates including the Muslims. The
failures of this RTC therefore outnumbered the successes. Gandhi had started his non-cooperation
movement once again and was jailed. Jinnah had quit politics temporarily to start his law practice in
London. Interestingly, he was not even invited to attend the RTC, but he did not miss much.
In the final analysis, it may be concluded that the three RTC’s were on the whole successful because they
provided a neutral venue to all the Indian leaders to discuss the future constitution of India. Also, based on
the proceedings of the RTC’s, the government of India Act 1935 was implemented which was a very
comprehensive document as both Pakistan and India made their constitutions to a great extent on the basis
of the same.
Which of the following was the most important in the development of the Pakistan Movement?
(i) 14 points of M.A Jinnah
(ii) Gov. of India Act of 1935
(iii) Simon Commission [14]
The Pakistan Movement was a historic political movement which was aimed to break from the independent
nation-state, Pakistan. Many leaders and political figures rose and spoke for the formation of Pakistan. They
brought a sense of realization amongst the people about Pakistan. In the face of such criticism, faced from
the British and the Hindus, they still remained steadfast and led to such circumstances which made the
creation and development of the Pakistan Movement inevitable. The political reforms such as the Simon
Commission of 1927 also played some role in the development of the Pakistan Movement. It was a
commission sent to the sub-continent by Sir Simon in order to negotiate with Hindus and Muslims and to
come up with a set of reforms accepted by both parties. It was a response of the 1919 reforms. But it also
met the same fate like the previous reforms and was rejected. But, in its failure was also hidden success for
the Muslims. It led to the drawing up of the Nehru Report which proved to be an eye-opener for the
Muslims.
In 1929, Jinnah came up with his fourteen points. This effort of Mr. Jinnah was the golden key which
opened the door to the Pakistan Movement. They were to be the basis of the Muslim League’s position in
any future negotiations with the Congress. In this he asked for a future constitution to be federal but giving
provincial autonomy. He asked to safeguard the rights of Muslims in all territory expanded areas. Although
no demand for separate homeland was made, yet it brought political perception among the Muslims which
proved very vital for the years to come ahead. Later in 1935 the Government of India Act was passed and
was the last major legislation that the British passed before the final independence. The most salient upshot

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

of this Act was that provincial governments became in effect self-governing and were no longer controlled
by the British. Although the British had no intention of giving up India, their power over the provinces was
weakening and Independence came closer. This was significant for the Muslims as now they could fight
for their rights. It was very important in the history as it provided negotiations which finally resulted in
British leaving India.
To recapitulate, I infer from these details that the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah were the most important in
the development of the Pakistan Movement. There’s an ample evidence that supports this fact. The Muslim
League united in support of these demands. These points prepared the Muslims of India for a bold step to
struggle for freedom. The vital role of these points can be judged by the fact that these points were presented
in the Round Table Conference of 1930.
Was the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 points in 1929 the most important factor in the development of
the Pakistan Movement between 1928 and 1935? Give reasons for why you might agree or disagree?
[14]
Ans. In 1929, Jinnah came up with his fourteen points which were in response of the Nehru Report of 1928.
ML had rejected the Nehru Report as it asked for too many sacrifices. It rejected the separate Muslim
electorates and one third Muslim seats in the Central Government. Jinnah proposed three amendments to
the report but the INC did not accept them. In his fourteen-points Jinnah asked for maximum safeguarding
of political rights of Muslims. He demanded that there should be one third Muslim seats in the Centre and
the existing provincial boundaries should not be changed. He also proposed that no law about a community
should be enforced without three fourth members of the same community in the legislative assembly
approving it. These 14 points became the basis of any future negotiation with the INC or the British and
gradually evolved into a demand for Pakistan in March 1940.
In 1928, the British asked the local people to frame a constitution for themselves. In response, the INC
presented the Nehru Report. It was a purely Congress document as it rejected the Muslim right of separate
electorates and their one third representation in the Center. Jinnah proposed three amendments to it but the
INC rejected them. A positive aspect of the Report was that it resulted in the unity of the divided Muslim
groups. The British invited the Indians in the three Round Table Conferences, 1930-1932. Despite a
deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah, all parties agreed on a number of important clauses for the future
constitutional reform for India. Based on the recommendations of the three RTCs, the Government of India
Act 1935 was passed. It was the last package of political reforms introduced by the British before the
independence of India. It introduced a greater degree of provincial autonomy, federal form of government
for India and shifting the diarchy from provinces to the Centre. Sindh, the NWFP and Orissa were given
provincial status, making a total of eleven provinces in India. It allowed 25% Indians to exercise their right
of vote which was a significant increase as compared to that for the 1919 Act. Though it was sharply
criticized by Nehru and Jinnah, both accepted it because the British had announced elections for the
provincial assemblies.
Elections were held for the provincial assemblies in 1937. The ML did not perform well in the elections
and the INC was able to form its ministries in eight provinces. The two and a half year long INC rule was
marked by several anti-Muslim atrocities committed by the INC ministries. Muslims, therefore, got united
after the end of the INC rule in 1939.
To conclude, it can be said that the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 points in 1929 was the most important factor
in the development of the Pakistan Movement as they represented the deep-rooted fear among Muslims

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

about a possible Hindu-dominated India. By asking for so many political safeguards for Muslims, it became
apparent that ML was preparing itself for the partition of India.
How successful were the provincial elections held in India in 1937? Explain your answer. [14]
Though the INC and ML did not approve of the 1935 Act, they decided to participate in the 1937 elections.
Nehru, gradually unfolded the INC aims by saying, “The Congress can carry its message to the millions of
voters and scores of millions of the disenfranchised, to acquaint them with our future programme and
policy.” The results of the elections were shocking for the ML as the INC got a massive victory by winning
707 seats out of a total of 1585 seats. It was the single largest party in four while it had an absolute majority
in five more provinces. It claimed to be the sole representative of all the Indians as it was able to rule many
major provinces. It was invited to form governments in the United Provinces (UP), the Central Provinces
(CP), Bihar, Orissa, Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai).
However, the Congress alienated the ML after the elections as it asked the victorious ML members to join
the INC. It refused to cooperate with the ML where the latter was the largest single party. The INC agreed
to the Muslims forming the government as long as they were not the members of the ML. Its claim to
represent the whole of India further frustrated the Muslims. Once Nehru was assured by Lord Linlithgow,
the Viceroy, that the provincial governors would not use their special powers to interfere in the provincial
governments, he asked the INC to form cabinets in 8 provinces. It soon introduced a series of measures
which threatened Muslim culture and political interests. Singing of Bande Matram, the Hindu nationalistic
song was made compulsory before the start of official business in the morning. Gandhi’s educational policy,
the Wardhah Scheme and the Congress tyranny drove a wedge in any possible Hindu-Muslim unity.
These were the first major elections for the ML, and they unified various factions of the ML. It learned a
great deal about how to launch election campaign and contest elections. It realized the need of improving
its organization and planning. It decided to seek more support from the Muslim minority provinces as there
was no threat of Hindu domination in the Muslim majority provinces. It also realized that it had to overcome
its ‘image problem’ as it was generally seen to be a party of the elite Muslims. Most of its leaders were
aristocrats and princes. Performance of the ML was disappointing as it won only 109 out of the 482 seats
reserved for the Muslims, about 25% of the total Muslim seats. The INC, due to its strong leadership,
managed to get 26 Muslim seats, too. In the Punjab it got just 1 seat out of a total of 86 Muslim seats.
Majority of the seats, 101 were swept away by the Unionist Party that was friendly towards the INC. The
Khalsa Party of the Sikhs, and the INC also bagged some seats in the Punjab. Similarly, in the NWFP 7
seats were won by the Hindu-Sikh Nationalists.
Moreover, the Muslims felt betrayed by the British who they thought were mainly concerned with giving
the INC an opportunity to form governments without considering the Muslim rights. The British apathy
towards the anti-Muslim policies of the INC in various provinces further disappointed the Muslims. They
developed a sense of insecurity in a Hindu dominated India.
It may be concluded that the poor performance of the ML, and the INC rule came as a blessing in disguise
for the Muslims. The INC policies strengthened the Muslim nationalism and justified a demand for a
separate homeland for the Indian Muslims. The ML got a chance to bring Muslims on its platform.
Therefore, the elections were quite successful for the two major political parties of India.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Was the main reason why Congress rule (1937 – 1939) was hated so much because of the Bande
Matram? Explain your answer. [14]
INC introduced a number of anti-Muslim policies. Muslims hated INC rule so much that at the end of INC
rule they celebrated the Day of Deliverance on 22nd December 1939. After taking charge in July 1937,
Congress declared Bande Matram as the national anthem. This was a Bengali song composed by Bankim
Chatterji and it meant “Hail you O’ motherland”. It contained anti Muslim sentiments through which
Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from Hindustan through expressions peculiar exclusively to
Hinduism. The singing of the song was made compulsory before the start of official business every day in
the provincial assemblies. This greatly offended the Muslims who began to feel that were being forced to
become familiar with Hinduism
A number of anti-Muslim measures were adopted which were collectively called the INC tyrannies. The
Congress flag was given the status of national flag by hoisting it together with the Union Jack. This was
done to convey the message that there were only two political powers in India i.e. British and Congress.
Muslims felt that INC was bent upon ignoring the political importance of Indian Muslims. Muslims were
forbidden to eat beef and received harsh punishments and slaughtering of cows was prohibited. Muslims
were not allowed to construct new mosques. Hindus would play drum in front of mosques during the
deliverance of Azan and pigs were pushed into the mosques when Muslims were praying. Sometimes there
were anti-Muslim riots in which Muslims were attacked and their houses and property set on fire. They also
feared that if they lodged complaint against the Hindus, the local administration would act in favour of
Hindus. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow himself admitted ‘many instances of continued oppressions in small
ways’. Muslims developed a strong fear about their religious and cultural traditions in case of a Hindu
dominated India.
In the INC ruled provinces, the Wardha Scheme was implemented. It was an educational scheme based on
Gandhi’s views and introduced into all educational institutes. Under this, teaching was to be in Hindi.
Spinning of cotton by hand was made part of curriculum in all schools. Religious education was banned for
all students. Students, regardless of their religion, were expected to bow before the portrait of Gandhi in a
worship manner. Muslims saw these measures as an attempt to subvert their love for Islam as their religion
did not allow bowing before any image or portrait. A ban on Urdu and religious education inculcated
insecurity among Muslims about their cultural identity. It seems that the most important reason for hatred
against the INC rule was the singing of Bande Matram /Vande Matram because through this song a kind of
‘brain washing’ campaign was launched against Muslims. They were being prepared to adapt to Hindu
traditions, otherwise their survival in the independent India would be very difficult.
Do you agree that the celebration of Day of Deliverance in 1939 was justified? Give reasons. [14]
Day of Deliverance was observed by Muslim League on 22nd December 1939 after the end of the INC
ministers. After taking charge in July 1937, INC adopted an anti-Muslim stance in the provinces under its
rule. A number of anti-Muslim measures were introduced which were collectively called the INC tyrannies.
The Congress flag was given the status of national flag by hoisting it together with the Union Jack. This
was done to convey the message that there were only two political powers in India i.e. British and Congress.
Muslims felt that INC was bent upon ignoring the political importance of Indian Muslims. Muslim were
forbidden to eat beef and received harsh punishments and slaughtering of cows was prohibited. Muslims
were not allowed to construct new mosques. Hindus would play drum in front of mosques during the
deliverance of Azan and pigs were pushed into the mosques when Muslims were praying. Sometimes there
were anti-Muslim riots in which Muslims were attacked and their houses and property set on fire.
Sometimes there were anti-Muslims riots in which Muslims were attacked and their houses and property

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

set on fire. They also feared that if they lodged complaint against the Hindus, the local administration would
act in favour of Hindus. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow himself admitted ‘many instances of continued
oppressions in small ways’. The Muslims developed a strong fear about their religious and cultural
traditions in case of a Hindu dominated India.
In the INC ruled provinces, the Wardha Scheme was implemented. It was an educational scheme based on
Gandhi’s views and introduced into all educational institutes. Under this, teaching was to be in Hindi.
Spinning of cotton by hand was made part of curriculum in all schools. Religious education was banned for
all students. Students, regardless of their religion, were expected to bow before the portrait of Gandhi in a
worship manner. Muslims saw these measures as an attempt to subvert their love for Islam as their religion
did not allow bowing before any image or portrait. A ban on Urdu and religious education inculcated
insecurity among Muslims about their cultural identity.
After taking charge in July 1937, Congress declared Bande Matram as the national anthem. This was a
Bengali song composed by Bankim Chatterji and it meant “Hail you O’ motherland”. It contained anti
Muslim sentiments through which Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from Hindustan through
expressions peculiar exclusively to Hinduism. For example, it says, “Thou art Durga, Lady and Queen, with
her hands that strike, and her swords of sheen; thou art Lakshmi lotus throned”. This was not a Congress
policy, but the singing of the song was made compulsory before the start of official business every day in
the provincial assemblies. This greatly offended the Muslims who began to feel that were being forced to
become familiar with Hinduism.
On the other hand, the celebration of the ‘Day of Deliverance’ was unjustified in a way as it deteriorated
the relations between the INC and the ML. It was clear that now both parties could not work together which
meant no further chance of a joint struggle for the independence of India. This indeed endorsed the British
viewpoint that Indians were doomed to remain disunited. The INC ministers had resigned with the sole
purpose of pressurizing the British during the initial phase of the WWII so that the British, who desperately
needed the
Indian support, could be persuaded to negotiate for the independence of India. By distancing itself from the
INC, the ML reduced the required pressure that could be exerted on the British who now concentrated on
the war front getting rid of any chance of Hindu-Muslim united front during the war years. In the final
analysis it may be concluded that the celebration of the Day of Deliverance was not fully justified because
by doing so the ML lost a good opportunity to drive the British out of India with the help of the INC.
Retrospectively, if ML had not parted ways with the INC, the aim of achieving Pakistan might have been
easily accomplished.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Chapter 09
A Solution to the Problems Facing the Sub-Continent in the Years 1940-1947
What was the Lahore/Pakistan Resolution? (4)
Ans. The annual session of the ML held at the Minto Park (now Iqbal Park) in Lahore on 22 March
1940 was presided over by the Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It was attended by the ML
representatives from all provinces of India. The premier of Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq put
forward a resolution demanding a separate and independent Muslim state comprising the Muslim
majority provinces in the northwestern and north-eastern zones of India. The Resolution was
passed unanimously on 23 March 1940 as the ‘Lahore Resolution’. However, the Hindu press soon
began to call it the ‘Pakistan Resolution’ in a sarcastic way, and the same title was eventually
accepted by the ML.
Why did ML make a demand for Pakistan in 1940? (7)
Muslims wanted their own homeland. Jinnah and the ML had tried their best to maintain some
kind of Hindu-Muslim unity but this dream was shattered repeatedly. Jinnah was ready to accept
the Nehru Report, 1928 with some democratic amendments regarding the security of political
rights of Indian Muslims in an Indian Federation but the INC rejected them. Jinnah, therefore,
presented his 14 Points but the INC did not accept them. During the second RTC, 1931 Gandhi
adopted an inflexible attitude by refusing to grant them adequate constitutional protection and
insisted that the provision of religious liberty would be sufficient to safeguard the rights of the
minorities. Jinnah knew that such a provision was ambiguous and would surely lead to communal
violence. The deadlock between the two leaders widened the gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
The INC rule, 1937-1939 embittered the relations between the two communities that were
damaged irreparably. The atrocities committed by the INC ministers against the Muslims paved
the way for the partition of India. Muslims were denied religious liberty when extremist Hindus
pushed pigs into the mosques and the Wardha Scheme forced Muslim students to bow before
Gandhi’s portrait. Such acts were aimed at attacking the fundamental religious beliefs of
Muslims. Therefore, by celebrating the Day of Deliverance, the ML had indicated towards making
a separate and independent Muslim state where Muslims could live without any fear of Hindu
domination.
What was the August Offer? (4)
Ans: In order to win the Muslim support in the Second World War, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow,
made an offer to the Muslim League in August [Link] promised that a new Indian constitution
would not be finalised without the agreement of the Muslims. The Muslim League, however,
wanted an equal or greater membership of Muslims in the proposed Defence Council. The Viceroy
did not accept this, and therefore, the Muslim League, rejected the August Offer. Most of its
members in the Central and Provincial governments resigned from their posts.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was the Cripps Mission Plan? (4)

In March 1942, the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet, to India. He
tried to reach a compromise between the British and the Indians. He proposed to grant India the
Dominion status in the form of a Union of India after the War, to hold elections to elect a
Constituent Assembly that would frame a new constitution for India. The Plan also proposed that
any province or state could opt out of the proposed Union. Both Gandhi and Jinnah rejected the
Plan on different grounds.
Why did the Cripps Mission fail? (7)
Ans. The proposals of the Cripps Mission Plan were not acceptable to the INC and the ML. In
March 1942, the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet, to India. The
Mission proposed to grant India the Dominion status in the form of a Union of India after the War,
and framing of a new constitution by a newly elected Constituent Assembly. It also suggested that
any province or state could opt out of the proposed Union of India. It, however, did not define the
political status of the provinces opting out of the proposed Union.
Jinnah, therefore, rejected it as he was not satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’ and wanted a direct
recognition of Pakistan by the British as the ML had fomally demanded the same in March 1940.
In order to reiterate the demand for Pakistan, he declared it an unacceptable plan.
Gandhi, on the other hand, having the suppost of the Hindu majority rejected the plan in a more
sarcastic way. He declared it ‘a post-dated cheque on a failing bank’. He thus equated the British
rule in India with a failing bank, and the Plan with a post-dated cheque as he believed the British
had to leave India after the War and, therefore, they were not in a position to make such offers. In
May 1942, he started his Quit India campaign and was arrested.
What was the Quit India Movement/Resolution? (4)
In May 1942, Gandhi addressed an INC meeting in Allahabad and sharply criticized the lack of
compliance shown by the British during the negotiations of the Cripps Mission Plan. He urged the
INC to start a non-violent protest against the British. On 8th August 1942, the Quit India
Resolution was passed, calling for the immediate withdrawal of the British from India. This led to
widespread riots in several parts of India, and the British retaliated with full force.
Why did the Congress/INC start the Quit India Movement? (7)
Ans. Gandhi had rejected the Cripps Mission Plan. While addressing an INC meeting in Allahabad
in May 1942, he expressed his resentment of the Plan. In his address, he talked of how, “British
behavious towards India has filled me with great pain.” There were rumours of a possible Japanese
attack on India as the Japanese forces had captured Singapore recently. Gandhi argued that in case
of British departure from India, there was no danger of any such attack by Japan. Even if India
was attacked, Indians would persuade Japan by non-violent protest, under his Satiya Graha
philosophy of peaceful opposition.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

He also knew that regardless of the result of the WW2, the British would be forced to leave India
due to the huge losses they had incurred in the early phase of the War. On 8th August 1942, the
All India Congress Committee asked its Quit India Resolution asking the British to leave India
quickly. To support the campaign, Gandhi urged ‘a mass struggle on non-violent lines on the
widest possible scale’. Two days later Gandhi, Nehru and several other senior leaders were arrested
and the INC was banned. This led to large scale violence and Gandhi was arrested. British had to
use the strongest measures including the use of machine guns and aerial bombing. The pressure on
the British, however, kept mounting despite all their attempts to keep India under their control.
The ML did not support the INC.
Why did the Muslims League Condemn the Quit India Movement? [7]
Gandhi-led-Congress launched another anti-British civil disobedience campaign, the Quit India
Movement in 1942. The idea was that by increasing political pressure on the British, they would
be forced to leave India. However, against the expectations of the Congress, the British proved
determined to retain their control over India. About 1000 people, many of them women, were
killed. Those who took part saw themselves as freedom fighters. The Muslim League opposed the
Quit India Movement. In their opinion it could not succeed and would end up provoking the
British, and exactly the same happened.
The Quaid-i-Azam saw this as a ploy by Congress to gain full control once the British left and to
compel all other parties to deal with them on Congress terms. He believed that Congress would
never negotiate the question of Pakistan with the Muslim League. He, therefore, criticized the
campaign as a kind of blackmailing the British, and trying to exploit the British who were engaged
in the WW-II.
Gandhi was apparently raising the slogon of Hindu-Muslim unity, by saying the British could not
be driven out of India without cooperation of the Muslims. A meeting of the ML Working
Committee was held in Bombay on August 16, 1942 to decide the policy of the ML regarding
Gandhi’s campaign. The meeting continued for four days presided over by the Quaid-i-Azam. It
noted with deep concern that the Congress had started an open rebellion against the British only
for the establishment of the Hindu Raj in India. He directed the Muslims to remain peaceful, and
also not to participate in any anti-Congress activities during the Quit India campaign.
What were the Gandhi Jinnah Talks? (4)
After his release in May 1944, Gandhi wrote to Jinnah to meet him to discuss the future of India.
Jinnah invited Gandhi at his house in Bombay and several rounds of talks were held in September
1944 that also involved corresponding between the two leaders. After some success the talks ended
in failure as Gandhi rejected the two-nation theory and suggested a joint struggle against the British
till their departure from India. He also wanted the Central Government to have control over defence
and foreign policy that Jinnah wanted to be with the provincial governments.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail? (7)

Gandhi and Jinnah disagreed on key issues. After his release from jail in May 1944, Gandhi
proposed to Jinnah that they should meet to consider the future of India after the British departure.
Accordingly, several rounds of talks were held at Jinnah House Bombay in September 1944.
Gandhi insisted on being treated as an Indian representing all Indian communities. Jinnah could
not treat him in any capacity other than an INC spokesman as Gandhi had been the most popular
leader of the INC.
Gandhi rejected the two-nation theory by saying that Muslims were only local converts in India
and they could not be considered a nation only by changing their religion. He said he could not
find any example in the world history in support of Muslim nationhood in India. Jinnah countered
his argument by highlighting the historic, civilizational and cultural differences between Hindus
and Muslims.
Jinnah demanded the key areas such as defence and foreign policy should be given to the provincial
governments while Gandhi wanted them to be with the Centre. Gandhi was willing to consider the
partition of India if the ML launched a joint struggle with the INC to drive the British out of India.
Jinnah had no reason to trust Gandhi because the condition of the joint struggle seemed dubious
to him. Thus, the talks ended in failure.
Describe the Simla Conference/Wavell Plan. (4)
In March 1945, Lord Wavell consulted the British government and drafted the Wavell Plan, and
invited all political parties of India to Simla to discuss it. The Simla Conference was held in June
1945. The Wavell Plan proposed an Executive Council comprising equal number of Hindu and
Muslim ministers, with control over all affairs except for the Viceroy and a British member
controlling the defence. The Conference, attended by all major Indian political parties, ended in
failure on 14 July 1945 due to a deadlock between Gandhi and Jinnah.
Why did the Simla Conference fail? (7)
Ans. It was held in June-July 1945. The Viceroy, Lord Wavell drew up a plan for the future of
India and convened the Simla Conference to discuss it with all political parties of India. Jinnah,
Liaqat Ali Khan and Kh. Nazim-ud-Din represented the ML. The Wavell Plan suggested the
formation of an Executive Council with an equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers. Jinnah
pointed out that the other non-Muslim parties would surely support the INC, making Muslims a
permanent minority in the Executive Council. They included the Sikhs, the Scheduled Castes and
the Christians. Lord Wavell could not increase the number of Muslim ministers who were already
granted a share greater than their numerical strength in India.
Gandhi was accompanied by the INC president Abul Kalam Azad with the intention of weakening
the ML claim of representing all Muslims of India. Therefore, he demanded that the INC should
be given the right of nominating some Muslim ministers, too. Jinnah rejected this demand by
saying that the ML had been winning all Muslim seats in every by election held since 1940.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Jinnah also knew that the acceptance of Gandhi’s demand of nominating a Muslim minister would
surely loosen the grip of the ML in some provinces of his proposed map of Pakistan as the INC
was already popular in the NWFP. So, the Conference failed to reach a consensus on the Wavell
Plan.
Describe the 1945-46 Elections. (4)
Ans. The Labour Party P.M. Clement Attlee asked Wavell to hold elections for the central and
provincial assemblies so that an Executive Council of the Indians could be set up. The INC
campaigned for an independent, undivided India but the ML for an independent and divided India.
The INC got 91% of non-Muslim vote to get a majority in 8 provinces including the NWFP where
it bagged 19/36 seats whereas the ML got 17/36. The ML won 87% of total Muslim vote 100%
seats in the central assembly and 446/495 seats in provincial assemblies.
Why did ML perform better in the 1945 Elections? (7)
Many factors helped Muslim League (ML) perform better. It was now more organized and popular
than in 1937. Jinnah had played key role in unifying its various factions. In the Lucknow meeting
of the ML in October 1937 he persuaded the party to build up support from the grass roots. Due to
his efforts the chief ministers of Assam, Bengal and Punjab joined the party by 1938 and the vote
bank of the ML was enlarged significantly. It was able to win most of the by-elections between
1940 and 1945.
It had learned a lot from the 1937 elections. So, it launched a more effective campaign in 1945. It
made successful efforts to overcome the ‘image problem’. For many years the ML was seen as a
party of elite Muslim class because the circumstances of its foundation were marked by the
presence of rich landowners/nawabs. A mass contact campaign was launched by Jinnah to
approach all segments of the Muslim community in various provinces.
The INC rule 1937-39 had shocked Muslims into unity. They realized that in an INC-dominated
India their political and cultural identity would be seriously threatened. Therefore, only three
months after the celebration of the Day of Deliverance, Muslims got united on the ML platform to
make a demand for Pakistan. This demand changed the political landscape of India, and by 1945
the Muslims had a clear objective and goal to achieve. Therefore, a great majority of Muslims
voted for the ML in the 1945 elections.
What was the Cabinet Mission Plan? (4)
In March 1946, the British sent a three-member delegation to India to hold talks with the INC and
the ML. It included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethic Lawrence and Mr. A. V. Alexander. The
Commission first proposed the formation of an All India Commission by an interim government,
after its rejection by the INC and the ML, it proposed an Indian Federation with three groups of
provinces: the Hindu majority territories, the western Muslim provinces, and Bengal and Assam.
The ML accepted it but Nehru termed it only a scheme that was not binding on any Indian
government.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why did the Cabinet Mission fail? (7)

Ans. It was rejected by the INC and the ML. British made a last attempt to keep India united and
dispatched a commission of three members of the British Cabinet in March 1946. They were Lord
Pethic Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. A. V. Alexander. The Commission found dichotomy
between the INC and the ML. the INC insisted on an undivided and independent India whereas
the ML demanded independence and partition of India. Both parties firmly stuck to their guns.
The Commission, therefore, proposed the formation of an interim government that would set up
an All India Commission. This Commission would comprise members of the Provincial and
Central Legislatures. It would decide whether there should be one or two states after the British
had left. Both parties rejected it as they wanted a permanent settlement in the presence of the
British.
Finally, in May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its final plan according to which a federation
of India was to be set up comprising three autonomous units: one unit of Hindu majority provinces,
another unit of the western Muslim provinces and a third unit of Bengal and Assam. Each unit
could make its own constitution and foreign affairs, defence and communication would be under
the central government. The ML accepted it and was ready to nominate members but Nehru stated
that the INC would not be bound by the plan after the British departure. This spoiled the whole
scheme.
What was the Direct Action Day? (4)
Ans: By late summer 1946, the British were planning to leave India. The ML feared a Hindu
dominated India if British left without settling the question of Pakistan. In that case they would
suffer at the hands of the Hindus. So, it was important to demonstrate Muslim solidarity on a large
scale to all. In July 1946 the ML passed a resolution asking Muslims to be ready for final struggle
for Pakistan. On 16th Aug 1946, the ML called for a Direct Action Day to show the strength of
Muslims. This marked the start of widespread communal riots in various parts of India. In the
‘Great Calcutta Killing’, 4000 people were killed.
What was the 3 June Plan? (4)
British PM Attlee announced that India would be independent by June 1948. He sent the new
Viceroy Lord Mountbatten in March 1947 to finalize the plan of independence of India. Realising
that partition of India was inevitable, on 3rd June 1947, he announced that there would be two
states, India and Pakistan each having a Dominion status. Muslim majority provinces would decide
to join either state by voting. Both countries would adopt the 1935 Act as the interim constitution.
What was the Radcliffe Award? (4)
Mountbatten appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to draw the boundary
line between India and Pakistan. Radcliffe had four assistants, two nominated by the ML and two
by the INC. The Radcliffe Award was announced on 16th August 1947. The ML was disappointed
as Calcutta in Bengal and the Muslim majority districts of Frozepur and Gurdaspur in Punjab were

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

given to India. Gurdaspur provided a land route to India to have access to Kashmir. Jinnah
unwillingly accepted the Award.
What was the Independence Act? (4)
It was passed on 15th August 1947 and stated that from that day India would be partitioned into
two Dominion states: India and Pakistan. Each state would be totally free to make any laws it
wished. The 1935 Act would serve as the interim constitution till both the states had framed their
own constitutions. Pakistan adopted 14th August and India 15th August as the Independence Day.
Who was Lord Mountbatten? (4)
He was a great-grandson of Queen Victoria. He joined the Royal Navy when he was just 16 and
performed meritorious services as the Supreme Commander South-East Asia. Prime Minister
Attlee sent him as the last Viceroy of India in March 1947. He drafted the scheme of independence
and partition of India that is popularly known as the 3rd June Plan. On the request of the INC he
became the 1st Governor General of India on 15th August 1947 and served in that capacity till
21st June 1948. He with his family was killed by the IRA (Irish Republican Army) in Ireland in
1979.
Do you agree that during the Second World War there was no significant progress towards
independence in the sub-continent? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
A number of negotiations were held with successes and failures. With the start of the WWII the
INC (Congress) ministers resigned with the intention of pressurizing the British for granting
independence.
The British needed Indian support in the WWII. So, they dispatched a team, the Cripps Mission
led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with a set of proposals for the future of India in March 1942. The Cripps
Mission proposed the making of a Union of India in which almost all the ministers were to be
Indians, and the possibility of granting dominion status to India after the war. It also provided for
any province to opt out of the proposed Union of India. The Plan reflected British willingness to
gradually decolonize India. Gandhi and Jinnah rejected the proposals and this showed the
possibility of a united stance against the British, though Gandhi and Jinnah had their own reasons
to reject it. For Gandhi, the British were not in a position to put forward such a scheme as they
would have to leave India sooner or later. He, therefore, commented on the plan by saying that it
was a post- dated cheque on a failing bank.
Gandhi launched the Quit India movement and was arrested with many other INC leaders. Jinnah
felt disappointed as he wanted a clear mention of Pakistan and was not satisfied with the ‘opting
out clause’. So, the plan was turned down by Indians.
After Gandhi was released from jail, he wrote to Jinnah to hold talks with him about the future of
India. Jinnah accepted it and invited Gandhi at his home in Bombay. Several rounds of talk hiss
were held in June, 1944. The talks showed Gandhi’s acknowledgement of Jinnah as a major leader.
He also suggested joint struggle of INC and ML after which the partition of India could be
discussed. This shows his conditional acceptance of Pakistan.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

However, the talks had more failures than successes. Gandhi insisted on being treated as an
ordinary Indian but this irritated Jinnah’s legal mind as for him Gandhi was only an INC
spokesman. Gandhi also rejected the two nation theory by saying that a community couldn’t
become a nation just by changing religion. Majority of Indian Muslims were local converts from
Hinduism or Sikhism. Jinnah asked for keeping the defence and foreign affairs under the provincial
governments in case of a united India. So the talks ended in a deadlock.
By June 1945, the WWII was nearing end and British were now determined to leave India. Viceroy
Lord Wavell, after consulting with the British government, drafted the Wavell Plan. The plan was
discussed in the Simla Conference in June-July 1945. The ML delegation included Jinnah, Liaquat
Ali Khan and Abul Kalam Azad, the INC President. Lord Wavell unfolded the plan of an interim
Executive Council (government) comprising equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers. All
parties agreed on the idea of the Executive Council, and the independence of India. However,
Gandhi insisted on nominating Hindus as well as some Muslim ministers. Inclusion of Azad was
aimed at conveying the message that INC too represented Muslims. Jinnah replied that ML alone
was a party of all Muslims as it had been winning almost all by elections for the Muslim seats
during the last 3 years. Jinnah also objected to equal number of Hindu and Muslim ministers by
pointing towards other non-Muslim minorities. If those minorities allied themselves with INC,
Muslims would remain a minority. The session ended without any success and Wavell admitted
failure of the conference on 14th July, 1945. these negotiations were all successful because each
of these resulted in building of more pressure on British by both INC and ML. The cumulative
result of negotiations eventually forced the British to leave as well as partition India in 1947.
Q. Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British General Election in 1945 the
most important reason why the subcontinent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your
answer. [14]
The Labour Party won a massive and unexpected victory in the 1945 General Election. It won 393
seats against the Conservative Party that won only 197 seats. The party was opposed to imperialism
and eager to promote independence for India following the election. Thus the signs for an
independent state of some kind looked very positive. However, there was a problem, since the new
government was pro- Congress and Gandhi, so partition was most unlikely and instead the
favoured route was for a federal India rather than two separate states.
However, there were other factors too, that led to the partition of India in 1947. Following the
Simla Conference in 1945, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The results demonstrated that
the Congress had control of the non-Muslim votes but that the League had equally gained control
of the Muslim vote. It was clear that the League was an equal player to the Congress and that the
demand for partition could no longer be ignored by the Congress or the British Government.
However, in March 1946, members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to work out a
plan for achieving independence for India as a federation. The Mission met with some 470 Indian
leaders but Jinnah stuck firm to his stance that partition was the only way forward as far as the
Muslims were concerned. Once the plans for groupings the provinces were known, the ML
accepted the plan as long as the groupings were to be compulsory.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Congress however refused to accept the groupings and that they would not be bound by any British
plan. The British government decided to form an Interim Government headed by Nehru of
Congress. Eventually members of the ML joined it too.
The ML got worried that the British would leave India without organizing a settlement and didn’t
want Congress to be left in charge of organizing a new country. Thus the ML organized a Direct
Action Day in the summer of 1946 in an attempt to stop the British government giving in to
Congress. Rioting on a massive scale took place and thousands died. The British got increasingly
worried that civil war would ensue and gradually a change of mind grew over partition. In February
1947 came the announcement by Attlee that the British would leave the sub-continent by 1948 and
the subsequent violence in the Punjab in March 1947 that convinced Nehru that partition should
take place quickly. This was formalized in the 3rd June Plan of 1947 in which Mountbatten, the
new Viceroy brought about partition in August 1947.
It may be concluded that the victory of the Labour Party was the most decisive factor in the
partition of India. After winning the election it acted wisely and preferred to reconstruct England
after the WW-II instead of retaining the burden of colonial rule over India. Moreover, it had
demanded independence of India after the Atlantic Charter agreed between British PM and the US
President in August 1941.
The Cripps Mission Plan contributed the most towards the creation of Pakistan between
1940 and 1947. Explain why you might agree and disagree. (14)
Cripps Mission was sent in March 1942. The British needed Indian support in the WWII. So, they
dispatched a team, the Cripps Mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with a set of proposals for the
future of India in March 1942. The Cripps Mission proposed the possibility of dominion states for
India after the war. It also provided for any province to opt out of the proposed Union of India.
The Plan reflected British willingness to gradually decolonize India. Gandhi and Jinnah rejected
the proposals and this showed the possibility of a united stance against the British, though Gandhi
and Jinnah had their own reasons to reject it. For Gandhi, the British were not in a position to put
forward such a scheme as they would have to leave India sooner or later. He, therefore, commented
on the plan by saying that it was a post- dated cheque on a failing bank. He launched the Quit India
movement and was arrested with many other INC leaders. Jinnah felt disappointed as he wanted a
clear mention of Pakistan and was not satisfied with the ‘opting out clause’. So, the plan was
turned down by Indians. The British, it seems, had indirectly acknowledge the idea of Pakistan.
Two years before the Cripps Mission, a historic session of ML was held in Minto Park Lahore, 22-
23 March, 1940. It was presided over by Mr. Jinnah. Maulvi Fazal ul Haq presented the Lahore
Resolution demanding that ‘Regions in which the Muslims are numerically a majority, as in the
north western and eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute independent state(s) in
which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign’. The Resolution was passed on
23rd March and eventually became known as the Pakistan Resolution. The Resolution was
unanimously adopted by all ML representatives from both Muslims majority and Muslim minority
provinces. It was a success for ML as it now formally started the Pakistan Movement and
mobilized Indian Muslims on the ML platform for their common goal.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

After Gandhi was released from jail, he wrote to Jinnah to hold talks with him about the future of
India. Jinnah accepted it and invited Gandhi at his home in Bombay. Several rounds of talk hiss
were held in June, 1944. The talks showed Gandhi’s acknowledgement of Jinnah as a major leader
and ML as a major Muslim Political party. He also suggested joint struggle of INC and ML after
which the partition of India could be discussed. This shows his conditional acceptance of Pakistan.
Though Gandhi rejected the two-nation theory by saying that Muslims were mainly local converts,
Jinnah asserted that Muslims were a nation by any definition because of their historic, cultural,
religious and linguistic differences with Hindus. Jinnah asked for keeping the defence and foreign
affairs under the provincial governments in case of a united India. This shows strength of Jinnah’s
determination for achieving Pakistan.
The 1945-46 elections results were in favour of [Link] swept the board with 87% of the
Muslim votes. In the Central Assembly, ML won all 30 seats reserved for Muslims. In the
Provincial Assemblies too it performed impressively by winning 446/495 seats. The results proved
that ML was the only major party
Finally, after hectic efforts, Lord Mountbatten announced the plan of independence of India on 3rd
June, [Link] the 3rd June Plan India was to be divided into two states, India and Pakistan on
15th August 1947. Each state was to have a Dominion status with an Executive (Governor General)
responsible to a Constituent Assembly (parliament) Muslim majority provinces would vote to
remain part of India or join Pakistan. As a result of voting Sindh and Balochistan joined Pakistan
whereas Punjab and Bengal got divided along communal lines. After a referendum, the NWFP
also joined Pakistan. The 3rd June Plan was the fruit of all efforts of Jinnah and ML in keeping
Indian Muslims united for a common goal of achieving Pakistan. The Plan also reflected the
magnitude of the pressure of ML on both the British and INC.
Cripps Mission may be regarded as the most important contribution towards Pakistan because
through it British demonstrated their willingness to leave and hinted at the possibility of Pakistan.
This boosted the confidence of ML making it more determined.
To what extent was Direct Action Day more significant in the creation of Pakistan than other
key events of the 1940s? Explain your answer. [14]
Muslim League (ML) was concerned over future of Muslims after British departure. It decided to
show solidarity and strength of Muslims. Lord Wavell’s invitation to the Congress to form an
interim government added to their concerns. It was also known that a majority of the Labour
Members of the Parliament were more sympathetic to the Congress than to the Idea of Pakistan.
In July 1946, it passed a resolution asking Muslims to prepare for the final struggle against both
the British and Congress. On 16th August 1946, the Direct Action Day was observed to
demonstrate the strength of Muslim feelings, and to stop the British government giving in to the
Congress. Jinnah called on Muslims to protest peacefully and in a disciplined manner. However,
violence erupted and spread to several parts of India. In Calcutta alone 4000 deaths were reported.
British got worried about a civil war and had to change their plan for partition.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

A historic session of ML was held in Minto Park Lahore, 22-23 March, 1940. It was presided over
by Mr. Jinnah. Maulvi Fazal ul Haq presented the Lahore Resolution demanding that ‘Regions in
which the Muslims are numerically a majority, as in the north western and eastern zone of India,
should be grouped to constitute independent state(s) in which the constituent units shall be
autonomous and sovereign’. The Resolution was passed on 23rd March and eventually became
known as the Pakistan Resolution. This marked the start of an active struggle for Pakistan.
The British needed Indian support in the WWII. So, they dispatched a team, the Cripps Mission
led by Sir Stafford Cripps, with a set of proposals for the future of India in March 1942. The Cripps
Mission proposed the possibility of dominion states for India after the war. It also provided for any
province to opt out of the proposed Union of India. The Plan reflected British willingness to
gradually decolonize India. Gandhi rejected the plan as he knew the British would soon be leaving
India. He launched the Quit India movement and was arrested with many other INC leaders. Jinnah
felt disappointed as he wanted a clear mention of Pakistan and was not satisfied with the ‘opting
out clause’. So, the plan was turned down by Indians. The British, it seems, had indirectly
acknowledge the idea of Pakistan.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks were held in June, 1944. Gandhi suggested a joint struggle of INC and ML
after which the partition of India could be discussed. This shows his conditional acceptance of
Pakistan. Though Gandhi rejected the two nation theory by saying that Muslims were mainly local
converts, Jinnah asserted that Muslims were a nation by any definition because of their historic,
cultural, religious and linguistic differences with Hindus. Jinnah asked for keeping the defence and
foreign affairs under the provincial governments in case of a united India. This shows strength of
Jinnah’s determination for achieving Pakistan.
The 1945-46 elections results were in favour of [Link] swept the board with 87% of the
Muslim votes. In the Central Assembly, ML won all 30 seats reserved for Muslims. In the
Provincial Assemblies too it performed impressively by winning 446/495 seats. The results proved
that ML was the only major party for Muslims. Performance of ML justified and augmented its
demanded for Pakistan.
In March 1946, the British sent a three member delegation to India to hold talks with the INC and
the ML. It included Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Pethic Lawrence and Mr. A. V. Alexander. The
Commission first proposed the formation of an All India Commission by an interim government,
after its rejection by the INC and the ML, it proposed an Indian Federation with three groups of
provinces: the Hindu majority territories, the western Muslim provinces, and Bengal and Assam.
The ML accepted it but Nehru termed it only a scheme that was not binding on any Indian
government.
Finally, after hectic efforts, Lord Mountbatten announced the plan of independence of India on 3rd
June, [Link] the 3rd June Plan India was to be divided into two states, India and Pakistan on
15th August 1947. Each state was to have a Dominion status with an Executive (Governor General)
responsible to a Constituent Assembly (parliament) The 3rd June Plan was the fruit of all efforts of
Jinnah and ML in keeping Indian Muslims united for a common goal of achieving Pakistan. The
Plan also reflected the magnitude of the pressure of ML on both the British and INC.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Who was Chaudhri Rehmat Ali? [4]

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali was a Pakistani nationalist who is best known for coining the term
"Pakistan" in 1933. He was a prominent figure in the movement for the creation of Pakistan,
advocating for a separate homeland for Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. Rehmat Ali was born
in British India in 1897 and later studied at the University of Cambridge. His pamphlet "Now or
Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?" is considered a seminal work in the early articulation
of the idea of Pakistan. Despite his contribution to the concept of Pakistan, he had a contentious
relationship with the leadership of the All India Muslim League and played a relatively minor role
in the actual process of Pakistan's creation in 1947. He spent much of his later life in England and
died in 1951.
Why was Chaudhri Rehmat Ali an important influence on the struggle for a separate
homeland for Pakistan? [7]
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali's significance stems from three key factors. Firstly, he coined the term
"Pakistan" in his 1933 pamphlet, "Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?" This single
word summarized the aspirations of millions of Muslims in British India for a separate homeland
where they could live freely according to their religious and cultural beliefs.
Similarly, Rehmat Ali's ideas provided a clear and concrete vision for the Muslim community in
British India. Before his pamphlet, there was a sense of disunity and confusion among Muslims
regarding their political future. His proposal for Pakistan sparked a renewed sense of purpose and
identity among Muslims, offering them a distinct political identity and a goal to strive for.
Last but not the least, while Rehmat Ali's influence on the practical aspects of the struggle for
Pakistan was limited, his ideas played a crucial role in shaping the conversations surrounding the
independence movement. Despite facing criticism from some leaders for his radical views, Rehmat
Ali's concept of Pakistan echoed deeply with many Muslims, inciting discussions and debates that
ultimately contributed to the momentum of the independence movement.
Who was Dr Allama Iqbal? [4]
Dr. Allama Iqbal was a famous poet, philosopher, and politician in British India. He is widely
regarded as the "Spiritual Father of Pakistan" for his influential role in inspiring the idea of a
separate nation for Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. Iqbal's poetry, especially his works in Urdu
and Persian, not only celebrated the beauty of the Islamic faith and its heritage but also advocated
for the revival of Muslim self-awareness and empowerment. His philosophical ideas about the
importance of self-discovery and collective unity greatly influenced the ideology of Pakistan's
creation.
Why was Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal an important influence on the struggle for a separate
homeland for Pakistan? [7]
Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was a crucial influence on the struggle for a separate homeland for
Pakistan due to several reasons. Firstly, his philosophical and poetic works played a significant
role in shaping the consciousness of Muslims in British India, advocating for their political and

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

cultural rights within the context of Islam. His poetry, such as the famous "Shikwa" and "Jawab-
e-Shikwa," highlighted the need for Muslim unity and self-respect.
Secondly, Iqbal's vision of an independent Muslim state was articulated in his Allahabad Address
of 1930, where he proposed the idea of a separate Muslim-majority state in the northwest of India.
This address provided intellectual and ideological support to the Pakistan Movement, reinforcing
the demand for a distinct political entity for Muslims.
Thirdly, Iqbal's close association with the All India Muslim League leadership, particularly with
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, helped bridge the gap between his philosophical ideas and practical
politics. His correspondence and meetings with Jinnah are believed to have influenced the latter's
stance on the demand for Pakistan, providing intellectual underpinnings to the political struggle.
Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal's intellectual contributions, philosophical insights, and advocacy for
Muslim rights played a pivotal role in inspiring and mobilizing support for the creation of Pakistan,
making him one of the most important figures in the movement for a separate homeland for
Muslims in British India.
Was the work of Allama Iqbal more important to the Pakistan Movement than that of
Rehmat
Ali? Explain your answer. [14]
Both Allama Iqbal and Choudhry Rahmat Ali made significant contributions to the Pakistan
Movement, but evaluating their relative importance depends on various factors.
Allama Iqbal, a renowned poet, philosopher, and politician, played a pivotal role in shaping the
ideological foundations of Pakistan. Through his poetry and speeches, he articulated the concept
of an independent Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent, emphasizing the need for Muslims to
have a separate homeland where they could freely practice their religion and culture. Iqbal's vision
inspired millions of Muslims and provided intellectual justification for the creation of Pakistan.
His famous Allahabad Address in 1930, where he first proposed the idea of a separate Muslim
state, is considered a milestone in the Pakistan Movement.
On the other hand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistani nationalist and political theorist, is credited
with coining the term "Pakistan" in 1933 and outlining the initial proposal for a separate Muslim
state in his pamphlet "Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?" published in 1933. While
Rahmat Ali's contribution in popularizing the name "Pakistan" is significant, his role in the
Pakistan Movement beyond that is relatively limited compared to Iqbal.
In terms of importance, Allama Iqbal's contributions to the Pakistan Movement are often
considered more significant due to the depth of his philosophical ideas, his widespread influence
as a poet and intellectual, and his role in shaping the ideological narrative of the movement. His
vision provided the ideological framework upon which the Pakistan Movement was built, inspiring
generations of Muslims to strive for an independent homeland.
However, it's essential to recognize that both Allama Iqbal and Choudhry Rahmat Ali played
crucial roles in different aspects of the Pakistan Movement. While Iqbal provided the philosophical
underpinnings and ideological motivation, Rahmat Ali contributed to the symbolic and linguistic

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

aspects by introducing the name "Pakistan." Therefore, both figures are important, but Iqbal's
contributions are often seen as more foundational to the Pakistan Movement.
How important was Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Pakistan Movement? Explain your
answer. [14]
From 1940 to 1947, pivotal events shaped the trajectory towards the creation of Pakistan.
The Lahore Resolution, also known as the Pakistan Resolution, marked a defining moment in the
Pakistan Movement. Passed during the All India Muslim League's annual session in Lahore on
March 23, 1940, it called for the establishment of independent states for Muslims in regions where
they were in a majority within British India. This resolution laid the groundwork for the demand
for a separate Muslim homeland.
World War II had far-reaching implications for British India. The Muslim League, under the
leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, decided to support the British war effort in hopes of securing
better treatment for Muslims post-war. However, the war also exacerbated existing tensions
between Hindus and Muslims in India.
The Quit India Movement, launched by the Indian National Congress under Mahatma Gandhi's
leadership, aimed at ending British rule in India through non-violent civil disobedience. While the
Muslim League did not actively participate, Jinnah viewed this movement as an opportunity to
strengthen the League's position and assert the Muslim demand for a separate nation.
The British government sent a mission, led by Cabinet ministers, to propose a plan for the transfer
of power and the future governance of India. The Cabinet Mission Plan proposed a decentralized
federation with significant autonomy for provinces. However, the Muslim League rejected the plan
as it did not adequately address their demand for a separate Muslim state.
On August 16, 1946, the Muslim League called for a day of direct action to press for the creation
of Pakistan. This led to widespread communal violence, particularly in Calcutta, where clashes
between Hindus and Muslims resulted in thousands of deaths and extensive property damage. The
violence underscored the deepening religious divisions in British India
With the British government deciding to leave India, Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy,
presented a plan for the partition of British India into two separate nations: India and Pakistan. The
plan proposed the partition of Punjab and Bengal based on religious demographics. Despite initial
reluctance, both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League accepted the plan, leading
to the creation of Pakistan on August 14, 1947.
On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan achieved independence from British rule. Muhammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan. The partition, however, was accompanied
by widespread violence, riots, and mass migrations as millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs
moved to their respective new nations, resulting in one of the largest human migrations in history.

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

PAK STUDIES 0448/2059

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF PAKISTAN

Chapter.11 Early Problems of Pakistan

Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Chapter. 11
Early Problems of Pakistan
What was the Canal Water Dispute? [4]
The issue had its origins in the partition of Punjab in 1947. The problem for Pakistan
was that the flow of water through the canals and rivers was controlled at a series of
headworks, most of which lay in the part of Indian Punjab. The Indian government
promised not to interfere with the supply of water. However, a dispute arose over
the canals, especially the Bari-Doab canal. The matter was eventually resolved by
the International Court of Justice with a temporary agreement in May 1948.
Describe the Kashmir Issue. [4]
The Kashmir issue is a territorial conflict between India and Pakistan, which began
in 1947 following the partition of British India. Both countries claim the entire
region, but each controls only a portion: India administers Jammu and Kashmir,
while Pakistan administers Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. The dispute arose
when the Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh, chose to accede to India despite the
region's Muslim-majority population, leading to a series of wars and ongoing
skirmishes. The United Nations has intervened, calling for a plebiscite to determine
the region's future, but this has not been implemented, resulting in prolonged tension
and periodic violence between the two nuclear-armed neighbors.
Describe refugee problem in 1947. [4]
Before the partition of India in 1947, there was widespread violence between
Muslims and non-Muslims across the country. This communal unrest was marked
by brutal attacks, riots, and mass killings. The only perceived solution to this
escalating violence was for Muslims to move into the newly created state of Pakistan
and for non-Muslims, mainly Hindus and Sikhs, to relocate to India. This led to the
largest migration ever witnessed in the history of mankind, with millions of people
crossing borders amidst some of the worst scenes of communal violence. Muslim
historians believe that Hindus and Sikhs had an organized program for the massacre
of Muslim refugees, exacerbating the brutality of the migration. In response to the
humanitarian crisis, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan,
took personal charge as the Refugee Minister and established a relief fund to
rehabilitate the displaced Muslim refugees. His efforts were crucial in providing
immediate relief and long-term support to those affected by the partition.

1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why was Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947? [7]

Pakistan faced a severe refugee problem in 1947 due to the widespread communal
violence that erupted during the partition of British India. The division led to brutal
attacks and massacres between Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs, creating a climate of
fear and insecurity. This communal strife forced millions of Muslims to flee from
India to Pakistan to seek safety and refuge. The mass migration was chaotic and
unorganized, resulting in a humanitarian crisis as Pakistan struggled to
accommodate the sudden influx of refugees
The Radcliffe Award, which was responsible for delineating the borders between
India and Pakistan during the 1947 partition, controversially assigned several
Muslim-majority areas to India. This decision was met with significant outrage and
disappointment among Muslims, who had expected these regions to be part of
Pakistan based on their demographic composition. The award included crucial
districts like Gurdaspur and Ferozepur, which had substantial Muslim populations,
and their allocation to India was seen as a betrayal of the principles underlying the
partition. This not only led to widespread communal violence and mass migrations
but also left a lasting legacy of bitterness and mistrust between the two newly formed
nations.
The Pakistan Movement, which sought the creation of a separate state for Muslims,
received substantial support from Muslims living in minority areas of India. These
Muslims, facing significant socio-political challenges and discrimination, saw the
establishment of Pakistan as a promise of security and self-determination. When
Pakistan was finally created in 1947, many of these Muslims chose to migrate to the
new nation, leaving their homes and belongings behind in pursuit of a safer and more
promising future. Their migration was driven by the hope that Pakistan would
provide them with better opportunities and a secure environment where they could
freely practice their religion and preserve their cultural identity.
Why did Pakistan apply for UN in 1947? [7]
One of the primary reasons Pakistan applied for membership in the United Nations
in 1947 was to gain international recognition and legitimacy as a newly established
sovereign state. After its creation following the partition of British India, Pakistan
needed to assert its status and establish diplomatic relations with other countries.
Being admitted to the UN would confirm its sovereignty on the global stage,
ensuring that other nations acknowledged its independence and territorial integrity.

2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

This recognition was crucial for Pakistan to function as a viable and autonomous
member of the international community.
Another significant reason for Pakistan's application to the UN was to seek security
and support in international disputes, particularly concerning its contentious
relationship with India. The newly formed nation faced immediate challenges,
including the Kashmir conflict. By joining the UN, Pakistan aimed to leverage the
organization's platform to raise and address its concerns, hoping to gain international
support and mediation in its disputes with India. This strategic move was aimed at
protecting its national interests and securing a peaceful resolution to conflicts
through diplomatic means rather than military confrontation.
Pakistan also sought membership in the United Nations to gain access to
development aid and resources necessary for the country's reconstruction and
economic development. The partition had left Pakistan with significant
infrastructural and economic challenges, including a massive influx of refugees and
a need for rebuilding its economy. Membership in the UN would provide Pakistan
with opportunities to benefit from international aid programs, technical assistance,
and economic support from various UN agencies. This aid was vital for addressing
the immediate humanitarian needs and laying the foundation for Pakistan's long-
term development and stability.
Why was the division of the armed forces and military assets a problem for
Pakistan in 1947? [7]
The division of the armed forces and military assets in 1947 posed several significant
problems for Pakistan, impacting its defense capabilities and overall security. Here
are three reasons elaborated in three paragraphs:
One of the primary issues was the disproportionate distribution of military resources
between India and Pakistan. The majority of military assets, including weapons,
equipment, and supplies, were concentrated in regions that became part of India. As
a result, Pakistan received a much smaller share of these essential resources. This
left the newly formed country with inadequate military infrastructure and equipment,
hampering its ability to establish a robust and effective defense force. The imbalance
created significant challenges for Pakistan in ensuring its national security and
maintaining internal stability during its formative years.
Another major problem was the unequal division of experienced military personnel.
Most of the senior officers and seasoned soldiers chose to remain with the Indian

3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

armed forces, leaving Pakistan with a relatively inexperienced and understaffed

military. This lack of experienced leadership and trained personnel hindered
Pakistan's ability to effectively organize, train, and deploy its military forces. The
country faced difficulties in creating a cohesive and competent military structure,
which was crucial for defending its borders and maintaining internal order amidst
the post-partition turmoil.
The division also resulted in significant operational and logistical challenges for
Pakistan. The new country inherited fewer military bases, training facilities, and
infrastructure compared to India. This shortage of infrastructure made it difficult for
Pakistan to effectively train and support its armed forces. Additionally, the partition
led to the displacement of military personnel and their families, creating logistical
nightmares in terms of housing, transportation, and resettlement. The overall
disruption caused by the division of military assets severely impacted Pakistan's
ability to establish a fully functional and operational military force capable of
addressing both external threats and internal security challenges.
Was the Refugee issue the most important problem facing the newly formed
government of Pakistan in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
Before the partition of India in 1947, there was widespread violence between
Muslims and non-Muslims, primarily Hindus and Sikhs, across the country. This
communal unrest was marked by brutal attacks, riots, and mass killings, creating an
atmosphere of fear and insecurity. In response to this escalating violence, the only
perceived solution was for Muslims to move to the newly formed state of Pakistan
and for non-Muslims to relocate to India. This led to the largest migration ever
witnessed in the history of mankind, with millions of people crossing borders amidst
some of the worst scenes of communal violence. During this chaotic and tumultuous
period, Muslim historians believe that Hindus and Sikhs had organized programs for
the massacre of Muslim refugees, exacerbating the brutality of the migration.
In response to the dire humanitarian crisis, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
the founder of Pakistan, took personal charge as the Refugee Minister. He
established a relief fund to rehabilitate the displaced Muslim refugees, providing
immediate relief and long-term support to those affected by the partition. His efforts
were crucial in addressing the immediate needs of the refugees and helping them
rebuild their lives in the newly formed nation of Pakistan.
However, Pakistan faced significant political problems in its early years due to
several factors. Unlike India, which inherited government buildings, furnishings,
4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

and officials from the British, Pakistan had none of these resources, leaving it
without the necessary administrative and governmental machinery to effectively run
the country. The lack of political experience further compounded these issues, as the
members of Pakistan's Constituent Assembly were predominantly wealthy
landowners with limited experience in governance. Additionally, the geographical
distance between East and West Pakistan created administrative challenges, making
it difficult to govern the country as a cohesive entity. These factors collectively
hampered the newly formed government's ability to establish stable and effective
political systems.
Furthermore, Pakistan's early years were marked by significant social challenges due
to its diverse composition. The country was primarily made up of five distinct
regions, each with its own unique ethnic, cultural, and linguistic characteristics. The
Pakhtuns in the north had their own traditions and cultural practices, while the
Balochs in the west had a distinct lifestyle and customs. The Sindhis in the south
contributed their own rich heritage, and the Punjabis in the north-east had their own
cultural identity. Meanwhile, the Bengalis in the east brought their own traditions
and languages. This regional diversity presented a challenge for national integration,
as the government needed to address the varied needs and aspirations of each group
while striving to create a unified national identity. Balancing these diverse social
elements was crucial for fostering national cohesion and stability in the newly
formed state.
Similarly, Pakistan faced substantial economic problems in its early years due to its
limited resources and underdeveloped infrastructure. The country was not wealthy,
relying heavily on an agricultural economy with minimal progress. The economic
potential was largely confined to Karachi, which was the only city with significant
industrial and commercial activity. Approximately 90% of the population lived in
rural areas, contributing to the country's economic challenges. The only major export
commodity was jute, which, despite its global significance (accounting for 70% of
the world’s production), was insufficient to drive broad-based economic growth.
Additionally, the economic assets inherited by Pakistan after partition were
disproportionately low. The country had only 10% of industrial enterprises, 6.5% of
industrial workers, 5% of electrical capacity, and 10% of mineral deposits compared
to the assets held by India. This disparity severely limited Pakistan's ability to rapidly
develop its economy and address the needs of its growing population.

5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The accession of the princely states was a complex and contentious process during
the partition of British India, as these states were given the right to choose between
joining India or Pakistan. In 1947, several northern princely states, including Dir,
Swat, Chitral, Amb, and Hunza, opted to join Pakistan. Similarly, Bahawalpur,
Gilgit, and Kalat also aligned with Pakistan. However, some states faced significant
difficulties during this period, with Hyderabad being a notable example. Hyderabad
was one of the largest and wealthiest states in India, with a non-Muslim majority but
a Muslim ruler. The state was exceptionally rich, generating an annual revenue of
over 160 million rupees. The Nizam of Hyderabad preferred to maintain dominion
status rather than joining either country, but the British government refused this
option. Facing pressure to join India, the Nizam entered into a treaty with India
concerning defense, foreign affairs, and communication. In August 1948, Hyderabad
filed a complaint with the United Nations Organization regarding its treatment.
Before the complaint could be addressed, Indian troops entered Hyderabad and
effectively dismantled the state, integrating it into the Indian Union.
Junagadh was a small princely state located on the coast, approximately 300 miles
south of Karachi. Although the population was predominantly non-Muslim, the
ruling Prince was Muslim and announced his decision to join Pakistan in 1947. This
move was met with resistance from India. Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy
of India, informed Pakistan that the accession of Junagadh was an encroachment on
Indian sovereignty and territory. In response, India took military action, and Indian
troops invaded Junagadh. The invasion led to the state's integration into India,
despite the initial decision of the Prince to accede to Pakistan.
Moreover, the division of financial and military assets between India and Pakistan
in 1947 was fraught with challenges and disputes. The assets were to be divided at a
ratio of 17 to India and 5 to Pakistan, with Pakistan initially promised 750 million
rupees from a total of 4 billion held in the Reserve Bank. However, only the first
installment of 200 million rupees was paid before a refusal to release the remainder
led to tensions. Mahatma Gandhi's hunger strike played a crucial role in securing the
payment of the second installment of 500 million rupees, although his assassination
shortly after added to the unrest. Militarily, Pakistan received 36% of the assets
compared to India's 44%, and the transfer of military supplies was plagued by delays
and issues, with many arriving in poor condition. Additionally, all 16 ordinance
factories were in India, putting Pakistan at a significant disadvantage in military
production.

6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

By the same token, the division of financial and military assets between India and
Pakistan in 1947 was marked by significant disputes and complications. Assets were
to be divided at a ratio of 17 to India and 5 to Pakistan, with Pakistan initially
allocated 750 million rupees from a total of 4 billion held in the Reserve Bank.
However, only the first installment of 200 million rupees was paid, with the
remainder withheld until Mahatma Gandhi's hunger strike led to the payment of the
second installment of 500 million rupees. Gandhi’s assassination shortly after further
heightened tensions. In terms of military assets, Pakistan received 36% while India
received 44%. Armed forces personnel had the freedom to choose which country to
join, complicating the distribution. The transfer of military supplies was fraught with
problems, as many supplies were delayed and arrived in poor condition.
Additionally, all 16 ordinance factories were located in India, leaving Pakistan with
a significant disadvantage in military production.

7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
PAK STUDIES 0448/2059

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF PAKISTAN

Ch.12. Early Ministries of Pakistan &

General Ayoub Khan

Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Chapter 12. Early Ministries of Pakistan

Khwaja Nazimuddin (1948-51)
Who was Khwaja Nazimuddin? [4]
Khwaja Nazimuddin was a prominent Pakistani politician and statesman who played
a crucial role in the early years of Pakistan. After the creation of Pakistan in 1947,
he served as the second Governor-General of Pakistan from 1948 to 1951. Following
Jinnah's death, he became the Prime Minister of Pakistan, holding office from 1951
to 1953. Known for his moderate and diplomatic approach, he worked towards
stabilizing the nascent country during its formative years, focusing on maintaining
communal harmony and addressing administrative challenges. His tenure was
marked by efforts to lay the foundation for Pakistan's governance and institutional
development.
Who was Liaquat Ali Khan? [4]
Liaquat Ali Khan was a key figure in the early history of Pakistan, serving as the
country's first Prime Minister from 1947 until his assassination in 1951. As the Prime
Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan was instrumental in establishing the new nation's
political and administrative framework, addressing numerous challenges in the wake
of partition, including the refugee crisis and economic instability. He is also
remembered for his efforts to strengthen Pakistan's international relations and for his
role in shaping the country's early domestic and foreign policies. His leadership was
cut short when he was assassinated on October 16, 1951, during a public rally in
Rawalpindi.
What was Basic Principles Committee? [4]
The Basic Principles Committee was a key body established in Pakistan to draft a
framework for the country's constitution. The committee was formed to address the
need for a clear constitutional structure and to outline the fundamental principles of
governance for the newly created state. The committee's main task was to provide a
proposal for a workable constitution that would define the distribution of powers
between the central and provincial governments, as well as establish the basic rights
and responsibilities of citizens. The Basic Principles Committee's work was critical
in shaping the direction of Pakistan’s political development and in laying the
groundwork for the eventual adoption of the 1956 Constitution, which aimed to
establish Pakistan as a republic with a parliamentary system of government.

1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Describe the Objectives Resolution 12 March 1949. [4]

On March 12, 1949, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan adopted the Objectives
Resolution, which laid down fundamental principles for the country’s future
constitution. The resolution emphasized that the constitution should uphold the
principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice as
prescribed by Islam. It affirmed that Muslims in Pakistan would have the right to
live according to Islamic principles while ensuring religious freedom for all
communities. The resolution also highlighted the need for legal protection of
minorities and the poor, guaranteeing fundamental human rights for all citizens.
Additionally, it called for an independent legal system, free from governmental
influence, to ensure justice and fairness in the administration of laws.
Why was the Objectives Resolution criticized? [7]
The Objectives Resolution faced criticism for its ambiguity and lack of clarity
regarding the precise nature of its principles. Critics argued that while the resolution
affirmed broad concepts such as democracy, freedom, and social justice, it did not
provide specific guidelines on how these principles would be implemented or
reconciled with Islamic law. This vagueness led to concerns about the potential for
conflicting interpretations and the difficulty in translating these ideals into practical
governance structures. The lack of detailed provisions left room for debate and
uncertainty regarding the balance between Islamic principles and democratic values.
Another significant criticism of the Objectives Resolution was its perceived impact
on secularism and the status of religious minorities. The resolution's emphasis on
Islamic principles as the basis for the constitution was seen by some as a step away
from the secular ideals that had initially been envisioned for Pakistan. Critics
worried that this focus could marginalize non-Muslim communities and undermine
their rights and freedoms. By prioritizing Islamic principles, there were concerns
that the rights and protections for religious minorities might be insufficiently
addressed, potentially leading to discrimination and inequality.
The Objectives Resolution faced criticism partly because it did not establish a clear
timescale for completing the constitution or holding elections. This lack of
specificity meant that there was no definitive deadline for finalizing the country's
constitutional framework or for transitioning from a provisional government to an
elected democratic system. The absence of a set timeline created uncertainty and
delays in the political process, contributing to concerns about the effective
establishment of governance structures and the democratic legitimacy of the
2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

government. This ambiguity further fueled apprehensions about the potential for
prolonged instability and the inability to address pressing political and
administrative challenges in a timely manner.
What was Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act(PRODA).
[4]
The Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act (PRODA), introduced
in Pakistan in 1949, was designed to address corruption and misconduct among
public officials and representatives. The act aimed to ensure accountability and
integrity within the government. Under PRODA, complaints about misconduct
could be submitted to the Governor-General or provincial governors, who had the
authority to initiate inquiries conducted by judges. The act stipulated that individuals
found guilty of corruption or other forms of misconduct could be disqualified from
holding public office for up to five years, serving as a deterrent to unethical behavior
and promoting a more transparent and efficient administration.
Describe Liaquat-Nehru Pact (8 April 1950). [4]
The Liaquat-Nehru Pact, signed on April 8, 1950, was a significant agreement
between Pakistan and India aimed at addressing the rights and protection of
minorities in both countries. The pact assured that fundamental rights, including
freedom of movement, freedom of thought, and the right to practice religion, would
be fully upheld for minorities. To ensure these rights were effectively safeguarded,
the agreement established a Minorities Commission responsible for representing and
addressing the concerns of minorities. The pact also stipulated that if any minority
group faced problems, it was the duty of both governments to address and resolve
these issues promptly. By guaranteeing full rights and citizenship status to
minorities, the Liaquat-Nehru Pact sought to foster mutual respect and protect the
interests of minority communities in both nations.
Describe first report of Basic Principles Committee or first draft of constitution.
[4]
The first report of the Basic Principles Committee, presented in 1950, laid the
groundwork for Pakistan's initial constitution. The draft proposed a federal
parliamentary system with a clear division of powers between the central and
provincial governments. It outlined a framework for governance, emphasizing the
need for a strong central government while granting substantial autonomy to the
provinces. The draft also addressed the protection of fundamental rights and the

3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

principles of democracy and social justice. It was criticized for its lack of clarity and
details on how these principles would be implemented.
Why was the first report of Basic Principles Committee rejected? [7]
East Pakistan, despite being the more populous region with a majority of the
country's population, rejected the idea of equal representation in the parliament as
proposed in the initial draft of the constitution. The concept of equal seats for both
wings of the country—East and West Pakistan—was seen as disproportionately
benefiting West Pakistan. East Pakistani leaders argued that this arrangement would
continue a power imbalance and undermine their significant demographic
advantage. They demanded a system of representation based on population size to
ensure that their majority status was accurately reflected in parliamentary decisions.
Similarly, In the first draft of Pakistan's constitution, provincial politicians objected
to the extensive powers allocated to the Head of State and the central Federal
Government. They were concerned that the draft concentrated too much authority in
the hands of the central government, diminishing the autonomy and decision-making
power of the provinces. This centralization was viewed as a threat to regional
interests and administrative control, as it could lead to the marginalization of
provincial voices and interests. Provincial leaders argued for a more balanced
distribution of powers that would grant greater autonomy to the provinces, enabling
them to manage their own affairs and safeguard their regional priorities.
Religious groups complained about the first draft of the constitution for its perceived
inadequacy in incorporating Islamic principles. They felt that the draft did not
sufficiently reflect or implement Islamic values and laws, which they believed
should be central to the governance of Pakistan, given its identity as an Islamic state.
These groups were concerned that the constitution's provisions did not align with
their expectations for an Islamic legal framework and moral guidance in governance.
Their complaints centered on the need for clearer and more comprehensive measures
to integrate Islamic teachings into the legal and administrative systems of the
country, ensuring that the state’s laws and policies adhered more closely to Islamic
principles.

4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was the Rawalpindi Conspiracy 1951? [4]

The Rawalpindi Conspiracy of 1951 was an attempted coup d'état involving a group
of military officers and political activists in Pakistan who sought to overthrow the
government of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. The conspirators, led by Major
General Akbar Khan, aimed to replace the civilian government with a military
regime and install a more favorable political system. The plot was uncovered by the
authorities, leading to the arrest of the conspirators. The failure of the conspiracy led
to a significant crackdown on political dissent and military personnel, and many of
those involved were tried and sentenced. The incident underscored the political
instability of the early years of Pakistan and highlighted the tensions between
civilian and military authorities.
Why was the Rawalpindi Conspiracy hatched against the Government? [7]
A significant immediate cause of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy was the discontent
among Pakistani Army officers with Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan’s handling of
the Kashmir War in 1948. Many officers viewed the government's decision to accept
a ceasefire as a "tame surrender" and a missed opportunity to capture the entirety of
Kashmir. This dissatisfaction was particularly acute among officers who had fought
in the conflict and were of Kashmiri ethnicity, owning land in the contested province.
Their frustration with the perceived ineffectiveness of the civilian leadership in
pursuing the war to its logical conclusion, combined with their personal and regional
stakes, contributed to their disillusionment and the subsequent plotting against the
government.
The Rawalpindi Conspiracy was fueled by a general discontent among Pakistani
Army officers who viewed the performance of the civilian government as corrupt
and incompetent. Many officers believed that the government, led by Prime Minister
Liaquat Ali Khan, was failing to effectively address the nation’s pressing issues,
including economic hardship and political instability. This perception of inefficiency
and corruption prompted the conspirators to believe that a military-led regime would
be better positioned to restore order, implement necessary reforms, and improve
governance. Their dissatisfaction with the civilian leadership's inability to deliver on
its promises and manage the country’s affairs drove them to attempt a coup in hopes
of achieving a more effective and disciplined administration.
Many high-ranking Pakistani generals viewed the continued presence of British
Army officers in the Pakistani military as both a security threat and an impediment
to their own career advancements. They perceived the British officers as a symbol
5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

of lingering colonial influence, which undermined their authority and control within
the army. Additionally, the presence of these officers was seen as a barrier to the
swift promotion of Pakistani officers, as it limited their opportunities for
advancement and command positions. This frustration contributed to a broader sense
of discontent within the military, fueling the desire for a more autonomous and self-
reliant force, free from colonial legacies and constraints.

6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Ghulam Muhammad (1951-55)

Who was Ghulam Muhammad? [4]
Ghulam Muhammad was a prominent Pakistani bureaucrat and politician who
served as the third Governor-General of Pakistan from 1951 to 1955. After
independence, he became Pakistan's first Finance Minister, where he was
instrumental in shaping the nascent country's economic policies. In 1951, following
the assassination of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, Ghulam Muhammad was
appointed Governor-General. His tenure was marked by political instability and his
controversial decision to dissolve the Constituent Assembly in 1954.
Describe five-year economic plan under Ghulam Muhammad. [4]
The five-year economic plan under Ghulam Muhammad, initiated in 1955, was
Pakistan's first comprehensive effort to promote economic development and
industrialization. The plan prioritized increasing agricultural productivity through
modern farming techniques, improved irrigation systems, and better seeds and
fertilizers. It aimed to establish and expand manufacturing industries such as textiles,
cement, and chemicals to reduce dependence on imports and create job
opportunities. Significant investments were made in infrastructure development,
including the construction of roads, railways, and ports, to support economic
activities and facilitate trade.
Who was Muhammad Ali Bogra? [4]
Muhammad Ali Bogra was a notable Pakistani politician and diplomat who served
as the country's third Prime Minister from 1953 to 1955. He initially pursued a
career in diplomacy and served as Pakistan's ambassador to several countries,
including the United States. As Prime Minister, Bogra is best known for proposing
the "Bogra Formula," an innovative plan aimed at resolving the political deadlock
between East and West Pakistan by suggesting a bicameral legislature and equal
representation for both wings. Although his plan was not fully implemented, it
highlighted his efforts to address regional disparities and promote national unity.
Describe Second Report of Basic Principles Committee 1952. [4]
The Second Report of the Basic Principles Committee, presented on December 22,
1952, outlined several key provisions for Pakistan's constitutional framework. It
stipulated that the Head of State must be a Muslim and proposed a bicameral
legislature consisting of a House of Units with 120 members, equally divided

7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

between East and West Pakistan, and a House of People with 400 members, also
equally divided between the two wings. The report called for the representation of
religious minorities in both houses and specified that the Cabinet would be
responsible to the National Assembly. Additionally, it recommended that the Head
of State appoint a committee of Islamic specialists to provide guidance on religious
matters. The report also left the decision regarding the national language to the
Assembly, emphasizing the need for a deliberative approach to this critical issue.
Who was Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din? [4]
Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din was a prominent Pakistani politician and the first President
of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. He was an influential figure in the country's
early legislative developments. He played a key role in drafting Pakistan's first
constitution and was known for his efforts to uphold parliamentary democracy. His
tenure was marked by the constitutional crisis of 1954, when Governor-General
Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Constituent Assembly., a move Tameez-ud-Din
challenged in court. Although the court initially ruled in his favor. The decision was
later overturned, highlighting the struggles for democratic governance in Pakistan's
early years.
What was Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din Case? [4]
The Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din Case, also known as the Tamizuddin Khan case, was a
significant legal battle in Pakistan's early history that centered around the dissolution
of the Constituent Assembly by Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad in 1954.
Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din, the President of the Constituent Assembly, challenged the
dissolution in the Sindh High Court, which ruled in his favor, stating that the
Governor-General's action was unconstitutional. However, the federal government
appealed the decision, and the case was taken to the Federal Court, which overturned
the High Court's ruling. The Federal Court, led by Chief Justice Muhammad Munir,
argued that the Governor-General had the authority to dissolve the Assembly under
certain circumstances. This landmark case highlighted the tensions between
executive power and parliamentary democracy in Pakistan.
Describe Constitutional Crisis of 1954. [4]
The Constitutional Crisis of 1954 in Pakistan was a pivotal event marked by the
dissolution of the Constituent Assembly by Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad.
This drastic action was taken after the Assembly attempted to curb the Governor-
General's powers and assert its authority. The crisis began when the Assembly

8|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

passed the Pakistan Constituent Assembly (Amendment) Act, which aimed to reduce
the Governor-General's influence. In response, Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the
Assembly on October 24, 1954, citing inefficiency and failure to draft a constitution.
This led to widespread political instability and legal battles, most notably the Maulvi
Tamizuddin Khan case, where the dissolution was initially challenged in court. The
Federal Court, however, upheld the Governor-General's decision, which
underscored the executive's dominance over the legislative branch and had lasting
implications for Pakistan's political and constitutional development.
Why was it so difficult to agree on a new Constitution in 1950? [7]
Political instability and power struggles among various factions also hindered the
constitution-making process. The early years of Pakistan's independence were
marked by frequent changes in leadership, with key figures like Liaquat Ali Khan
being assassinated, and successive governments struggling to establish authority and
stability. The power struggle between the Governor-General and the Prime Minister
further exacerbated the situation, as both sought to consolidate their control over the
new state. This environment of political uncertainty made it difficult to focus on and
agree upon a comprehensive constitutional document, as leaders were often
preoccupied with immediate power dynamics rather than long-term governance
structures.
One of the primary challenges in agreeing on a new constitution in 1950 was the
deep-seated ethnic and regional disparities between East and West Pakistan. East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) had a larger population but felt underrepresented and
marginalized in political decisions dominated by West Pakistan. This imbalance
created significant tension, as East Pakistan demanded equitable representation and
greater autonomy. The divergent economic, cultural, and political interests between
the two regions made it difficult to reach a consensus on a unified constitutional
framework that would address the needs and aspirations of both wings of the
country.
Another significant obstacle was the debate over the role of Islam in the state. While
there was broad agreement that Pakistan should be an Islamic republic, there were
stark differences in opinion regarding the extent to which Islamic principles should
influence governance. Some factions, including conservative religious groups,
advocated for a constitution heavily based on Islamic law, while more secular
leaders pushed for a more moderate approach that balanced Islamic values with
democratic principles. This ideological divide complicated the drafting process, as

9|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

finding common ground between these competing visions proved to be a formidable

challenge.
Why were there so many governments in Pakistan from 1950 to 1956? [7]
One of the primary reasons for the frequent changes in government in Pakistan
between 1950 and 1956 was the political instability resulting from the assassination
of key leaders and frequent changes in leadership. The assassination of Prime
Minister Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951 created a leadership vacuum and set a precedent
for political turbulence. His death led to a succession of prime ministers, each
struggling to establish authority and maintain stability in the face of internal and
external challenges. This constant change at the top levels of government
undermined efforts to create a stable and enduring political environment.
Another significant factor contributing to the frequent changes in government was
the absence of a clear and stable constitutional framework. The struggle to draft and
agree upon a constitution created uncertainty and power struggles between various
branches of government, particularly between the Governor-General and the Prime
Minister. The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly by Governor-General
Ghulam Muhammad in 1954 further exacerbated the situation, as it led to legal
battles and political maneuvering that prevented the establishment of a stable and
functioning government. This period of constitutional crisis made it difficult for any
government to maintain long-term stability and implement coherent policies.
Ethnic and regional conflicts also played a crucial role in the frequent changes of
government during this period. The significant differences between East and West
Pakistan in terms of population, culture, and political aspirations created ongoing
tensions and conflicts. East Pakistan, with its larger population, felt
underrepresented and marginalized in political decisions dominated by West
Pakistan. These disparities fueled demands for greater autonomy and fair
representation, leading to political unrest and frequent changes in leadership as
successive governments struggled to address these regional grievances and maintain
national unity. The inability to effectively manage these conflicts contributed to the
overall political instability and frequent changes in government during this period.

10 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Iskander Mirza (1955-58)

Who was Iskander Mirza? [4]
Iskander Mirza was a prominent Pakistani politician who served as the country's fifth
Governor-General from 1955 to 1956. As Governor-General, he played a crucial
role in the political landscape of early Pakistan, notably overseeing the transition
from the office of Governor-General to that of President, following the adoption of
the 1956 Constitution. He was known for his efforts to stabilize the political situation
in Pakistan. His tenure was marked by political controversies and power struggles.
His presidency ended in a dramatic shift when he was succeeded by General Ayub
Khan in a coup, which led to the imposition of martial law.
Who was Ch. Muhammad Ali? [4]
Chaudhry Muhammad Ali was a significant Pakistani politician and civil servant
who played a crucial role in the early years of Pakistan's political history. He served
as Pakistan's fourth Prime Minister from 1955 to 1956. His tenure was marked by
efforts to address regional tensions and manage the complex political landscape of
early Pakistan. He is also known for his role in drafting the country's first
constitution and his involvement in the transition from a Dominion to a Republic.
Describe One Unit Scheme. [4]
The One Unit Scheme, introduced in 1955, was a plan to simplify Pakistan's
administration by merging the four provinces of West Pakistan—Punjab, Sindh, the
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), and Balochistan—into a single large unit
called West Pakistan. This was done to make the government more efficient and to
ensure that resources and development efforts were more evenly distributed.
However, many people in the smaller provinces felt this scheme took away their
local power and representation. As a result, the One Unit Scheme was ended in 1970,
and the provinces were restored to their original boundaries to address local concerns
and improve regional governance.
Why was One Unit Scheme introduced? [7]
One of the main reasons for introducing the One Unit Scheme was to improve
administrative efficiency in West Pakistan. Prior to the scheme, the four provinces—
Punjab, Sindh, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), and Balochistan—had
separate governments and administrative structures. This fragmentation led to
inefficiencies and duplication of efforts. By consolidating these provinces into a

11 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

single administrative unit, the government aimed to streamline decision-making

processes, reduce bureaucratic red tape, and create a more unified administrative
framework. The hope was that a centralized system would facilitate better
governance and more effective implementation of policies across the region.
Another key motivation behind the One Unit Scheme was to address regional
economic and developmental imbalances. At the time, there were significant
disparities in economic development and resource allocation among the provinces.
By merging them into one unit, the government intended to create a more balanced
approach to development, ensuring that resources and investments were distributed
more equitably. The scheme was designed to promote uniform growth and reduce
regional inequalities, helping to foster a more integrated and cohesive economic
strategy for the entire area.
The One Unit Scheme was also introduced to enhance political stability and unity
within West Pakistan. The government believed that by consolidating the provinces,
it could reduce regional tensions and strengthen the political integration of West
Pakistan. The scheme aimed to create a more cohesive political entity that could
better represent the interests of the entire region, rather than being divided by
provincial rivalries. By promoting a sense of unity and reducing the influence of
regional politics, the government hoped to foster a more stable and unified political
environment in West Pakistan.
Why was One Unit Scheme criticized? [7]
The One Unit Scheme led to the end of the independent status of the princely states
in West Pakistan, which created significant anger and dissatisfaction among various
regions. Before the scheme, princely states such as Bahawalpur, Kalat, and others
enjoyed a degree of autonomy and self-governance within their territories. The
consolidation of these states into a single administrative unit under the One Unit
Scheme eliminated their independent status and centralized control in the new entity
of West Pakistan. This abrupt removal of their autonomous status was met with
resistance and frustration, as the princely states felt their historical privileges and
regional identities were being disregarded.
One of the main criticisms of the One Unit Scheme was that it significantly reduced
the autonomy of the individual provinces. Prior to the scheme, each province had its
own government and considerable control over its local affairs. By merging the
provinces into a single unit, many felt that this local autonomy was undermined, as
decision-making was centralized and the distinct needs and interests of each
12 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

province were less likely to be addressed. This reduction in provincial power led to
discontent among local leaders and populations who felt their regional voices and
concerns were being ignored.
The One Unit Scheme also faced criticism for exacerbating regional tensions and
creating a sense of alienation among the smaller provinces. In particular, provinces
like Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province felt marginalized in the new
administrative setup, as their unique cultural and political identities were
overshadowed by the larger unit. This dissatisfaction was compounded by fears that
the central government, now dominated by Punjab due to its larger population,
would prioritize its own interests over those of the smaller provinces. Such regional
discontent contributed to ongoing political instability and unrest.
Describe main features of Constitution of 1956. [4]
The Constitution of 1956 was Pakistan's first official constitution, which made the
country a Republic. It introduced a parliamentary system where the President was
the head of state and the Prime Minister was the head of government. The
Constitution set up two houses of Parliament: the National Assembly and the Senate.
It guaranteed basic rights for all citizens, including equality and protection for
minorities. The Constitution also aimed to balance Islamic values with democratic
principles, providing a framework for both religious and civil rights in the new
republic.
Why was Martial Law imposed in 1958? [7]
Martial Law was imposed in 1958 largely because of the growing conflicts between
East and West Pakistan. East Pakistan, despite having a larger population, felt left
out and unfairly treated by the government, which was mainly controlled by West
Pakistan. These regional tensions led to a lot of political unrest and instability. The
government struggled to manage these issues, and the situation became so chaotic
that Martial Law was seen as a way to bring order and control.
The power struggle between the Governor-General and the Prime Minister also
contributed to the imposition of Martial Law. Ghulam Muhammad, the Governor-
General, and Prime Minister Feroz Khan Noon were constantly fighting for control.
Their ongoing conflict led to frequent changes in government and made the political
situation even more unstable. This power struggle made it difficult to run the country
effectively, leading to the decision to impose Martial Law to restore stability.

13 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Another reason for Martial Law was the delay in creating a new constitution. The
country needed a clear set of rules to govern itself, but the process of drafting and
agreeing on a constitution was slow and ineffective. This delay created confusion
and uncertainty about how the country should be run, which added to the political
instability. Martial Law was imposed to address this problem and try to bring some
order to the situation.
The close relationship between the military and the civil bureaucracy also played a
role in the imposition of Martial Law. The military and bureaucrats were frustrated
with the corruption and inefficiencies in the civilian government. They felt that a
military intervention was needed to fix these problems. With their combined power,
they supported the decision to impose Martial Law as a way to clean up the
government and restore order.

14 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Field Marshall Mohammad Ayub Khan (1958-69)

Who was Field Marshall Mohammad Ayub Khan?[4]
General Ayub Khan was a significant military and political leader in Pakistan's
history, serving as the country's second President from 1958 to 1969 following a
military coup that ousted the civilian government. During his presidency, Ayub
Khan played a crucial role in shaping Pakistan's political landscape and policies. His
tenure was characterized by economic development efforts and strong alliances with
the United States, but it was also marked by authoritarian rule and the suppression
of dissent. Facing increasing protests and public dissatisfaction, Ayub Khan resigned
in 1969, bringing his time in power to an end.
What was Elective Bodies Disqualification Order 1959 (EBDO)? [4]
The Elective Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) of 1959 was a contentious
decree issued by General Ayub Khan's government in Pakistan. The order aimed to
disqualify politicians considered unfit or corrupt from holding public office,
allowing the government to remove elected representatives based on ambiguous and
subjective criteria, without judicial oversight or due process. The EBDO faced
widespread criticism for its perceived role in suppressing political opposition and
centralizing power within Ayub Khan’s regime. Many politicians, especially those
from opposition parties, were disqualified under this order, leading to allegations of
authoritarianism and a weakening of democratic principles.
Describe the Basic Democracies Order of 1959. [4]
The Basic Democracies Order of 1959 was a notable political reform implemented
by General Ayub Khan during his presidency in Pakistan. Its goal was to decentralize
power and enhance grassroots democracy by establishing a tier of local government
known as Basic Democracies. This order introduced an indirect electoral system
where Basic Democrats were chosen by an electoral college composed of local
government officials, tribal elders, and other prominent community figures. This
system was designed to encourage the involvement of respected local leaders while
reducing the influence of political parties.
Describe main Features of Constitution of June 1962. [4]
The Basic Democracies Order of 1959 established a presidential system of
government, concentrating significant power in the hands of President General Ayub
Khan. It introduced a system of local government units known as Basic

15 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Democracies, which were intended to decentralize governance but were criticized

for effectively centralizing power. The constitution under this order implemented
indirect elections at both national and provincial levels, with members selected by
Electoral Colleges rather than through direct public voting. Additionally, it included
a bill of rights that guaranteed certain fundamental freedoms to citizens, though these
rights were subject to limitations and could be suspended during emergencies.
Describe Agricultural Reforms green revolution under Ayub Khan. [4]
During General Ayub Khan's time as President, the Green Revolution in the 1960s
brought major changes to Pakistan's farming. The goal was to increase crop
production using new, high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice. Farmers were
encouraged to use modern tools like chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and improved
irrigation systems. The government invested in building better infrastructure, such
as dams and canals, to ensure a steady water supply for farming. As a result, Pakistan
saw a boost in crop production and became more self-sufficient in food. However,
the benefits were mainly enjoyed by large landowners, leaving small farmers at a
disadvantage and increasing inequalities in rural areas.
What was Tashkent Treaty? [4]
The Tashkent Treaty, signed on January 10, 1966, in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, ended
the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965. It was a ceasefire agreement that stopped the fighting
between India and Pakistan, with both countries agreeing to pull their troops back to
where they were before the war. The treaty also involved returning any captured
territories to their original owners and restoring the border to its previous state.
Besides dealing with land issues, the agreement allowed both countries to restart
diplomatic relations, open embassies, and communicate with each other. It also
stressed that India and Pakistan should use peaceful methods and talk through their
problems, including the ongoing Kashmir dispute.
Wat was SEATO? [4]
SEATO, or the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, was a military alliance formed
in 1954 to provide collective security against the spread of communism in Southeast
Asia. The organization was established in response to the growing influence of
communist movements in the region. Its primary goal was to counteract the potential
threat of communist expansion by fostering mutual defense among member
countries. The alliance aimed to provide military and economic assistance to its

16 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

members and to promote regional stability. SEATO's effectiveness and relevance

declined over time, and the organization was eventually disbanded in 1977.
What was CENTO? [4]
CENTO, or the Central Treaty Organization, was a military alliance formed in 1955
to provide collective security and counter the influence of the Soviet Union in the
Middle East and Central Asia. Also known as the Baghdad Pact Organization, it
aimed to create a defensive bloc in the region. The alliance sought to prevent Soviet
expansion through mutual defense agreements and military cooperation. CENTO's
influence waned over time, especially after the withdrawal of Iraq in 1958 following
a coup, and the organization was eventually dissolved in 1979.
What was Operation Grand Slam? [4]
Operation Grand Slam was a major military attack by Pakistan during the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1965. It started on September 1, 1965, with the goal of capturing
the important town of Akhnoor in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.
Pakistani troops, using tanks and artillery, launched a surprise attack across the
ceasefire line (now the Line of Control) in the Uri area. They aimed to quickly move
into Indian territory and cut off Indian supply lines to Akhnoor. Although they made
some early progress, they faced strong resistance from the Indian Army, which
fought back and stopped their advance. In the end, Operation Grand Slam did not
succeed, and Indian forces managed to hold onto Akhnoor.
What was Operation Gibraltar? [4]
Operation Gibraltar was a secret military mission launched by Pakistan in 1965 to
help Kashmiri rebels and encourage them to rise up against Indian rule in Jammu
and Kashmir. The operation was named after the famous Muslim stronghold,
Gibraltar. Pakistan planned to send trained guerrilla fighters and agents into Indian-
administered Kashmir, hoping to start a popular rebellion. They sent armed
infiltrators disguised as locals across the Line of Control (LoC) into the region.
However, the operation faced many problems, including poor planning and a lack of
local support. Indian security forces quickly discovered and fought against the
infiltrators, leading to intense fighting. Operation Gibraltar did not succeed and
instead increased tensions between India and Pakistan, eventually leading to the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.

17 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was Regional Cooperation for Development RCD? [4]

The Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) was an economic and political
alliance formed in 1964 between Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey. Its primary aim was to
promote economic cooperation, regional integration, and mutual development
among the member countries. The RCD focused on collaborative projects in various
sectors, including trade, infrastructure, and technical assistance, to enhance
economic growth and stability in the region. The organization sought to strengthen
ties among the member states and foster a sense of solidarity and collective progress.
Despite its initial promise, the RCD faced challenges and ultimately lost momentum,
leading to its dissolution in 1979.
Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan's domestic
policies during the decade of development' between 1958 and 1969." Give
reasons for your answer. [14]

Constitutional reforms under Ayub Khan's regime were indeed pivotal during the
"decade of development" from 1958 to 1969 for several reasons. Firstly, Ayub
Khan's introduction of the 1962 Constitution marked a significant departure from
Pakistan's previous parliamentary system, establishing a presidential form of
government. This shift centralized power in the hands of the President, granting
Ayub Khan extensive executive authority. By restructuring the political system,
Ayub Khan aimed to streamline decision-making processes and implement his
vision for economic development and modernization more efficiently.

Similarly, the 1962 Constitution institutionalized the Basic Democracies system,

which aimed to decentralize power and promote grassroots democracy. Under this
system, local government units called Basic Democracies were established, with
elected representatives responsible for local governance. While criticized for its
undemocratic aspects, such as indirect elections and limited political participation,
the Basic Democracies system facilitated Ayub Khan's "revolution from above,"
allowing for the implementation of development projects at the grassroots level and
garnering support for his regime among rural populations

Moreover, Ayub Khan's presidency, Pakistan experienced a period of agricultural

reform, coinciding with the Green Revolution. These reforms were characterized by
the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds, expansion of irrigation
infrastructure, promotion of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, encouragement of
mechanization, and initiation of land reforms. High-yielding varieties were adopted
to increase crop yields, while investments in irrigation aimed to improve water
18 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

availability, particularly in arid regions. The use of chemical inputs helped enhance
soil fertility and combat pests and diseases. Mechanization of agriculture increased
efficiency, and land reforms sought to reduce inequality in land ownership.

Furthermore, under Ayub Khan's regime, industrial reforms played a central role in
his economic development agenda. His policies aimed to modernize Pakistan's
industrial sector, promote economic growth, and reduce reliance on agriculture.
Ayub Khan's government provided incentives for industrialization, including tax
breaks, subsidies, and favorable investment conditions to attract domestic and
foreign capital. Additionally, he established industrial estates and encouraged the
establishment of large-scale industries through state intervention and support. The
Industrial Policy of 1959 emphasized import substitution industrialization, focusing
on the production of goods domestically to reduce dependence on imports. While
these reforms led to some industrial growth and modernization, they also contributed
to the concentration of wealth and power among industrial elites, exacerbating socio-
economic inequalities and leading to discontent among marginalized groups.

By the same token, Ayub Khan's presidency, Pakistan saw significant social and
educational reforms aimed at modernizing society and improving access to
education. Ayub Khan prioritized education as a cornerstone of national
development, increasing government spending on education and expanding the
education infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. His policies included the
establishment of new schools and colleges, vocational training programs, and
initiatives to improve teacher training and curriculum development. Additionally,
Ayub Khan's regime introduced measures to promote gender equality in education,
encouraging the enrollment of girls in schools. While these reforms led to notable
improvements in literacy rates and educational attainment, challenges such as
disparities in access and quality persisted, particularly in rural and underserved
areas. Overall, Ayub Khan's social and educational reforms laid the foundation for
Pakistan's educational development, albeit with mixed results and ongoing
challenges.

How successful was decade of development? [14]

The "decade of development" under Ayub Khan's presidency from 1958 to 1969 saw
significant economic growth and modernization in Pakistan. Ayub Khan's policies
focused on industrialization, infrastructure development, and agricultural reforms,
leading to impressive GDP growth rates averaging around 6% per year. The
industrial sector expanded rapidly, with the establishment of new industries and the
modernization of existing ones. Infrastructure projects such as the construction of

19 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

dams, highways, and irrigation systems contributed to economic development and

improved living standards for many Pakistanis.
However, despite these achievements, the benefits of the "decade of development"
were not evenly distributed, leading to socio-economic disparities and inequalities.
While urban areas experienced rapid growth and development, rural areas lagged
behind, exacerbating the urban-rural divide. Agricultural reforms aimed at
increasing productivity often favored large landowners, further marginalizing small
farmers and agricultural workers. Additionally, the concentration of economic
power and wealth among the elite led to widespread discontent among the
marginalized segments of society, contributing to social unrest and political
instability.
Furthermore, while the "decade of development" saw improvements in certain socio-
economic indicators such as literacy rates and life expectancy, challenges remained
in areas such as healthcare, education, and poverty alleviation. The quality of
education and healthcare services varied widely, with rural and underserved areas
facing significant shortages and disparities in access. Poverty rates remained
stubbornly high, particularly in rural areas, where many people relied on subsistence
agriculture for their livelihoods.
Moreover, Ayub Khan's economic policies, particularly his emphasis on import
substitution industrialization and reliance on foreign aid, led to vulnerabilities and
imbalances in the economy. The country's heavy dependence on imported goods and
technologies left it vulnerable to external shocks and fluctuations in global markets.
Additionally, the growing external debt burden raised concerns about the
sustainability of Pakistan's economic development model and its long-term
implications for fiscal stability.
The "decade of development" also witnessed increasing political repression and
authoritarianism under Ayub Khan's regime. While economic growth and
modernization were prioritized, civil liberties and political freedoms were often
curtailed in the name of stability and efficiency. Critics argue that Ayub Khan's
centralized rule and suppression of dissent stifled democratic institutions and
hindered the development of a vibrant civil society, laying the groundwork for future
political instability and upheaval.
Overall, while the "decade of development" under Ayub Khan's presidency achieved
significant economic growth and modernization, its legacy is complex and contested.
While some view it as a period of progress and transformation, others criticize it for
20 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

exacerbating socio-economic inequalities, undermining democratic values, and

laying the groundwork for future political instability and economic challenges.
Allegations in presidential elections of 1965 was one of the important cause of
downfall of Gen. Ayoub Khan. Do you agree? Discuss. [14]

Ayub Khan's downfall can be attributed to various factors that culminated in

widespread discontent and ultimately led to his resignation in 1969.

First and foremost, the presidential elections of 1965 in Pakistan were marred by
allegations of electoral fraud and manipulation, particularly against the incumbent
President Ayub Khan. Opposition parties accused Ayub Khan's regime of rigging
the elections in favor of the ruling party, the Convention Muslim League. There were
widespread reports of voter intimidation, ballot stuffing, and irregularities in the
electoral process. Opposition leaders, including Fatima Jinnah, who ran against
Ayub Khan, alleged that the elections were neither free nor fair, and that the outcome
was predetermined to ensure Ayub Khan's victory. Despite these allegations, Ayub
Khan was declared the winner of the election, further eroding public trust in the
electoral process and contributing to growing discontent with his regime.

Similarly, despite the economic growth and modernization achieved during his
presidency, Ayub Khan's policies exacerbated socio-economic disparities and
inequalities. Rapid industrialization and urbanization disproportionately benefited
the urban elite, while rural areas lagged behind, exacerbating the urban-rural divide
and fueling grievances among marginalized communities. Moreover, agricultural
reforms favored large landowners, further marginalizing small farmers and
agricultural workers.
Furthermore, Ayub Khan's handling of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the
subsequent Tashkent Agreement drew criticism from various quarters. While the
ceasefire agreement temporarily halted hostilities with India, Ayub Khan's decision
to accept a compromise peace deal without achieving significant territorial gains was
perceived as a setback, particularly among nationalist and military circles. The
Tashkent Agreement also raised questions about Ayub Khan's leadership and
strategic decision-making.
Having said that, Ayub Khan's policies faced growing opposition from various
political and social groups, including the religious right, leftist parties, and ethnic
nationalists. These groups capitalized on public discontent with Ayub Khan's
regime, organizing protests, strikes, and demonstrations to demand political reforms

21 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

and greater democratic freedoms. Ayub Khan's inability to address these grievances
effectively eroded his support base and undermined his legitimacy as a leader.
however, Ayub Khan's reliance on technocrats and bureaucrats to implement his
policies marginalized political parties and civilian institutions, weakening
democratic institutions and processes. The lack of political accountability and
transparency in decision-making further eroded public trust in the government and
contributed to perceptions of corruption and nepotism within Ayub Khan's
administration.
Last but not the least, Ayub Khan's failure to groom a successor and manage
succession effectively also contributed to his downfall. As his health deteriorated
and public dissatisfaction grew, Ayub Khan's regime became increasingly
vulnerable to internal challenges and external pressures. His resignation in 1969
marked the end of an era characterized by authoritarian rule and centralized
governance, paving the way for a new chapter in Pakistan's political history.

22 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
 PAK STUDIES 0448/2059

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF

PAKISTAN
Ch.13 Creation of Bengladesh

Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

East Pakistan to Bangladesh

Who was General Yahya Khan? [4]
General Yahya Khan was the President of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He took
power after General Ayub Khan resigned, and his rule was marked by significant
events in Pakistani history. Yahya Khan is known for leading the country during a
turbulent time, including the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in the
secession of East Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh. His presidency also saw
political instability and widespread dissatisfaction, which contributed to his eventual
resignation.
Describe the Legal Frame Work Order under General Yahya Khan. [4]
The Legal Framework Order (LFO) was a significant constitutional document issued
by General Yahya Khan on March 30, 1969, which served as a temporary
constitution for Pakistan. It aimed to provide a framework for political and
administrative reforms during a period of political instability. The LFO introduced
several key changes, including the suspension of the 1962 Constitution, the
dissolution of the National Assembly, and the establishment of a non-elected
government led by Yahya Khan. It also outlined the process for drafting a new
constitution and set the stage for general elections, which were held in 1970.
Why did General Yahya Khan dissolve One Unit Scheme? [7]
General Yahya Khan dissolved the One Unit Scheme primarily due to the increasing
political unrest and demands for greater provincial autonomy. The One Unit
Scheme, which was introduced in 1955, consolidated the four provinces of West
Pakistan into a single administrative unit in an effort to streamline governance and
strengthen the central government. However, this centralization was met with
significant resistance from various provinces, especially as it was perceived as
diminishing their political and economic autonomy. The growing discontent and
demands from regional leaders for the restoration of provincial autonomy pressured
Yahya Khan to reconsider the scheme.
Secondly, the One Unit Scheme was a major contributing factor to the political and
administrative difficulties faced by the central government. The scheme had created
a large, unwieldy administrative structure that proved to be inefficient and
challenging to manage. The increasing difficulties in governance and administration,
1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

coupled with the inability to address the specific needs of the diverse provinces
effectively, highlighted the need for a more decentralized approach. Dissolving the
scheme was seen as a necessary step to restore effective governance and address
regional concerns more directly.
Lastly, the political crisis and the loss of East Pakistan in 1971 further underscored
the problems associated with the One Unit Scheme. The secession of East Pakistan
and the subsequent creation of Bangladesh revealed the deep-seated regional and
ethnic tensions within Pakistan. In response to these tensions and the evident failure
of the One Unit Scheme to address them, General Yahya Khan decided to dissolve
the scheme and restore the original provincial structure. This move aimed to address
the grievances of the provinces, promote regional representation, and stabilize the
country in the wake of its political upheaval.
Who was Sheikh Mujeeb-Ur-Rehman? [4]
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was a prominent political leader and the founding father of
Bangladesh. He played a crucial role in advocating for the rights and autonomy of
the Bengali-speaking population in East Pakistan, which eventually led to the
creation of Bangladesh. He was the leader of the Awami League, a political party
that championed the cause of Bengali nationalism. His leadership and activism were
central to the struggle for independence from Pakistan. Sheikh Mujib's efforts
culminated in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which resulted in the
formation of Bangladesh. He became the country's first President and is celebrated
as the "Father of the Nation" in Bangladesh.
Describe Six Points of Awami League. [4]
The Six Points, proposed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1966, were key demands
by the Awami League to secure greater autonomy for East Pakistan. They called for
a federal system of government that would grant substantial self-governance to East
Pakistan, including control over its own economic and political affairs. The demands
included having a separate currency and monetary policy for the region, the ability
to manage its own trade and tariffs, and fiscal autonomy to control taxation and use
revenue for local development. Additionally, the points sought a separate military
and defense system within a federal structure and called for constitutional
amendments to integrate these demands. These points were central to the push for

2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Bengali rights and contributed significantly to the movement for the independence
of Bangladesh.
What was Operation Searchlight? [4]
Operation Searchlight was a military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army in
March 1971 during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The goal was to suppress the
independence movement in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) by using force against
those seeking independence. The operation involved widespread attacks on civilians,
including bombings, arson, and mass killings, particularly in the city of Dhaka and
other areas. It aimed to crush the Bengali resistance and restore control, but it instead
intensified the conflict and drew international condemnation for its brutality.
What was Mukti Bahini? [4]
The Mukti Bahini was the guerrilla force that fought for the independence of East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.
Composed of Bengali fighters, it was formed to resist and combat the Pakistani
military's efforts to suppress the independence movement. The Mukti Bahini carried
out various operations, including sabotage, ambushes, and raids, to weaken Pakistani
forces and support the cause of Bangladesh's independence. Their efforts played a
crucial role in the eventual creation of Bangladesh and earned them recognition as a
key element in the country's struggle for freedom.

What was Agartala Conspiracy Case? [4]

The Agartala Conspiracy Case was a political and legal case initiated by the
Pakistani government in 1968 against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and several other
leaders of the Awami League. The case was named after the Indian city of Agartala,
where the alleged conspiracy was said to have been planned. The Pakistani
authorities accused Sheikh Mujib and his associates of plotting to overthrow the
government and secede East Pakistan to create an independent state. The case was
highly controversial, with many viewing it as a politically motivated attempt to
suppress the rising demands for autonomy in East Pakistan. The case played a
significant role in escalating tensions between the central government and East
Pakistan, contributing to the eventual outbreak of the Bangladesh Liberation War.

3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why did East Pakistan wish to break away from Pakistan? [7]
East Pakistan's desire to break away from Pakistan stemmed from several key
grievances. First, there were significant economic disparities between East and West
Pakistan. Despite East Pakistan contributing a large portion of the country's revenue
through its industries and exports, particularly jute, it received minimal economic
benefits in return. The central government in West Pakistan controlled the
distribution of resources and investments, often neglecting the needs and
development of East Pakistan, which led to growing resentment and demands for
greater economic autonomy.
Similarly, political marginalization was a major factor driving East Pakistan’s desire
for independence. The people of East Pakistan, despite being the majority in terms
of population, were often underrepresented in the central government. This
underrepresentation in decision-making processes and the lack of political power
exacerbated feelings of injustice and led to demands for a more equitable political
system. The central government's failure to address these concerns contributed to the
growing movement for autonomy and eventually independence.
Last but not the least, cultural and linguistic differences further fueled East Pakistan's
push for separation. The majority of East Pakistan's population spoke Bengali and
had distinct cultural practices and traditions compared to the Urdu-speaking
population of West Pakistan. The imposition of Urdu as the sole national language
and the neglect of Bengali in government and education further alienated the people
of East Pakistan. The desire to preserve and promote their language and culture
became a significant motivation for seeking independence, culminating in the push
for the creation of Bangladesh.
The Six Points made by Mujib-ur-Rahman and the Awami League was the most
important factor in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.' Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer. [14]
The Six Points of the Awami League, proposed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1966,
played a crucial role in the creation of Bangladesh by articulating the demands for
greater autonomy and rights for East Pakistan. These points addressed key issues
such as economic control, fiscal autonomy, and political representation, highlighting
the disparities and injustices faced by East Pakistan under the central government.

4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The demands for a federal structure and local control over resources resonated
strongly with the Bengali population, fueling widespread support for the
independence movement. The Six Points became a rallying cry for the Bengali
people, intensifying their struggle for autonomy and ultimately contributing to the
secession of East Pakistan and the formation of Bangladesh in 1971.
Political grievances were a major factor in the creation of Bangladesh. People in East
Pakistan felt that they were being treated unfairly by the government in West
Pakistan. Despite being a large part of the country and contributing a lot
economically, they had little say in political decisions and were often ignored. This
lack of representation and fairness led to growing frustration. The central
government's inability to address these issues made the desire for independence
stronger. Ultimately, these political problems led to the push for a separate nation,
resulting in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.
Economic grievances were crucial in the creation of Bangladesh. East Pakistan felt
that it was unfairly treated by the central government in West Pakistan. Even though
East Pakistan contributed a large part of the country’s wealth, especially through jute
exports, it did not receive fair economic benefits or investments in return. The
resources and revenue generated by East Pakistan were often used to support West
Pakistan, leading to underdevelopment in the eastern region. This economic
imbalance created frustration and resentment among East Pakistanis, fueling their
desire for greater control over their own resources and ultimately contributing to the
movement for independence and the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.
Geographical reasons also played a significant role in the creation of Bangladesh.
East Pakistan was separated from West Pakistan by approximately 1,600 kilometers
(about 1,000 miles) of Indian territory, making communication and governance
challenging. This physical distance created difficulties in managing and coordinating
between the two wings of the country, leading to feelings of isolation among East
Pakistanis. The geographical separation exacerbated the sense of neglect and
marginalization, as East Pakistan felt disconnected from the central government in
West Pakistan. These challenges, combined with other political and economic
grievances, contributed to the push for independence and the eventual formation of
Bangladesh in 1971.

5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The cyclone of 1970 was the deadliest tropical cyclone to strike East Pakistan,
occurring on November 12, 1970. It caused the deaths of approximately 500,000
people, making it one of the most catastrophic natural disasters in the region's
history. The slow response from the Pakistani government in providing relief and
aid to the affected areas exacerbated the crisis. Additionally, the government's
refusal to accept aid from India, which had offered assistance, further worsened the
situation. The inadequate response and lack of effective aid contributed to
widespread suffering and dissatisfaction, intensifying the existing political
grievances and pushing East Pakistan closer to seeking independence.
The elections of 1970 were a critical turning point in Pakistan's history, revealing
deep political and constitutional crises. Held on December 7, 1970, the elections saw
the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, achieve a decisive victory in
East Pakistan, securing 167 out of 169 seats allocated to the region in the National
Assembly. This overwhelming win granted the Awami League a clear mandate for
greater autonomy. However, the central government in West Pakistan, led by
President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) under Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto, refused to transfer power or address the demands for autonomy. The
resulting political deadlock and failure to convene the National Assembly deepened
the crisis, leading to escalating tensions and ultimately the outbreak of the
Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, culminating in the independence of
Bangladesh.
Operation Searchlight played a crucial role in the Bangladesh Liberation War by
escalating the conflict between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Launched on
March 25, 1971, this military operation aimed to suppress the independence
movement in East Pakistan with brutal force. The operation involved widespread
attacks on civilians, including bombings, arson, and mass killings, particularly in the
city of Dhaka and other areas. It sought to crush the Bengali resistance and restore
control over the region. Instead of quelling the rebellion, Operation Searchlight
intensified the conflict, drawing international condemnation for its severity and
contributing significantly to the determination of East Pakistanis to pursue
independence. This brutal crackdown played a key role in mobilizing support for the
independence movement, eventually leading to the creation of Bangladesh.

6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

India played a crucial role in the creation of Bangladesh by actively supporting the
independence movement during the 1971 Liberation War. As the conflict intensified,
India provided significant military and humanitarian aid to the Mukti Bahini, the
guerrilla fighters for East Pakistan's independence. The crackdown of Operation
Searchlight by Pakistani forces and the influx of refugees into India further pushed
the Indian government to act. By December 1971, India launched Operation
Bangladesh, a full-scale military intervention that decisively defeated Pakistani
forces in East Pakistan. This intervention was instrumental in ending the conflict and
leading to the creation of Bangladesh as an independent nation on December 16,
1971.

7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
PAK STUDIES 0448/2059

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF PAKISTAN

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto

General Zia-ul-Haq

Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971-77)

Who was Zulfikar Ali Bhutto? [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was a prominent Pakistani politician who served as the country's
President from 1971 to 1973 and as Prime Minister from 1973 to 1977. He was the
founder of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and played a crucial role in the political
landscape of Pakistan during the 1970s. Bhutto is known for his efforts to modernize
Pakistan's economy, promote social reforms, and strengthen the country's industrial
and agricultural sectors. He also spearheaded Pakistan's nuclear program. However,
his tenure was also marked by controversy and political unrest, which eventually led
to his ousting in a military coup by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977.

Why did Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto come to power in 1971? [7]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power in 1971 primarily due to the political turmoil and
dissatisfaction with the then-current government. The 1970 general elections had
revealed deep divisions in the country, with the Awami League emerging as the
dominant party in East Pakistan and the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) gaining
significant support in West Pakistan. The inability of the ruling authorities to address
these regional and political divisions led to widespread unrest. Bhutto, as the leader
of the PPP, capitalized on the public’s disillusionment with the existing political
order and positioned himself as a unifying figure who could address the country’s
challenges and restore stability.

The secession of East Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh in 1971 created a
power vacuum and a sense of urgency for political reform in Pakistan. The country
was left in a state of chaos and disarray after the loss of its eastern wing. Bhutto's
leadership was seen as a promising solution to the crisis, as he advocated for a new
direction and reforms that would address the grievances of various political and

1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

regional groups. His call for a new constitution and a stronger, more centralized
government resonated with many Pakistanis who were seeking a fresh start and
effective leadership.

Bhutto’s ability to appeal to a broad range of social and political groups played a key
role in his rise to power. His promises of social justice, economic reform, and a new
political vision garnered widespread support across different segments of society.
By presenting himself as a champion of the common people and an advocate for
change, Bhutto was able to build a strong political base that helped him secure the
position of Prime Minister. His charismatic leadership and strategic political moves
enabled him to navigate the complex post-1971 landscape and establish himself as a
central figure in Pakistan’s new political era.

What was Federal Security Force (FSF)? [4]

The Federal Security Force (FSF) was a paramilitary organization established in

Pakistan in 1972 by then-Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The FSF was created
with the primary objective of maintaining internal security and supporting the
government in enforcing law and order. It was tasked with safeguarding government
officials, buildings, and critical infrastructure. However, the FSF became
controversial due to allegations of being used by Bhutto's government for political
repression and to target opposition figures. The force was disbanded in 1977
following Bhutto's removal by General Zia-ul-Haq.

Describe main features of Constitution of 1973. [4]

The Constitution of 1973 is a key document in Pakistan's history, setting up a federal

parliamentary system with two houses: The National Assembly and the Senate. It
declares Islam as the state religion and ensures that all laws align with Islamic
principles, with the Council of Islamic Ideology to help guide this. The Constitution

2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

guarantees fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion,

and ensures equality before the law to protect people's rights. It also gives more
power to the provinces by clearly defining what the federal and provincial
governments can do, aiming to balance power and support democratic governance.

What was the Simla Agreement? [4]

The Simla Agreement, signed on July 2, 1972, was a peace deal between India and
Pakistan after the 1971 war that led to the creation of Bangladesh. It focused on
solving conflicts peacefully through talks, respecting each other's borders and
sovereignty, and avoiding interference in each other's internal matters. The
agreement also set the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir, which both
sides agreed to respect. Additionally, it aimed to improve relations by restoring
diplomatic and trade connections and encouraging travel and communication
between the two countries.

Describe Agricultural Reforms of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's government, several agricultural reforms were

introduced to help farmers and improve farming practices. One major change was
setting a limit on how much land one person could own 150 acres so that land would
be more fairly shared. The government also made sure that farmers who worked the
land would have the right to keep farming it, giving them security and stability. They
introduced modern farming methods and better irrigation to help increase crop
production.

Describe Security of Tenure of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's security of tenure reforms were designed to protect farmers and
ensure their stability. According to these reforms, a farmer who had been cultivating
the same land for 25 years or was from a family that had farmed the land for three
3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

generations was given the right to continue working it. If the landlord wanted to evict
the farmer, they had to provide a one-year notice. The reforms also granted farmers
the first right to purchase the land they worked on. Additionally, farmers could
install any necessary facilities on the land, and the landlord was required to share the
cost of these improvements. These measures aimed to provide farmers with greater
security and encourage investment in their land.

Describe Administrative Reforms of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's administrative reforms aimed to streamline and improve the
efficiency of Pakistan's government. He worked on modernizing government
institutions by reducing bureaucratic red tape and promoting merit-based
appointments to ensure that skilled and capable individuals were in key positions.
Bhutto also introduced reforms to decentralize power, giving more authority to local
governments and making them more accountable to the people. Additionally, he
focused on strengthening the civil service by providing better training and resources
to government employees, aiming to make the administration more effective and
responsive to public needs.

Describe Educational Reforms of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's educational reforms focused on improving and expanding

Pakistan's education system. He introduced measures to increase access to
education, including building new schools and colleges in rural and underserved
areas to ensure more children could attend. Bhutto also aimed to improve the quality
of education by updating the curriculum and providing better training for teachers.
His government emphasized the importance of higher education and technical
training, establishing new universities and vocational institutes to prepare students
for various careers. Additionally, Bhutto's reforms included efforts to promote

4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

literacy and educational opportunities for women, aiming to create a more educated
and skilled population.

Describe Health and Social Reforms of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's health and social reforms significantly improved medical
services in Pakistan. He introduced Rural Health Centres and Basic Health Units to
bring healthcare closer to people in remote areas. To make medicines more
affordable, he banned the sale of drugs under brand names, helping reduce costs for
patients. Additionally, Bhutto established training colleges for doctors and nurses to
ensure a well-trained medical workforce. These measures collectively enhanced the
quality and accessibility of healthcare across the country.

Describe Industrial Reforms of Z.A. Bhutto. [4]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's industrial reforms aimed to boost Pakistan's industrial sector
and promote economic development. His government focused on nationalizing key
industries, including banks, insurance companies, and major industrial enterprises,
to ensure greater control and benefit for the state. Bhutto also implemented policies
to support small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) by providing incentives and
credit facilities. Additionally, he promoted industrialization by investing in
infrastructure, such as power and transportation, to support industrial growth. These
reforms were intended to enhance the industrial base of Pakistan, create jobs, and
drive overall economic progress.

Describe Policy of Nationalization. [4]

The Policy of Nationalization under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was a government strategy
to take control of key industries and businesses from private owners and place them
under state ownership. This included major sectors like banks, insurance companies,
and large industrial enterprises. The aim was to ensure that these important industries
5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

benefited the entire country rather than just a few wealthy individuals. By
nationalizing these industries, Bhutto sought to promote economic equality, increase
government control over the economy, and use the profits from these businesses to
fund public services and development projects.

Why did [Link] introduce Policy of Nationalization? [7]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced the Policy of Nationalization to address economic

inequality and concentrate economic power in the hands of the state. He aimed to
reduce the dominance of wealthy private owners and industrialists who controlled
major sectors of the economy. By transferring ownership of key industries, such as
banks and large enterprises, to the government, Bhutto sought to ensure that the
profits and benefits from these industries would be used for the broader public good,
rather than just enriching a few individuals.

Another reason for implementing the policy was to strengthen the government's
control over the economy. By nationalizing crucial industries, Bhutto intended to
create a more centralized and planned economy where the state could direct
resources and investments according to national priorities. This control was seen as
necessary for executing large-scale development projects and achieving economic
stability and growth, which Bhutto believed were vital for the country's progress.

Bhutto introduced nationalization to promote social justice and economic equality.

He believed that by bringing major industries under state control, the government
could better address the needs of the poorer segments of society and reduce
disparities in wealth and opportunity. The policy was intended to redistribute
economic resources more fairly and ensure that the benefits of industrial growth
were shared more equitably among all citizens.

6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why was Policy of Nationalization a failure? [7]

The Policy of Nationalization introduced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced several

challenges that led to its failure.

First and the foremost, the policy often resulted in mismanagement and inefficiency
within the newly nationalized industries. Many of these enterprises were taken over
by the government without adequate planning or management expertise, leading to
operational problems and reduced productivity. The lack of experience and
resources to run these industries effectively meant that they struggled to maintain
profitability and quality.

Similarly, the nationalization led to a loss of investor confidence and decreased

private sector involvement in the economy. The expropriation of private businesses
created uncertainty and fear among entrepreneurs and investors, discouraging them
from investing in Pakistan. This reduction in private investment hindered economic
growth and innovation, which are crucial for a healthy economy.

Last but not the least, the policy faced significant political and public backlash. Many
people viewed nationalization as an overreach of government power and a violation
of property rights. The political opposition and business community criticized the
policy for stifling economic freedom and creating an environment of bureaucratic
control. This backlash led to political instability and challenges in implementing and
sustaining the nationalization efforts.

What was Pakistan National Alliance(PNA)? [4]

The Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) was a political coalition formed in 1977
consisting of several opposition parties that united against the government of Prime
Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The alliance was created to challenge Bhutto's
leadership, which they accused of electoral fraud in the 1977 general elections. The
7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

PNA aimed to bring about political change and restore democratic practices by
calling for new elections and greater transparency. The coalition played a key role
in the political turmoil of that period, which eventually led to significant changes in
Pakistan’s political landscape.

Describe 1977 Elections under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. [4]

In the 1977 elections, nine political parties united to form the Pakistan National
Alliance (PNA) with a two-point agenda: to end Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's rule and to
govern Pakistan according to Islamic law. Despite their efforts, the Pakistan Peoples
Party (PPP) won a landslide victory, securing 154 out of 200 seats, while the PNA
managed to win only 38 seats. The election results were marred by allegations of
rigging, leading the PNA to demand new elections and fueling political unrest in the
country.

Why did Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto fall from power in 1979? [7]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto fell from power in 1979 due to several key reasons.

Firstly, widespread allegations of electoral fraud during the 1977 general elections
led to significant political unrest and opposition from various parties. The Pakistan
National Alliance (PNA) accused Bhutto’s government of rigging the election
results, which not only undermined his legitimacy but also sparked massive protests
and demonstrations. The political turmoil created an unstable environment that
weakened his position and led to increased pressure from both domestic and
international actors.

Similarly, Bhutto's policies, particularly his nationalization program, faced severe

criticism for causing economic problems. The nationalization of industries and
businesses led to mismanagement and inefficiency, which hurt economic
performance and investor confidence. This economic decline contributed to growing
8|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

dissatisfaction among the public and political opponents, further eroding Bhutto's
support base and making it harder for him to maintain power.

Last but not the least, Bhutto's authoritarian approach and suppression of political
dissent exacerbated the situation. His government’s handling of opposition protests
and accusations of human rights abuses alienated many Pakistanis and created an
atmosphere of fear and resentment. In 1979, Bhutto's downfall was sealed when the
Supreme Court, under pressure from the military and political opponents, sentenced
him to death on charges of conspiracy to commit murder, leading to his execution
and the end of his political career.

Why was Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto arrested and subsequently executed in 1979? [7]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was arrested and executed in 1979 primarily due to allegations
of involvement in the murder of a political opponent. In 1974, a political figure
named Ahmad Raza Kasuri was killed in an attack, and Bhutto's government was
accused of orchestrating the assassination. The charges were linked to accusations
of political conspiracies and attempts to suppress opposition voices, which led to
Bhutto’s arrest in 1977 after his government was overthrown by General Zia-ul-Haq.

Similarly, the political and judicial climate was highly charged following Bhutto’s
ousting. The military regime, led by General Zia-ul-Haq, was keen on consolidating
its control and used Bhutto’s trial to demonstrate its authority. Bhutto was put on
trial before a Supreme Court that was under significant influence from the military
government. The trial was criticized for its lack of fairness and was perceived as
politically motivated, with accusations that the charges against Bhutto were
exaggerated to eliminate a major political rival.

Last but not the least, Bhutto's execution in 1979 was a culmination of the political
and legal pressures exerted on the regime. Despite international appeals for

9|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

clemency and claims of unfair trial procedures, Bhutto was sentenced to death and
executed. His execution was seen as a drastic measure by the military regime to both
silence a prominent political figure and solidify its rule, while also serving as a
warning to other potential challengers of the new government.

Constitutional reforms were the most important of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's

domestic policies between 1971 and 1977.' Do you agree? Give reasons for your
answer. [14]

The constitutional reforms of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were crucial in shaping Pakistan’s
political landscape and establishing the framework for its governance. His reforms
introduced the 1973 Constitution, which provided a clear structure for federalism,
established the principles of democracy, and defined the roles and powers of the
executive, legislature, and judiciary. By enshrining the principles of social justice
and equality, the reforms aimed to balance the interests of various ethnic and
political groups. They also ensured greater stability and continuity in governance,
reducing the likelihood of military interventions and political instability. Overall,
Bhutto's constitutional reforms were significant in promoting a more structured and
democratic political system in Pakistan.

The industrial reforms of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were pivotal in reshaping Pakistan’s
economic landscape and fostering industrial growth. By nationalizing key industries
such as banks, insurance companies, and major manufacturing enterprises, Bhutto
aimed to increase state control over critical economic sectors and redirect profits
towards public welfare and development projects. For example, the nationalization
of the banking sector allowed the government to more effectively mobilize financial
resources for infrastructure projects and social programs. These reforms were
intended to promote economic stability, enhance government oversight, and reduce
the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few private owners. Although
10 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

the outcomes were mixed, with some industries facing inefficiency, the reforms
represented a significant shift towards a more government-directed approach to
economic development.

The administrative reforms of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were essential for modernizing
Pakistan’s government and improving its efficiency. By reducing bureaucratic red
tape and promoting merit-based appointments, Bhutto aimed to create a more
effective and responsive administration. For instance, the introduction of
streamlined procedures for government operations and the establishment of a merit-
based civil service helped reduce corruption and improved the quality of public
services. Additionally, his efforts to decentralize power gave local governments
more authority and accountability, allowing for better management of local issues.
These reforms were crucial in enhancing the overall functionality of the government
and making it more capable of addressing the needs of the population.

The health and social reforms of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were vital in advancing public
welfare and improving living standards in Pakistan. By establishing Rural Health
Centres and Basic Health Units, Bhutto significantly increased access to medical
care in underserved areas, which helped reduce mortality rates and improve overall
health. For example, these health facilities provided essential services to rural
populations who previously had limited access to medical treatment. Additionally,
Bhutto’s reforms included banning the sale of branded medicines, which made
medications more affordable and accessible to the poor. His focus on social welfare
programs aimed to support disadvantaged groups, including increased aid for the
unemployed and impoverished, thereby enhancing social safety nets and promoting
economic equity. These reforms played a crucial role in addressing public health
challenges and supporting vulnerable communities.

11 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The agricultural reforms of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were crucial for modernizing
Pakistan's rural economy and improving the conditions of farmers. By introducing
land reforms, Bhutto set limits on land ownership, which aimed to distribute land
more equitably and reduce the power of large landowners. For instance, the
imposition of land limits and the provision of security of tenure helped stabilize the
lives of tenant farmers, giving them more rights and incentives to invest in their land.
The reforms also included measures to ensure that farmers had the first right to
purchase the land they cultivated, which encouraged long-term investments and
agricultural productivity. These changes were important for promoting social justice
in rural areas, increasing agricultural output, and supporting the economic
development of the agricultural sector.

12 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

General Zia-ul Haq 1977-88

Who was [Link] Ul-Haq? [4]

General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was a Pakistani military officer who served as the
sixth President of Pakistan from 1978 until his death in 1988. He came to power
after overthrowing Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in a military coup in 1977.
Zia's rule was marked by the implementation of strict Islamic laws and policies,
known as "Islamization," which significantly altered Pakistan's legal and social
landscape. He also maintained a tight grip on power through martial law, limiting
political freedoms and suppressing opposition. His tenure saw significant
involvement in the Afghan-Soviet war, with Pakistan playing a crucial role in
supporting Afghan mujahideen fighters. General Zia's presidency ended abruptly
when he died in a mysterious plane crash in 1988.
Why did General Zia-ul-Haq impose Martial Law in 1977? [7]
General Zia-ul-Haq imposed martial law in 1977 primarily due to a contentious
national election held in March that year. The election results were marred by
allegations of widespread electoral fraud and rigging. The Pakistan National
Alliance (PNA), a coalition of opposition parties led by figures like Nawaz Sharif
and other political leaders, accused the ruling Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) of
manipulating the election results to secure an unfair victory. The allegations of
corruption and manipulation sparked widespread protests and civil unrest, creating
a political crisis that Zia used as a pretext to intervene and impose martial law,
claiming the need to restore order and ensure fair governance.
The period leading up to the imposition of martial law was marked by significant
political instability and public unrest. The country was experiencing increasing
political polarization and violence, with frequent demonstrations, strikes, and
clashes between rival political factions. The intense public agitation and the failure

13 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

of civilian institutions to manage the crisis effectively provided Zia with a

justification to step in. He positioned himself as a stabilizing force, arguing that
martial law was necessary to quell the unrest and bring about a more orderly and just
political system.
Zia-ul-Haq also had personal and strategic motives for imposing martial law. He was
a key figure in the military and viewed the existing political system, led by Prime
Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, as corrupt and ineffective. By imposing martial law,
Zia aimed to overhaul the political landscape and introduce a series of reforms that
he believed would address the systemic issues within the country. His intent was to
reshape the governance structure according to his vision, which included
strengthening the role of the military and implementing Islamic principles, thereby
consolidating his control over the country and setting the stage for a new political
order.
Who was Muhammad Khan Junejo? [4]

Muhammad Khan Junejo was a Pakistani politician who served as the Prime
Minister of Pakistan from 1985 to 1988. Appointed by President General Zia-ul-Haq
after the restoration of civilian rule, Junejo was chosen to lead the country under the
non-party electoral system introduced at the time. His tenure was marked by efforts
to promote economic reform and political stability, as well as attempts to assert
civilian control over the military. However, tensions with General Zia grew,
particularly over issues like the handling of the Ojhri Camp disaster and the signing
of the Geneva Accords on Afghanistan. These disagreements ultimately led to
Junejo's dismissal by Zia in 1988, effectively ending his time in office.

14 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Describe Process of Islmization.[4]

The process of Islamization in Pakistan, particularly during General Zia-ul-Haq's

regime (1977-1988), involved a comprehensive integration of Islamic principles into
the country's legal, educational, and social systems. This included the
implementation of Islamic laws, known as Hudood Ordinances, which introduced
punishments like flogging and stoning for certain crimes. The Federal Shariat Court
was established to ensure laws were consistent with Islamic teachings. Educational
reforms emphasized Islamic content in the curriculum, and social policies
encouraged adherence to Islamic norms. Additionally, economic measures such as
the collection of Zakat and Ushr were introduced, alongside efforts to eliminate
interest from financial practices. These steps significantly shaped the country's social
and political environment, embedding Islamic principles into the governance and
daily life of Pakistan.

Why did Zia-ul-Haq introduce Islamization in the Country? [7]

General Zia-ul-Haq introduced Islamization in Pakistan as a strategy to legitimize

his rule after coming to power through a military coup in 1977. Having ousted a
democratically elected government, Zia faced a legitimacy crisis and needed a way
to justify his authority. By promoting Islamic values and laws, he sought to align his
regime with the cultural and religious identity of the majority of Pakistanis. This
move was intended to present his rule as a continuation of a divine and moral order,
thereby gaining acceptance and reducing opposition to his government.

Another critical reason for Zia's Islamization policies was to gain the support of
religious elements, who were discontented with the socialist policies introduced
under the previous government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Bhutto's administration had
implemented a series of socialist reforms that included nationalization of industries

15 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

and social welfare programs, which many religious leaders viewed as contrary to
Islamic economic principles. Zia-ul-Haq's emphasis on Islamic laws and values was
designed to appease these religious factions, aligning his policies with their
expectations and winning their backing. This support was crucial for Zia, as religious
leaders wielded significant influence over public opinion and could mobilize
grassroots support for his regime.

Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization was also closely linked to his support for the Afghan jihad
against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. By positioning himself as a defender of
Islam, Zia garnered both domestic and international support for his regime and its
policies. The promotion of Islamization helped to mobilize public sentiment in favor
of the Afghan mujahideen, who were fighting a jihad, or holy war, against the
atheistic Soviet forces. This alignment with Islamic causes also attracted financial
and military aid from Western countries, particularly the United States, which saw
Pakistan as a crucial ally in its Cold War strategy. Islamization, thus, served to
strengthen Zia's domestic position and international standing by framing his regime's
support for the Afghan resistance as a religious duty.

Zia-ul-Haq's introduction of Islamization also aimed to secure the support of the

Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a coalition of opposition parties that had united
to demand the removal of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from power. The PNA, which included
conservative and religious parties, had a strong agenda for the introduction of
Islamic laws in Pakistan. By aligning his policies with the PNA’s demands, Zia
sought to gain the backing of this influential coalition. The PNA’s support was
crucial for Zia, as it would help legitimize his government and consolidate his
position in the face of political opposition. The Islamization policies were thus a
strategic move to appease the PNA and fulfill their agenda, ensuring their support
and enhancing his regime’s stability.

16 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was Hudood Ordinance? [4]

The Hudood Ordinances, introduced in Pakistan in 1979 under General Zia-ul-Haq's

regime, were a set of Islamic laws aimed at implementing Sharia principles within
the legal system. These ordinances covered various criminal offenses, including
theft, adultery, and false accusations of adultery, prescribing specific punishments
such as amputation, flogging, and stoning. The ordinances were designed to replace
existing laws with those based on Islamic jurisprudence, reflecting Zia's broader
agenda of Islamization. They were controversial and criticized for their harsh
punishments and the way they were applied, often disproportionately affecting
women and marginalized groups, and for their role in deepening social and legal
divisions within Pakistani society.

Describe Blasphemy Laws. [4]

Blasphemy laws in Pakistan, particularly those introduced or amended during the

1980s under General Zia-ul-Haq's regime, are legal provisions that criminalize acts
deemed disrespectful towards Islam and its symbols. These laws include sections
that penalize offenses such as defiling the Quran, insulting the Prophet Muhammad,
and other acts perceived as blasphemous. The most notable of these laws is Section
295-C of the Pakistan Penal Code, which mandates severe penalties, including the
death sentence, for those convicted of blaspheming the Prophet Muhammad.

What was Council of Islamic Ideology? [4]

Under General Zia-ul-Haq's regime, the Council of Islamic Ideology (CII) was
significantly empowered to align Pakistan's legal system with Islamic principles.
Established in 1962 but given renewed importance during Zia's rule (1977-1988),
the CII was tasked with reviewing and recommending modifications to laws to
ensure they conformed to Sharia. This included advising on the implementation of

17 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Islamic laws such as the Hudood Ordinances. The council's recommendations were
crucial in advancing Zia’s Islamization agenda, shaping legal reforms, and
reinforcing the regime’s commitment to integrating Islamic values into Pakistan's
governance and legal frameworks.

Describe the Afghan Miracle. [4]

The "Afghan Miracle" began with the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan on
December 25, 1979, which turned into a significant geopolitical event with profound
implications for Pakistan. The invasion proved to be a strategic blessing for General
Zia-ul-Haq, as Pakistan emerged as a crucial ally in the fight against the Soviet
Union. This partnership brought substantial financial aid to Pakistan, positioning it
as the second-largest supplier of military assistance and manpower in the developing
world. The influx of aid and military support contributed to a shift in Pakistan’s
economic landscape, leading to significant changes, including a process of
denationalization, which transformed various sectors of the economy.

What was the Geneva Accord? [4]

The Geneva Accords, signed on April 14, 1988, were a set of agreements aimed at
ending the Soviet-Afghan War and ensuring the withdrawal of Soviet forces from
Afghanistan. The accords were negotiated in Geneva by the United States, the Soviet
Union, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. They outlined a timetable for the withdrawal of
Soviet troops, the cessation of foreign interference, and the establishment of a non-
aligned, neutral Afghan government. The agreements were a pivotal moment in the
Cold War, marking the end of a decade-long conflict that had significant regional
and global repercussions, including the strengthening of Pakistan's role in the
Afghan conflict and its influence in the region.

18 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

What was cricket Diplomacy? [4]

Cricket diplomacy under General Zia-ul-Haq refers to the strategic use of cricket
matches to improve diplomatic relations between Pakistan and India during his
tenure. A key moment in this approach was the 1987 cricket series between the two
nations, which included a high-profile match attended by Zia-ul-Haq and Indian
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. Their joint attendance at the match was intended to
symbolize a thaw in relations and promote bilateral dialogue. Zia-ul-Haq's
engagement in cricket diplomacy aimed to leverage the sport's popularity to create a
positive atmosphere for political and diplomatic engagement, fostering goodwill and
easing tensions between the two countries.

What was Eighth Amendment. [4]

The Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, enacted in 1985, was a

significant constitutional reform introduced during General Zia-ul-Haq's regime.
This amendment granted sweeping powers to the President, including the authority
to dissolve the National Assembly and dismiss the Prime Minister. It also allowed
the President to appoint key officials, such as the Chief of Army Staff and the Chief
Justice, further consolidating executive power. The amendment effectively
weakened the parliamentary system and strengthened the presidential role,
reinforcing Zia's control over the government. The Eighth Amendment was a crucial
part of Zia's strategy to maintain his grip on power while nominally transitioning
Pakistan back to civilian rule.

What was Movement for Restoration of Democracy(MRD). [4]

The Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD) was a political coalition

formed in Pakistan in 1981 to challenge the authoritarian regime of General Zia-ul-
Haq and advocate for the restoration of democratic governance. Comprising major

19 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

opposition parties, including the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto’s successor, Benazir Bhutto, and other political groups, the MRD sought to
end Zia's martial law, reverse the Eighth Amendment, and reinstate democratic
processes. The movement organized protests, strikes, and rallies to pressure the
government for political reforms and the return of civilian rule. Despite facing
significant repression and limited success in achieving its immediate goals, the MRD
played a crucial role in highlighting the demand for democracy and contributed to
the eventual transition to civilian rule in 1988.

What was Ojhri Camp incident? [4]

The Ojhri Camp incident refers to a catastrophic explosion that occurred on April
10, 1988, at the Ojhri Camp, a munitions storage facility in Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
The explosion resulted in a massive fire that caused extensive damage and loss of
life, with estimates of casualties ranging from several hundred to over a thousand
people, including both military personnel and civilians. The blast also led to a
significant amount of unexploded ordnance being scattered across nearby areas,
further endangering lives. The incident was highly controversial and criticized for
the government's mishandling of the situation, leading to questions about the safety
and management of military storage facilities. It also contributed to growing public
dissatisfaction with General Zia-ul-Haq's regime and intensified political pressures
on the government.

Why was difficult for Zia-ul-Haq to control the country in late 1980s? [7]

In the late 1980s, General Zia-ul-Haq faced increasing political opposition from
various groups and parties that were actively challenging his authoritarian rule. The
Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD), a coalition of opposition parties,
was particularly vocal in demanding the end of martial law and the restoration of

20 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

democratic processes. This coalition organized widespread protests, strikes, and

rallies, creating significant political pressure on Zia's regime. The growing
discontent among the populace and political activists made it increasingly difficult
for Zia to maintain control and suppress dissent effectively.

Zia-ul-Haq’s regime also grappled with economic difficulties, including inflation,

unemployment, and a growing budget deficit. Despite receiving substantial foreign
aid, particularly from the United States due to Pakistan's role in the Afghan war, the
economic benefits were not evenly distributed or effectively managed. The Ojhri
Camp incident and other signs of government mismanagement further exacerbated
economic instability. The economic pressures contributed to public dissatisfaction
and eroded support for Zia's regime, making it harder for him to implement effective
policies and maintain control over the country.

The late 1980s saw a rise in internal security issues, including increased violence,
terrorism, and instability. The Afghan conflict, which had drawn in substantial
international and local involvement, also contributed to internal strife and
lawlessness. Additionally, the government faced challenges in managing the fallout
from incidents such as the Ojhri Camp explosion, which revealed serious lapses in
safety and administrative control. These security challenges further undermined
Zia’s ability to govern effectively and maintain order, leading to a deteriorating
situation that made it increasingly difficult for him to exercise control over the
country.

21 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

How successful was Zia-ul-Haq in his foreign policy from 1977 to 1988? [14]

One of General Zia-ul-Haq's significant successes in foreign policy was

strengthening Pakistan's relationship with the United States. During his rule, Zia
managed to secure substantial military and economic aid from the U.S., primarily
due to Pakistan's strategic role in the Cold War and its involvement in the Soviet-
Afghan War. This support not only bolstered Pakistan's military capabilities but also
provided critical economic assistance, which helped stabilize the country's economy
to some extent. Zia’s effective diplomacy and alignment with U.S. interests were
pivotal in enhancing Pakistan’s strategic importance on the global stage.

Zia-ul-Haq's foreign policy was notably successful in garnering international support

for the Afghan mujahideen fighting against Soviet forces in Afghanistan. By
positioning Pakistan as a key ally in the Afghan resistance, Zia played a crucial role
in facilitating the flow of arms, funds, and training to the mujahideen. This support,
coupled with assistance from the U.S. and other Western countries, significantly
contributed to the Soviet Union's eventual withdrawal from Afghanistan. Zia’s
policies in this regard were instrumental in shaping the outcome of the conflict and
cementing Pakistan’s role as a pivotal player in regional geopolitics.

During Zia-ul-Haq’s tenure, Pakistan further strengthened its diplomatic relations

with China. The relationship was bolstered by continued economic cooperation and
military collaboration. Zia’s strategic alignment with China helped balance
Pakistan’s foreign policy and provided an additional counterweight to Indian
influence in the region. This partnership also included significant military and
economic aid, enhancing Pakistan’s defense capabilities and contributing to the
broader strategic alliance between the two nations.

22 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The Geneva Accords, signed in 1988, were a mixed success for Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign
policy. While the accords successfully facilitated the withdrawal of Soviet troops
from Afghanistan, marking a significant achievement for Pakistan’s role in the
Afghan conflict, they also came at a cost. The accords did not fully address the
complexities of the post-war situation in Afghanistan or ensure long-term stability
in the region. Additionally, the timing of the accords, just before Zia’s death, meant
that the long-term impact of this diplomatic achievement was left to his successors
to manage.

Despite efforts at diplomacy, Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign policy faced notable failures,

particularly in relations with India. The period under Zia saw persistent tension and
hostility between the two countries, exacerbated by issues such as the Kashmir
conflict and cross-border terrorism. Zia’s support for insurgent groups in Kashmir
further strained relations and led to several military skirmishes and diplomatic
confrontations. The inability to improve relations with India during his tenure
reflected a significant shortcoming in his foreign policy efforts.

Zia’s domestic policies, including the imposition of martial law and the Islamization
of the country, led to growing international criticism. His authoritarian rule, human
rights abuses, and suppression of political dissent attracted condemnation from
various global actors and human rights organizations. This international criticism
occasionally undermined Pakistan’s diplomatic standing and complicated Zia’s
foreign policy goals. The domestic unrest and political repression during his regime
often overshadowed his foreign policy successes.

Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign policy also faced challenges in managing relations with Iran,
especially following the Iranian Revolution of 1979. The rise of the Islamic Republic
of Iran led to a shift in regional dynamics, and Zia’s attempts to navigate the complex
geopolitical landscape, including Iran’s shifting stance toward Pakistan and its
23 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

involvement in regional conflicts, were met with limited success. The strained
relationship with Iran, combined with shifting regional alliances, posed difficulties
for Zia in maintaining a stable foreign policy environment.

Islamic reforms were the most important of Zia-ul-Haq's domestic policies

between 1977 and 1988.' Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your
answer. [14]

The Islamic reforms implemented by General Zia-ul-Haq were highly significant as

they reshaped Pakistan’s legal, social, and political landscape in alignment with
Islamic principles. By instituting the Hudood Ordinances, introducing the Federal
Shariat Court, and emphasizing Islamic values in education, Zia aimed to transform
Pakistan into an Islamic state, reflecting his vision of governance based on Sharia
law. These reforms had a profound impact on the judiciary, influencing legal
practices and societal norms, and also polarized public opinion by affecting women's
rights and personal freedoms. The emphasis on Islamization reinforced Zia's
political agenda and his control over the country, while simultaneously leaving a
lasting imprint on Pakistan's identity and legal system.

The economic reforms introduced during General Zia-ul-Haq’s regime were crucial
in shaping Pakistan’s economic landscape and laying the groundwork for future
economic policies. By pursuing privatization and economic liberalization, Zia aimed
to reduce the financial burden of state-owned enterprises and encourage private
sector investment, which was intended to enhance economic efficiency and stimulate
growth. These reforms included the privatization of key industries, deregulation, and
the reduction of trade barriers, which helped integrate Pakistan into the global
economy and attracted foreign investment. While these reforms had mixed results
and faced challenges such as corruption and inefficiency, they were important in

24 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

shifting Pakistan's economic policy towards a more market-oriented approach and

setting a precedent for future economic strategies.

The administrative reforms implemented by General Zia-ul-Haq were significant for

several reasons. By restructuring the civil service, Zia aimed to enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of government operations, reduce corruption, and
improve bureaucratic performance. The introduction of local government reforms
sought to decentralize administrative functions, bringing governance closer to the
people and improving local decision-making. These reforms also included efforts to
streamline administrative procedures and promote merit-based promotions. While
the success of these reforms was uneven and often constrained by political and
systemic challenges, they were important in attempting to modernize the
administrative framework, improve governance, and strengthen the overall
functioning of the state apparatus.

The constitutional reforms introduced during General Zia-ul-Haq's regime were

crucial in reshaping Pakistan's political and governance structure. The most notable
of these was the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1985, which
significantly altered the balance of power between the executive and legislative
branches. This amendment granted the President extensive authority, including the
power to dissolve the National Assembly and appoint key officials such as the Prime
Minister and Chief Justice. This shift centralized executive power, diminishing the
role of the parliamentary system and enhancing the President's control over the
government. These reforms were vital for Zia to strengthen his grip on power and
ensure stability within his regime. They also influenced the nature of Pakistan's
democracy by reducing the effectiveness of parliamentary oversight and
consolidating executive authority, which had long-term implications for the
country's political dynamics and governance.

25 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The educational reforms introduced during General Zia-ul-Haq's regime were

significant in shaping Pakistan’s educational landscape and aligning it with his
vision of an Islamic state. By integrating Islamic values into the education system,
including making Islamic studies a compulsory subject and revising curricula to
reflect Islamic teachings, Zia aimed to instill Islamic principles in the younger
generation and promote an Islamic identity. These reforms were intended to
reinforce the regime's ideological agenda and ensure that the education system
supported the broader goals of Islamization. The emphasis on Islamic education also
contributed to the proliferation of madrassas and other religious institutions, which
played a role in shaping the socio-religious fabric of Pakistani society.

26 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
PAK STUDIES 0448/2059

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF PAKISTAN

Benazir Bhutto
Muhammad Nawaz Sharif

Mian Shahid Mahmood

World Distinction Pak Studies CAIE 2022
Pakistan Studies (GCE 2059/IGCSE 0448)
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Benazir Bhutto (1988-1990 and 1993-1996)

Who was Benazir Bhutto? [4]

Benazir Bhutto was the first woman to lead a Muslim-majority country, serving as
the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Born on June 21, 1953, she was the daughter of
former Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Benazir was a charismatic leader who
led the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and worked for democracy and social reforms.
She became Prime Minister twice, first from 1988 to 1990 and then from 1993 to
1996. Her terms were marked by efforts to modernize Pakistan, but also by political
challenges and corruption allegations. Tragically, she was assassinated in 2007
during a political rally.

Who was Begum Nusrat Bhutto? [4]

Begum Nusrat Bhutto was a prominent Pakistani politician and the wife of former
Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Born on March 23, 1929, in Iran, she became
an influential figure in Pakistan's political landscape. As the First Lady of Pakistan,
she played a significant role in social welfare and women's rights. After her
husband's execution in 1979, she led the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) during a
challenging period of military rule. She was also the mother of Benazir Bhutto, the
first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Begum Nusrat Bhutto passed away on
October 23, 2011.

Who was Mir Murtaza Bhutto? [4]

Mir Murtaza Bhutto was a Pakistani politician and the son of former Prime Minister
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Nusrat Bhutto. Born on September 18, 1954, he was the
elder brother of Benazir Bhutto. Murtaza was involved in politics from a young age
and was known for his opposition to military rule in Pakistan. After his father's
execution in 1979, he went into exile and founded the militant organization Al-
1|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Zulfiqar to fight against the military dictatorship. He returned to Pakistan in the

1990s and was elected to the provincial assembly. Tragically, he was killed in a
controversial police encounter in Karachi on September 20, 1996.

Who was Ghulam Ishaq Khan? [4]

Ghulam Ishaq Khan was a prominent Pakistani bureaucrat and politician who served
as the President of Pakistan from 1988 to 1993. He had a distinguished career in the
civil service, holding various key positions, including Finance Minister and
Chairman of the Senate. After the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in a plane crash,
Ghulam Ishaq Khan assumed the presidency. During his tenure, he was known for
his firm stance on financial discipline and for overseeing a period of political
instability marked by the dismissal of two prime ministers, Benazir Bhutto and
Nawaz Sharif, on charges of corruption and mismanagement. He passed away on
October 27, 2006.

Who was Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari? [4]

Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari was a Pakistani politician who served as the President
of Pakistan from 1993 to 1997. Born on May 29, 1940, in the Dera Ghazi Khan
District, he came from a prominent political family. Leghari joined the Pakistan
People's Party (PPP) and held various ministerial positions before being elected as
president. His presidency was marked by political turmoil, including the dismissal
of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's government in 1996 due to corruption charges.
Despite being a PPP member, his decision to remove Bhutto's government led to a
split with the party. Leghari passed away on October 20, 2010.

2|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Describe the problems caused by family feuds that faced the Benazir Bhutto
governments. [4]

Benazir Bhutto developed differences with her mother Begum Nusrat Bhutto about
the top leadership of PPP (Pakistan People’s Party). Nusrat Bhutto wanted Benazir’s
brother Mir Murtaza Bhutto to be the Chairman. Due to Benazir’s tactics her mother
left politics and her brother went into exile. He founded the Al-Zulfiqar Organization
as tool to oppose and criticize Benazir. He also openly criticized Benazir’s husband
Asif Ali Zardari because of his open involvement in corruption cases. Zardari was
notoriously titled as Mr. 10%. Mir Murtaza was arrested on his return to Pakistan on
charges of terrorism, and mysteriously killed in 1996.

What was the Pucca Qila massacre? [4]

On 27th May 1990, the PPP government of Sindh launched a crackdown against the
MQM in Hyderabad. A shoot-on-sight curfew was imposed and a house search
operation was conducted by the police. The Muhajir community strongly protested
against this. Many Muhajirs had taken shelter in the Pucca Qila (old fort, near the
railway station) and the police forced them to come out. A massive police attack
resulted in more than 300 deaths including women and children. As violence grew,
President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Benazir Bhutto’s government in August
1990.

What was the Train March, 1994? [4]

In September 1994, Nawaz Sharif launched a protest campaign against Benazir

Bhutto’s government by starting his famous train march. He, with his supporters
travelled from Karachi to Peshawar and delivered speeches against Benazir Bhutto
attracting huge crowds on various stations. Soon the protest became more organized

3|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

in September-October 1994. Benazir Bhutto responded by arresting several

opposition leaders but it only increased her opposition and problems.

What was Islami Jamhoori Ittehad(IJI)? [4]

Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI) was a political alliance in Pakistan formed in 1988. It
consisted of several right-wing parties, including the Pakistan Muslim League and
the Jamaat-e-Islami. The IJI was created with the support of the military
establishment to counter the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) led by Benazir Bhutto.
The alliance aimed to promote conservative Islamic values and oppose Bhutto's
policies. In the 1988 general elections, the IJI emerged as a significant opposition
force but failed to prevent Benazir Bhutto from becoming Prime Minister. The IJI
played a key role in Pakistani politics during the late 1980s and early 1990s before
eventually disbanding.

What was the “No-Confidence Motion” against Benazir Bhutto? [4]

Benazir Bhutto faced a strong opposition by the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad(IJI) led by
Nawaz Sharif. Just 11 months after assuming power, she faced a No- Confidence
Motion tabled in the National Assembly (NA)by the Opposition in October 1989.
The Opposition was able to muster 107 seats out of a total of237 seats of the NA.
119 votes were needed to force the PM to [Link], Benazir survived by a narrow
margin of 12 votes.

What was Benazir’s “Agenda of Change”? [4]

It was the slogan of Benazir Bhutto’s election campaign in 1993. After winning the
elections, she promised to improve social services. She expressed her concern for
women’s social welfare and health issues. She promised to establish women’s police
stations, courts and women’s development banks. She also wanted to address the
issue of discrimination against women. She, however, could not make any laws as
4|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

her party did not have the required majority in the Parliament. Moreover, it became
difficult to run state affairs smoothly because of her strong rival Nawaz Sharif.

Why Benazir Bhutto was dismissed in 1990? [7]

Benazir Bhutto was elected as the first female prime minister of Pakistan but she
never had a smooth sailing. She had a weak political base in the Centre as the largest
province, Punjab was under her strongest rival Mr. Nawaz Sharif who gave her a
very tough time mainly as a result of Benazir’s own mishandling of Mr. Sharif. She
launched a campaign of maligning his image but without any success.

Her government faced charges of corruption and mismanagement of political affairs.

There were allegations that loans from IMF were being used by her party supporters
including her husband Mr. Asif Zardari and his father Mr. Hakim Zardari. It was
believed that both were using the illegally acquired money to flourish their personal
business and suppressing opposition.

Situation was no better in her home province, Sindh. Urban Sindh was under the
MQM (Muhajir (now Muttahida) Qaumi Movement) and PPP had support in rural
Sindh. She soon developed conflict with the MQM as many of her party members
blamed her of preferring the MQM people over her party workers. Soon the PPP-
MQM coalition ended and a massive crackdown was started against the MQM.
Violence and protests spread in major cities of Sindh. Finally, the Pucca Qila
massacre of Hyderabad in May 1990 led to the killing of several MQM workers
including women and children. This was followed by 300 more deaths in Karachi
and other cities. This proved to be the last nail in the coffin of her government as
President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed her government on 6th August, 1990 using
his constitutional powers under the Article 58-2(b) on the charges of corruption and
mismanagement.

5|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Why was Benazir Bhutto removed in 1996? [7]

As Prime Minister, Benazir Bhutto did not enjoy comfortable times. She was
opposed on all sides and by almost all provinces. She developed differences with her
mother and brother. She cleverly pushed her mother, Begum Nusrat Bhutto, aside so
that she was no more active in politics. Later the murder of her brother, Murtaza in
a police operation in Karachi raised many questions about her legitimacy as PM. She
locked her horns with the Supreme Court by refuting the Court’s orders to dismiss
20 judges appointed by the government in the infamous “Judges Case” of 1996.

Economic performance of her government was also not impressive. Pakistan

borrowed heavily from the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and this led to strict
financial controls and inflation that were blamed on the government. She desperately
tried to improve economic performance of Pakistan but could not gain success
mainly due to growing corruption and her policy of favouritism. Her husband, Asif
Zardari, had become more notorious because of his alleged involvement in
corruption and political kickbacks. He was sarcastically called Mr. 10% as he is
reported to have asked for a share of 10% in exchange for approving the project of
any person or company.

Very strong opposition came from Punjab where the most powerful politician Mr.
Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive campaign against her. He leveled charges of
corruption, mismanagement, inefficiency and flawed methods in handling various
affairs. He organized rallies and demonstrations in several cities. Benazir’s husband,
Mr. Zardari proved to be her Achilles’ heel as she faced charges of involvement in
various corruption cases, political kickbacks and paybacks. This greatly weakened
her position and damaged her image. Then the dismissal her Chief Minister, Manzur
Wattoo came as a great setback for her government as she was sharply criticized for
mishandling the matter and losing more popularity in the largest province of
6|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Pakistan. So, President Farooq Leghari using his powers under the article 58-2(b),
dismissed her government on 5 November, 1996.

How successful was Benazir Bhutto in ruling Pakistan during 1988-1990 and
1993-1996? (14)

Benazir Bhutto was elected as the first woman Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1988
and served in office till 1990. She had a mix of successes and failures. She
highlighted her image as the first woman PM of the Muslim World both before the
people of Pakistan and the West. She ended a ban on the making of trade unions and
students’ unions in order win the confidence of industrial workers and students.
Also, many political prisoners of PPP were released that had been arrested by the
Zia’s regime.

Moreover, she declared a general pardon for many other political prisoners. She also
initiated the rural electrification programme. She took some steps exclusively for the
welfare of women. First Women’s Bank was opened in 1989. She recruited women
in police and civil services under a special scheme and appointed for the first-time
women judges of the High Courts. She tried to make Pakistan a democratic Islamic
republic while abandoning the strict Islamic policies of Zia but this was hard to
achieve. She couldn’t make any legislation in this regard because the opposition
dominated the Senate and the largest province Punjab was under her rival Mr. Nawaz

Sharif.

Nawaz Sharif was able to table a no confidence motion against Benazir by the end
of 1989 in the National Assembly. Though the motion was defeated by just twelve
votes, it was a serious blow to her government. Therefore, no new laws were made
to improve the status of women despite all her claims mainly because the Hudood
Ordinance could not be repealed. She gradually lost support as her government could

7|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

not fulfill the promises of reducing unemployment, making economic progress and
controlling inflation and a high population growth. The drug abuse problem also
worsened mainly due to the presence of several Afghan refugees in Pakistan.

Benazir faced serious opposition by her party in Sindh. She made a coalition with
the MQM, a party of Urdu speaking migrants from India but the PPP stalwarts in
Sindh opposed her. The MQM wanted due rights at par with the Sindhi speaking
population but this led to growing conflict between MQM and PPP. Violence
erupted in Karachi and other cities between September 1988 and May 1990 when
the Pucca Qila operation against the MQM in Hyderabad became a reason of
dismissal of her government.

In foreign affairs, she made some achievements. Pakistan rejoined the

Commonwealth in October 1989 as Pakistan had been recognized as a country with
a democratically elected government. She paid a successful visit to the USA in June
1989 and the Bush administration promised an aid of over $400 million. In
December 1988, the Indian PM, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi visited Pakistan. It was a big
success because for the first time an Indian Prime Minister had visited Pakistan. Both
countries signed two agreements in 1989 to promote mutual peace and cooperation.
A hotline telephone link was set up between the two countries to be used in times of
crisis. The SAARC platform was also used to promote mutual ties.

However, the massive Kashmiri uprising since 1989 damaged the efforts of the
PM’s. Benazir returned to power in 1993 and formed a coalition govt. with some
independent parties. MQM had boycotted the elections and performance of PPP was
better in all provinces. With her efforts Farooq Leghari of PPP was elected as the
new President. Once again she tried to improve the socio-economic status of women.
She planned to establish women’s police stations, courts and banks but failed to
make any legislation in this regard. So her ‘Agenda of Change’ did not work.
8|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Nawaz Sharif launched an aggressive campaign against her. He started that train
march from Karachi to Peshawar while attracting huge crowds. Benazir arrested
several opposition leaders but in vain. She also faced many family feuds regarding
her mother Nusrat Bhutto and brother Murtaza Bhutto. Though she sidelined her
mother, mysterious killing of Murtaza Bhutto by police in 1996 greatly damaged her
repute. Her husband Mr. Zardari also earned a bad repute for his wife as he was
involved in many corruption cases and misuse of money.

She failed to privatize the UBL (United Bank Limited) by selling it to a Saudi-based
company. The attempt was halted due to serious doubts about the transitions. In
1995, she took a heavy loan from the IMF but the economic situation worsened. Due
to the Kashmir issue military spending increased by 14% in 1995-96. The result was
inflation, unemployment, unrest and violence.

She had a confrontation with the Supreme Court by refusing to dismiss 20 judges
appointed by the government. Her dismissal of the Punjab CM, Mr. Wattoo also
added to her difficulties. Wattoo began to exploit her weak position and start
working more independently ignoring the PPP and its allies. This made matters
worse for her government as she had opposite expectations from the Chief Minister
of the largest province of Pakistan.

It may be concluded that Benazir was not very successful serving twice as PM
mainly because she failed to have a two third majority in the parliament. This did
not allow her to make new laws or annul some old laws. Also, fierce opposition by
Mr. Nawaz Sharif who had started gaining more popularity foiled many of her
attempts to enjoy a stable government.

9|Page
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Was her confrontation with Nawaz Sharif the most important reason of
Benazir’s removal from power in August 1990? Agree or disagree? Explain.
[14]

Benazir Bhutto won a marginal majority in the 1988 elections. She was able to form
a coalition government in the Centre, but failed to do so in the largest province,
Punjab. Mr Sharif emerged as her most powerful rival from the platform of the IJI,
a coalition of the PML and various religious parties. She provoked her rival by
appointing Mr Ghulam Mustafa Khar, a senior member of the PPP, as the governor
of Punjab. The provincial government of Mr Sharif arrested three FIA (Federal
Investigation Agency) agents. They were sent by the central/ federal government to
investigate the case of tax evasion by a factory, Riaz Bottlers, owned by a minister
of the Punjab.

Mr Sharif established the Bank of Punjab in 1989, but Ms Bhutto opposed it. She
termed it “treason against the federation “, though the 1973 constitution allowed
such steps under the autonomy given to the provinces. He gradually organised a “No
Confidence “motion in the National Assembly in October 1989. Opposition against
Ms Bhutto was so great that 107 members of the Assembly voted against her while
119 were needed to disqualify her as PM. Thus, her government survived by a
shortage of only 12 votes.

Benazir made an alliance with the MQM under the ‘Charter of Peace, Love and
Rights’ in December 1988. Both parties were diametrically opposed to each other in
the political views. Benazir had promised to protect the interest of the Sindhis and
stamp out violence. However, she failed in her mission, and there was a large scale
violence in many cities of Sindh. On 30 September 1988, militant Sindhis opened
fire on a crowd in Hyderabad, causing 250 deaths, mostly Muhajirs/Urdu speaking
peoplein Sindh. Later, there were more incidents of riots in Karachi. The most tragic
10 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

event was the Pucca Qila massacre of May 1989. Several workers of the MQM,
alongwith women and children were killed in a shootout by police in a fort in
Hyderabad. Newspapers reported that the women held copies of the Quran over their
heads as they cried out to the police stop shooting. Demonstrations and strikes were
observed at several places in Hyderabad and Karachi. Finally, in August 1989, the
MQM ended its alliance with the PPP and sided with Nawaz Sharif. This added to
her troubles as her government in the Centre as well as Sindh got weaker

Benazir Bhutto failed to have comfortable relations with President Ghulam Ishaq
Khan, and sometimes she openly clashed with him. A major area of disagreement
was over the key appointments in the military and the judiciary. Ishaq Khan
considered that he had the right to make such appointments as the 8 th constitutional
amendment had empowered him to nominate and dismiss the PM and the
assemblies. Both had disputes over many such appointments. She faced accusations
of corruption, and her husband Mr Zardari was soon arrested on charges of
corruption and blackmail. He was jailed for two years while Ms Bhutto defended
him by saying that such charges were politically motivated.

Her government became unpopular as it failed to fulfill its promise of economic

development and employment. Inflation and unemployment remained high with a
high population growth rate. The government also failed in controlling the menace
of drug abuse in Pakistan. Due to a lack of majority in the Parliament, Benazir’s
government could not make any legislation regarding the rights of women and
changes in the Islamic laws introduced by General Zia-ul-Haq. Therefore, President
Ghulam Ishaq Khan used his power to dismiss her government on 6th August 1990
on the charges of incompetence, corruption and misgovernance of the country. It
may be concluded that her rivalry with Mr Nawaz Sharif was the most important

11 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

factor in her exit from power in 1990 because she failed to gain support from the
largest province of Pakistan while losing popularity in major cities of Sindh, too.

Were family feuds the main reason of Benazir Bhutto’s dismissal from power
during her second term as PM? Explain fully. [14]

Benazir faced many problems after her election as PM for the second time in 1993.
Though she performed better in the provincial elections, she had to form a coalition
government in the Centre with the help of many independent candidates and parties.
A member of the PPP, Mr Farooq Leghari was elected as President, and it was
expected that her working with President would go smoothly. Mr Leghari announced
in his first speech to revoke the Eighth Amendment, but it could not be done as PPP
did not have a majority in the parliament.

Benazir announced her” Agenda of Change”, and promised to improve the status of
women, particularly their social and health issues. She promised to set up women’s
police stations, courts and women’s development banks, but could not make any
laws regarding these. Though Nawaz Sharif had broken his alliance with the IJI, he
was able to offer strong opposition to Benazir. In 1994, he launched a countrywide
Train March from Karachi to Peshawar. At various stopovers, he delivered
impassioned speeches against her government. He accused her of trying to
manipulate the judiciary and making her husband and other relatives too influential
in politics. He skilfully mobilised masses in observing strikes in September and
October 1994. Benazir ordered arrest of several opponents but it only increased her
difficulties.

Benazir was forced to increase defence expenses by 14% due to growing hostility
with India over the Kashmir issue. 1994 to 1996, Indian and Pakistani armies were
on the verge of war, and Pakistan failed to defend its case before the UN. Moreover,

12 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

destructive floods and pest attacks on crops caused a serious decline in agricultural
output. All this caused a growing economic crisis, and Benazir’s government had to
seek aid from the IMF (International Monetary Fund) in 1995. In order to satisfy the
IMF, new taxes were levied on the people, and the rupee was devalued by 7%. This
caused inflation, and people became more frustrated. The IMF, asked for more taxes
and increased tariffs.

In 1996, in order to raise funds for economic development, Benazir tried to privatise
the UBL (United Bank Ltd). Though very poor offers were made by various bidders,
she allowed its sale to an apparently Saudi-based company. Investigations proved
that the buyers were actually some local businessmen closely linked to the PPP. So,
the sale of the bank was halted, and Benazir

became more unpopular.

A major problem faced by Benazir was her family feuds. Her mother, Begum Nusrat
Bhutto wanted his son Mir Murtaza Bhutto to be the party chairperson which Benazir
opposed. She removed her mother from a leading position. Feeling disappointed, he
founded Al-Zulfiqar Organization after his exile. He sharply criticised Benazir for
betraying the principles of their father Z.A. Bhutto. He also targeted her husband,
Mr Zardari who was involved in various corruption cases, and had earned the
meaningful title of Mr 10%. Murtaza Bhutto was killed in a mysterious police
encounter at a walking distance from his residence in Clifton, Karachi. None of the
policemen was arrested, and instead, some were promoted. A judicial inquiry found
the involvement of the government in this murder.

Benazir also mismanaged the judiciary in the famous “judges case”. In March 1996,
she refused to dismiss the 20 judges on the order of the Supreme Court. Her attempts
to intimidate the Chief Justice of Pakistan greatly damaged her image. She also failed

13 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

to curtail the authoritarian Chief Minister of the Punjab, Manzoor Watto. He was
trying to exploit her weak position, and so, was removed from his post. This, too,
brought more problems for Benazir’s government.

Benazir desperately accused some army officers with Islamic views wanted to
destabilise her government. Some officers were arrested in this regard, and this
prepared the ground for the end of her government. Much to her surprise, President
Leghari dismissed her government on 5th November 1996 on the charges of
misgovernance and corruption. Before this, army had taken control of all key points
in Islamabad and had arrested Asif Zardari. It seems the family feuds contributed the
most to Benazir’s ouster from power because they weakened her abilities to
concentrate on smooth running of government affairs. She could not restrict her
husband’s questionable involvement in many important political matters.

14 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Mr. Nawaz Sharif (1990-1993 and 1997-1999)

What problems did Nawaz Sharif face as Prime Minister during the 1990s? (4)

1990 -1993 Mr. Sharif was elected from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhoori
Ittehad), so he was opposed by the PPP and other progressive elements. He also had
differences with the President [Link] due to his power under the eighth
constitutional amendment. His Yellow Cab Scheme failed as many of the owners
became defaulters. His government faced the Co-operative Societies Scandal and
the mysterious closure of the BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) in
1991. He lost the US support as he refused to hand over Usama bin Laden to the US.
1997-1999. His conflict with the Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah made him unpopular.
Due to the nuclear explosions in May 1998 many countries stopped economic aid to
Pakistan.

What was the BCCI Scandal? (4)

The BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) was the world’s 7th largest
bank operating in Pakistan. It was founded by Mr. Agha Hasan Abedi in 1972. There
were concerns about the bank’s lending practices and an investigation was
conducted by a team of British accountants in 1991. The team detected widespread
fraud, embezzlement and manipulation in the bank. Following this, the bank was
closed and was required to pay huge fines. Ittefaq Industries of the Sharif family was
its major customer. Despite its closure, the bank was allowed to operate for several
months in Pakistan, raising doubts about the links of the Sharif’s government with
the bank.

What was the Cooperative Societies Scandal? (4)

The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only
to members for purposes that were beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies
15 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

were controlled by the relatives of Mr. Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the Punjab
suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million people lost their
lifelong savings. The failure of the National Industrial Cooperative Credit Company
was the biggest financial collapse in Pakistan. Mr. Sharif’s family had borrowed
huge loans from these societies, and this increased unpopularity of his government.

What was the Motorway Project? (4)

Mr. Sharif wanted to build a fast transportation network, the Motorway, to the
landlocked states of the Central Asia to provide them access to the ports of Pakistan.
The Motorway would also join the major cities of Pakistan with each other and with
the rural areas. Its first phase, the M2, was completed in November 1997 that
connected Islamabad with Lahore at a cost of several billion dollars. The project
suffered continual delays, first by the Bhutto government and then by General
Pervez Musharraf in 1999.

What was the Shari’at Bill? (4)

The Sharif government passed the Shari’at bill in May 1991 as it had won elections
from the platform of its religious ally, the IJI (Islami Jamhoori Ittehad). It made the
Quran and the Sunnah the law of the land as long as this did not challenge the
existing system of government. The bill was criticized by both the IJI and the
opposition parties. Little was done by the government to enforce it. When the Federal
Shari’at Court asked for measures against interest/riba, no action was taken by the
government.

What was the 13th Constitutional Amendment? (4)

Since the 8th Constitutional Amendment of 1985 had restricted the powers of the
PM, the Sharif government acted quickly to repeal it. In 1997, it got the 13th
Constitutional Amendment passed by the Parliament. Now the President lost power
16 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

to appoint and dismiss the government and dissolve the National Assembly. He
could also not appoint the three chiefs of the armed forces. The measure was
supported by all political parties. However, the events of 1999 would raise questions
about its utility or otherwise.

What was the Kargil Conflict? (4)

Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control in April 1999 and captured
the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan government denied any
involvement, but later admitted. India launched a counter attack and two of its
aircrafts entered Pakistani air space. One was shot down by Pakistan. Pakistani
forces were pushed back in May-June 1999. Fearing a horrible war between the two
nuclear states the US President Clinton persuaded Mr. Sharif to withdraw behind the
LoC. This brought Mr. Sharif into a conflict with the army.

What was the Kalashinkov Culture? (4)

It is the name given to the culture of violence and drug addiction that started in the
mid-1980s, and continued in the 1990s. Weapons, especially Kalashinkov , and
addictive drug heroine , were easily available as they were brought by the Afghan
refugees through the Tribal Areas to Pakistan. Crimes like kidnap for ransom, and
sectarian killings increased alongside drug smuggling and addiction. In July 1991,
Nawaz Sharif introduced the 12th constitutional amendment to set up the STCs
(Speedy Trial Courts) to deal with it but the Opposition criticized these courts.

What was the 14th amendment? (4)

It was passed as the Anti-Defection Bill in 1997 by the parliament during Nawaz
Sharif’s second stint as PM. It restricted the parliament members from switching
loyalties so that such politicians could not destabilize a government. Before this, the
political turncoats (those changing membership of various parties) could be enticed
17 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

by various inducements against any government. This strengthened Nawaz Sharif’s

position but was criticized by the Opposition.

What was the 15th amendment? (4)

It was passed by the National Assembly in August 1998 during Nawaz Sharif’s
second tenure as PM. It was first enforced as the Shriat Bill in May 1991 during
Sharif’s first government. It empowered the Prime Minister to enforce Islamic
Shariah in Pakistan. However, there was no significant progress in this regard as it
was opposed by the opposition parties did not like an increased role of Islam in the
government. It was never taken to the Senate for final approval.

Describe the nuclear testing by Pakistan in 1998. (4)

India conducted nuclear blasts in May 1998. Pakistan, feeling insecure, also
conducted nuclear explosions in the last week of May 1998. Though it increased
Nawaz Sharif’s popularity at home, Pakistan’s aid from the US and Japan was
immediately stopped, and several other countries criticised this action. In order to
prevent an economic disaster, Sharif’s government had to raise fuel prices and
negotiate bank loans. A state of emergency was declared, and this became a reason
of Nawaz Sharif’s fall from power.

Who was Sajjad Ali Shah? [4]

Sajjad Ali Shah was a Pakistani jurist who served as the Chief Justice of Pakistan
from 1994 to 1997. Born on February 17, 1933, in Karachi, he had a distinguished
legal career and was known for his outspoken views on judicial independence and
constitutionalism. His tenure as Chief Justice was marked by several high-profile
cases and confrontations with the government, particularly with Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif. The tension between the judiciary and the executive during his term

18 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

led to a significant judicial crisis in 1997, resulting in his removal from office. Sajjad
Ali Shah passed away on March 7, 2017.

What was Nawaz Sharif’s conflict with the Supreme Court? (4)

Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah, appointed by Benazir Bhutto, became a critic of
Nawaz Sharif. Sharif wanted to reduce the number of judges from 17 to 13. During
the hearing of a case against Sharif in November 1997, hundreds of Sharif’s
supporters stormed the Supreme Court building. Sajjad Ali had to flee for his safety.
Sharif failed to persuade President Leghari to remove Sajjad, and appoint an acting
Chief Justice. He resigned and Rafiq Tarar became the new President on 2nd
December. Shortly later, Sajjad was also replaced by Ajmal Mian as the Chief Justice
on 23rd December 1997. This increased opposition against Sharif.

Why did Nawaz Sharif fall from office in 1993? (7)

Nawaz Sharif faced serious difficulties which eventually led to his dismissal from
power. He attempted to solve Pakistan’s unemployment problem by providing cheap
loans to men to buy taxis (Yellow Cab Scheme) that he had imported (Daewoo Cars).
Most of the borrowers were unable to repay the loans and hence became defaulters
and unemployed. This strained the economy and made him unpopular. Things
became worse when he tried to finance major investment projects that depended
upon foreign aid especially from the USA. This aid,$564 million was stopped under
the Pressler Amendment that was invoked due to the reduced importance of Pakistan
in the post- Cold War era 1992 onwards. So, Pakistan faced more economic
difficulties.

Moreover, the closure of a major bank, BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce and
Investment) also added to Mr. Sharif’s difficulties. An inquiry by a British team of
accountants detected large scale fraud and shady/questionabe lending practices of

19 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

the Bank. Along with this there was a decline in foreign remittances from the Middle
East due to the Gulf War. As a result of these policies Mr. Nawaz Sharif and his
government were blamed. The mismanagement of the Cooperative societies led to
millions of Pakistanis losing their life long savings. This money was lent to the Sharif
family’s businesses. Though the loans were immediately repaid, Sharif’s image had
been damaged. Violence in Pakistan that related to drugs and the use of guns led to
a strong response from Sharif but his actions were criticized by the opposition parties
for being too repressive.

Finally, Sharif came into conflict with the President over the appointment of an
army chief of staff and also with the Eighth Constitutional Amendment. Sharif was
dismissed on charges of corruption. Though the Supreme Court reinstated him as
PM, the political crisis worsened and both the PM and the President were shown the
exit.

Was the collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI)
the main reason for the government ending in 1993? Explain your answer. [14]

Nawaz Sharif was first elected in 1990 from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhuri
Ittehad). He gained fame for starting many new schemes but they were
overshadowed by various scandals. The BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce
International) was the world’s 7th largest bank operating in Pakistan. It was founded
by Mr. Agha Hasan Abedi in 1972. There were concerns about the bank’s lending
practices and an investigation was conducted by a team of British accountants in
1991. The team detected widespread fraud, embezzlement and manipulation in the
bank. Following this, the bank was closed and was required to pay huge fines. Ittefaq
Industries of the Sharif family was its major customer. Despite its closure, the
bankwas allowed to operate for several months in Pakistan, raising doubts about the
links of the Sharif’s government with the bank.
20 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

The Cooperative Societies accepted deposits from members and extended loans only
to members for purposes that were beneficial for the Society. Two of such societies
were controlled by the relatives of Mr. Sharif. In 1991, four societies in the Punjab
suddenly collapsed as a result of which more than two million people lost their
lifelong savings. The failure of the National Industrial Cooperative Credit Company
was the biggest financial collapse in Pakistan. Mr. Sharif’s family had borrowed
huge loans from these societies, and this increased unpopularity of his government.

Nawaz Sharif introduced the “yellow cab” scheme by giving loans to the
unemployed youth to buy taxis. This however was a failed scheme as most of the
borrowers became defaulters as they were unable to repay the loans. He announced
a national reconstruction program to industrialize Pakistan. His economic policies
were undermined by a lack of capital for investment, especially after the stoppage
of the US aid of $ 564 million. Foreign capital increased when he loosened foreign
exchange restrictions and opened Pakistan’s stock market to foreign capital but the
government still faced a shortage of funds for investment.

The US aid dropped significantly after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in
1988. The reduction in overseas aid, high spending by the government and a decrease
in foreign remittances added to his difficulties. Sharif’s policy of supporting the
Afghan warlords also created problems for him. This led to a culture of drug
trafficking and use of illegal arms (the Klashinkov culture) as a result of the Soviet-
Afghan war. The government had to deal with rampant crime, terrorism and drug
addiction especially in major cities like Karachi. The police and military tried to
maintain law and order but were unsuccessful. The government passed the 12th
amendment to the constitution which provided “Speedy Trail Courts” to dispense
summary justice. The aim of this was to control the crime rate but was criticized by
the Opposition as it suppressed fundamental human rights.

21 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Nawaz Sharif passed the Shariat Bill in May 1991, making the Quran and Sunnah
the law of the land as long as it did not challenge the existing system of government.
It was welcomed by the religious parties but they wanted its immediate
implementation. It became unpopular as the Opposition criticized the increased role
of Islam in government. Nawaz Sharif’s first term ended in 1993 when Ghulam Ishaq
Khan dismissed his government on the allegations of corruption and
mismanagement of the economy.

Closure of the BCCI seems to be the most important reason for the downfall of
Nawaz Sharif because the scandals involving misuse of money lowered his grace in
the eyes of the whole nation. Working of the Bank despite proven irregularities in
extending loans to Sharif’s business raised many questions about the credibility of
his government.

Why Nawaz Sharif was dismissed in 1999? [7]

Nawaz Sharif earned the anger of Pak Army. He acted as a powerful PM 1997 –
1999 but had entangled himself with the judiciary and the army. He had started
supporting the Taliban and their government in Afghanistan. He refused to hand
Usama bin Ladin over to US who suspected his involvement in the bombing of the
US embassy in Kenya. This damaged the Pak-US relations that were already strained
since the end of the Cold War 1991-92.

The US was also critical of Pakistan’s nuclear ambitions. Its anger grew when
Pakistan tested nuclear weapons on 28th May 1998 in response to Indian doing the
same a couple of weeks ago. Pakistan’s economic and military aid was stopped by
US, Japan and West European states creating serious difficulties for Pakistan. Sharif
had to declare emergency in Pakistan and ordered freezing of the FCA’s (Foreign

22 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Currency Accounts) of Pakistanis who had deposited their savings in foreign

currency. This made him unpopular.

In May 1999, the Pak Army was involved in a conflict with the Indian Army in
Kargil, Kashmir. After some initial gains it had to retreat and Sharif accused General
Parvez Musharraf for this humiliation. The army rejected Sharif’s accusation. Sharif
tried to replace Musharraf with Gen. Zia ud Din Butt, Sharif’s cousin. Accordingly,
Musharraf’s plane was denied landing on the Islamabad Airport on his return from
Sri Lanka. Musharraf had the support of the army who immediately took control of
the government from Nawaz Sharif on 12th October, 1999. General Musharraf
declared military rule, but not Martial Law and after some time, allowed the Sharif
family to go into exile in Saudi Arabia.

How successful was Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister of Pakistan in the years
1990-1993 and 1996-1999? (14)

Nawaz Sharif first came to power in 1990 and ruled the country in two terms, first;
from 1990 to 1993 and second; from 1996 to 1999. Nawaz Sharif was first elected
in 1990 from the platform of the IJI (Islami Jamhuri Ittehad). He announced a
national reconstruction program to industrialize Pakistan. He introduced a policy of
privatizing the SOU’s (State Owned Units) under which a number of important
industries, such as shipping, electricity supply, airlines and telecommunications
were opened up to the private sector under the Privatization Commission. He
introduced several large scale projects to simulate the economy, such as the Ghazi
Barotha Hydro Power Project and the Gwadar Miniport in Balochistan. He
introduced the “yellow cab” scheme by giving loans to the unemployed youth to buy
taxis. This however was a failed scheme as most of the borrowers became defaulters
as they were unable to repay the loans. Another major project was to build the
Motorway. The aim was to provide a fast transportation network to the newly
23 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

independent Central Asian Republics that needed access to seaports. Although its
first phase, the M2 (between Islamabad and Lahore) was completed in Nov 1997,
the project suffered from continual delays.

Nawaz Sharif’s economic policies were undermined by a lack of capital for

investment, especially after the stoppage of the US aid of $ 564 million. Foreign
capital increased when he loosened foreign exchange restrictions and opened
Pakistan’s stock market to foreign capital but the government still faced a shortage
of funds for investment. The US aid dropped significantly after the Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1988. The reduction in overseas aid, high spendings
by the government and a decrease in foreign remittances added to his difficulties.
The closure of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) in 1991 was
linked with questionable lending practices and fraud, and blame was put on the
government.

Sharif also lost popularity because of the ‘Co-operative Societies scandal’.

Cooperative societies accepted deposits from members and gave loans to them for
investment schemes. However, mismanagement of these societies led to their
collapse in which millions of Pakistanis lost money. It was soon discovered that
these societies had, granted large loans to Sharifs family business, the Ittefaq Group.
Although Sharif hurriedly repaid the loans, his unpopularity increased.

There was also the problem of drug trafficking and illegal arms (the Klashinkov
culture) as a result of the Soviet-Afghan war. The govt. had to deal with rampant
crime, terrorism and drug addiction especially in major cities like Karachi. The
police and military tried to maintain law and order but were unsuccessful. The govt.
passed the 12th amendment to the constitution which provided “Speedy Trail
Courts” to dispense summary justice. The aim of this was to control the crime rate
but was criticized by the Opposition as it suppressed fundamental human rights.
24 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

Nawaz Sharif passed the Shariat Bill in May 1991, making the Quran and Sunnah
the law of the land as long as it did not challenge the existing system of government.
It was welcomed by the religious parties but they wanted its immediate
implementation. It became unpopular as the Opposition criticized the increased role
of Islam in government. Nawaz Sharif’s first term ended in 1993 when Ghulam Ishaq
Khan dismissed his government on the allegations of corruption and
mismanagement of the economy.

Nawaz Sharif was again elected as the Prime Minister in 1997. This time he had a
decisive majority in the parliament. So, his first act was to pass the 13th Amendment
which repealed the 8th Amendment that authorized the President to dismiss the
Prime Minister and the assemblies. This measure was supported by all political
parties. To curtail instability in the country. Sharif also passed the Anti-defection
Bill under the 14th amendment. This prevented politicians from switching parties
(political turncoats) so that they could not exploit any weak and vulnerable
government. Using his powers fully, Sharif arrested journalists who wrote critical
articles against him. Unexpected tax inspections of the selected newspaper editors
were carried out.

In 1997, Sharif had to defend himself in the Supreme Court on charges of corruption.
He, using the Parliament’s support asked the President to dismiss the Chief Justice
Sajjad Ali Shah, and this led to a tussle between the government and the Supreme
Court. Sharif’s supporters stormed the building and proceedings had to be
suspended. In May 1998, Pakistan conducted nuclear explosions. This increased
Sharif’s popularity as people felt strengthened due to Pakistan becoming a nuclear
power but it caused loss of foreign aid from the US, Japan and other countries putting
Pakistan in serious economic difficulties. The Sharif government had to freeze the
25 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587

FCA’s (Foreign Currency Accounts) of Pakistani depositors. Sharif had to raise the
price of fuel and negotiate bank loans to keep the government from bankruptcy.

He also introduced a state of emergency, curtailing all civil rights. Sharif tried to
strengthen his position by passing the 15th Amendment which made Sharia the
supreme law of Pakistan and empowered the PM to enforce the Sharia the full
authority. He did not ask the Senate to ratify the measure as he was uncertain about
the depth of his support. Sharif’s rule went into serious trouble during the Kargil
crisis during May 1999. He developed differences with General Pervez Musharraf
over the withdrawal of Pak Army from Kargil, Kashmir. Sharif tried to replace him
with his cousin Gen. Butt, but found his govt. toppled by the army on 12th Oct. 1999.

It may be concluded that Nawaz Sharif was not very successful twice as PM because
he failed to have good relations with such important institutes as the armed forces
and the supreme judiciary mainly because of his authoritarian way of governance
and partly due to financial scams surrounding his government.

26 | P a g e
MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448) 03336610587