Process Instrumentation

PLC and Block Diagram?

 CPU : CPU is the brain of a PLC, responsible for executing the control
program stored in memory. It performs tasks such as data processing,
decision-making and communication with other devices.

 Memory(RAM/ROM) : PLCs have main type of memory one is ram and

another is rom. RAM is used for storing data and variables temporarily
during the execution of the program. ROM is used to store the operating
system of a PLC and the user program. The program typically consists of two
ladder logic, function block diagrams or other programming languages.
 Input Device : This is responsible for interacting with the machine and the
instructor which can be external sensors, switches etc. This part helps to
take input and send to to the CPU to response accordingly.
 Output Device : Output device is responsible for interacting with the end
point external device like motor, valve or indicator. It converts control signal
from the PLC that these devices can interpret.
 Power Supply : PLC requires a stable power supply to run its program and
match the voltage levels that needed for a PLC components.
 Programming Device : As PLC is mainly a programmable device, so we
need a device where we can write code and execute it, just like a monitor
and keyboard.
Working of PLC controller

 Their are main four part of a PLC, input and output module, controller and a
power supply.

 First supply current goes to the power supply machine which is 220v AC, later
it is divided into three parts and converts it from AC to DC. Both of the two
input and output module takes 24v DC current and the main controller part
takes 5v DC current.

 Input part takes signal from sensor and other devices, and passes it to the
PLC main part.

 The main controller part sends the signal to the CPU, then starts executing its
program in compiler from the memory. After that the program creates a
instruction signal, which goes to the output module.

 The output module receives type signal and sends it to the external devices
like motor, valve etc. which will execute the instruction by controlling the
system according to the instruction.
Types of PLC

PLCs can be classified into three main types based on their capabilities :
 Compact PLC : compact PLCs are small size and typically have a limited
number of I/O points. They are designed for space is a critical factor, and the
control requirements are relatively simple
 Modular PLC : Modular PLCs are designed with s modular architecture,
where the CPU, Power supply, and input-output modules are separate
components.
 Rack-Mount PLC : This is a type of High end PLC which is specially
designed for complex and demanding application.
Features of PLC

PLC comes with a wide range of features, which makes it versatile. The features are
:-
 Digital and analog I/O : It can handle both digital and analog signals from the
sensor and other input device and allows a wide range of input.
 Scalability : Many PLCs offer modulation in their setting by expanding the
input/output number or CPUs to accommodate the changing requirements.
 Communication interfaces : PLCs support various communication devices
and protocol like ethernet.
 Programming Language : It allows different programming languages like
ladder logic, structured text, function block diagram etc. to the user.
 Real-Time monitoring : PLCs operate in real-time by continuously scanning
and processing input signals to make rapid decisions and update output
devices with minimal delay.
 Mathematical Functions : PLCs support mathematical functions and
calculations. enabling users to perform computations within the control
program.
Advantages

 Flexibility and Reliability : PLCs are highly flexible. They can be easily
programmed and edited. Manufacturing process of PLCs can be done
virtually, without physical presentation
 Programming : PLCs are programmable device. Which means it can be
edited. The code and the instructions given to it are easily changeable.
  High Speed Operation : Because of being a programming device, it can
create instant output instruction, which depends on the program complexity
and the CPU memory, makes it more efficient.
 Monitoring system : PLCs provide inbuilt monitoring tools, make them easier
to identify the troubleshoot in the system.

Electrical Transmission system

1. Generation

Electricity is generated at power plants using various sources of energy. These can
be:
 Fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil)

 Nuclear energy

 Renewable sources (hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, biomass)

Each of these sources has a different method for generating electricity, but the end
result is the same: converting mechanical energy into electrical energy through the
use of turbines and generators.
2. Step-Up Transmission
Once electricity is generated, it is sent to a transformer, which steps up the voltage to
a much higher level. This step is crucial because higher voltages allow for more
efficient transmission of electricity over long distances with minimal loss. Voltages
can be stepped up to levels as high as 765 kV in some transmission systems.
3. High Voltage Transmission

The high-voltage electricity is then transmitted through high-voltage transmission

lines. These lines are usually overhead, supported by tall transmission towers,
although underground high-voltage cables can be used in urban areas or where
overhead lines are impractical. The transmission lines form a network known as the
power grid, which connects different power plants and regions.
4. Step-Down Substation

Upon reaching the area where the electricity will be used, the high voltage is stepped
down to lower levels at substations. These step-down transformers reduce the
voltage to safer levels that are suitable for local distribution. This is done to prepare
the electricity for distribution to different types of consumers.
5. Distribution Substation

Further down the line, the voltage is reduced even more at distribution substations.
Here, the voltage is typically brought down to levels such as 11 kV or 33 kV. These
substations are strategically placed to supply power to local areas.
6. Distribution Network

The electricity is then distributed through a network of distribution lines. These can
be either overhead or underground cables, depending on the region and
infrastructure. The distribution network carries the electricity to homes, businesses,
and industries.
7. End-Use

Finally, the electricity reaches the end users through service lines. For residential
customers, the voltage is further reduced to around 230V (in countries like India) or
110V (in countries like the USA) to ensure safe use of household appliances and
devices. Commercial and industrial users may receive electricity at higher voltages
depending on their power needs.

Pneumatic Transmission System

Pneumatic transmission is a method of power transfer that uses compressed air to

convey energy and control signals through a system.
Components of a Pneumatic System
 1. Air Compressor: This device compresses air to a high pressure, typically
between 0.3 to 0.8 MPa (43.5 to 116 PSI). The compressed air is stored in a
tank for use in the system2.
2. Air Treatment Units: These include filters, regulators, and lubricators (often
referred to as FRL units). Filters remove impurities from the air, regulators
control the air pressure, and lubricators add a small amount of oil to reduce
friction in the system2.
3. Pneumatic Actuators: These devices convert the energy of compressed air
into mechanical motion. Common types include pneumatic cylinders (which
provide linear motion) and rotary actuators (which provide rotational motion)1.
4. Control Valves: These valves regulate the flow and pressure of the
compressed air to control the actuators. Examples include directional control
valves, flow control valves, and pressure control valves3.
5. Piping and Tubing: These components transport the compressed air from
the compressor to the actuators and other parts of the system.
Working Principle

1. Air Compression: The air compressor draws in atmospheric air and

compresses it to a higher pressure.
2. Air Treatment: The compressed air passes through filters to remove
impurities, regulators to control the pressure, and lubricators to add oil if
needed.
3. Transmission: The treated compressed air is transported through a network
of pipes and tubing to the various components of the system.
4. Control: Control valves direct the flow of compressed air to the pneumatic
actuators based on the control signals received.
5. Actuation: The pneumatic actuators convert the energy of the compressed
air into mechanical motion, performing tasks such as lifting, pushing, pulling,
or rotating objects.
Advantages of Pneumatic Transmission

 Safety: Pneumatic systems are inherently safe as they use air, which poses
no risk of explosion or electrical shock.
 Cleanliness: Since air is used as the working medium, there is no
contamination of the environment.
 Reliability: Pneumatic systems are reliable and can operate in harsh
environments where electronic systems might fail.
  Cost-Effective: Pneumatic systems are often less expensive to install and
maintain compared to hydraulic or electric systems.
Applications

Pneumatic transmission systems are widely used in various industries for automation
and control of machinery. Common applications include:
 Manufacturing: Automated assembly lines, robotic arms, and material
handling systems.
 Transportation: Air brakes in trains and trucks, pneumatic door systems in
trains and elevators.
 Healthcare: Dental equipment, surgical tools, and hospital beds.

 Construction: Pneumatic drills, hammers, and other construction tools

Temperature control Loop

Thermal element lag

Thermal element lag, also known as thermal lag, refers to the delay in temperature
change within a material when it is exposed to fluctuating external temperatures
Key Factors Influencing Thermal Lag

1. Thermal Mass: Materials with high thermal mass, such as concrete or brick,
absorb and release heat slowly, leading to a noticeable thermal lag.
2. Insulation: The quality and type of insulation affect how quickly heat transfers
through walls and ceilings, impacting the thermal lag.
3. External Climate: The severity of external temperature fluctuations can
amplify or diminish the effects of thermal lag.
Pressure element lag refers to the delay in the response of a pressure control
system to changes in pressure. This lag can occur due to various factors such as the
physical properties of the system, the type of pressure sensor used, and the fluid
dynamics within the system.
Factors Contributing to Pressure Element Lag

1. Sensor Response Time: The speed at which the pressure sensor can detect
and respond to changes in pressure can introduce lag.
2. Fluid Viscosity: The viscosity of the fluid in the system can affect how quickly
pressure changes are transmitted.
3. System Volume: Larger volumes of fluid or gas in the system can lead to
greater lag as it takes more time for pressure changes to propagate through
the system.
4. Pipe Length and Diameter: Longer pipes and smaller diameters can
increase the time it takes for pressure changes to travel through the system,
contributing to lag.