Group Development

 Silent Members
BEGINNING A GROUP People who don't talk much, possibly due to
shyness or hostility.
Steps in the Forming Stage
 Users of Sarcasm
Step 1: Developing a rationale for the group
Those who hide their feelings behind sarcastic
Step 2: Deciding a theoretical format
humor.
Step 3: Weighing practical considerations
 Diagnostic Analyzers
Step 4: Publicizing the Group
Individuals who try to diagnose others’ problems
Step 5: Screening and pre-training clinically.

Step 6: Selecting group members  Focusers on others

Step 7: Selecting a group member People who act like assistant leaders by giving
advice and avoiding personal involvement.
Group Procedural Problems
TASKS OF THE BEGINNING GROUP
 Opening the group
Dealing with apprehension
Critical incident in the life of the group; an event
Reviewing goals and contracts that has the power to shape or influence the group
Specifying group roles positively or negatively

Setting limits  Structure

Promoting a positive interchange among members Running the group according to a prescribed plan or
agenda;
 Involvement
RESOLVING POTENTIAL GROUP
PROBLEMS IN FORMING Active participation of group members with one
another and invest in themselves in the group
People Problems
 Group Cohesion
 Manipulators
Sense of “we-ness”; allow individuals to voice their
People who use emotions and behaviors to control concerns freely and fully
others.
 Hope and Risk Taking
 Resisters
One of the basic therapeutic factors according to
Angry or frustrated individuals who refuse to Yalom; sense of universality leads to feeling more
participate. cohesive
 Monopolizers  Closing (terminating of the session)
Dominate the conversation in a group and do not Summarizing
allow other members a chance to verbally
participate.
 USEFUL PROCEDURES FOR THE  Band-aiding:
BEGINNING STAGE OF A GROUP Offering superficial support to avoid deeper
emotional discussions.
 Joining
 Dependency:
Members connect with each other emotionally and
physically. Acting helpless to avoid responsibility and
encourage others to take over.
 Linking
 Monopolizing:
Connecting members by highlighting
commonalities. Dominating discussions, often straying from the
group's main tasks.
 Cutting Off
 Attacking the Leader:
Preventing new topics from being introduced too
late in the session. Directly challenging the group leader, which can
create new norms.
 Drawing Out
Task processing in storming
What it means: Encouraging silent members to
speak. (ways of accomplishing specific goals); attention on
personal matters, such as group safety, leader
 Clarifying the Purpose
competence, trust and ways of interacting,“pause”
What it means: Keeping the group focused on its in the group
main goal.
Working through storming
 Process Observer:
THE TRANSITION PERIOD IN A GROUP:
Someone who watches and comments on the
STORMING AND NORMING
group’s process.
Storming
 Process Leveling:
This is the conflict stage where members might
Balancing the participation and interaction among
experience tension and resistance
members.
 Resistance during storming
 Acknowledging Issues:
Resistance is any behavior that moves the group
Members recognize and discuss what’s happening.
away from areas of discomfort, conflict or potential
growth.  Feedback:
 Intellectualization: Members share honest feedback with each other.
Members focus on abstract ideas with little emotion. Results of working through storming
 Questioning: Members making emotional space for one another
and being accommodating; more plain talk, open
Asking questions to avoid addressing current issues.
risk-taking, overt agendas, increased intimacy,
 Advice Giving: greater appreciation for one another, more intense
emotions and emphasis on the present.
Telling others what to do instead of working
together.
  Empathizing: Understanding and sharing
another’s feelings.
 Competing:
 Facilitating: Clear and direct communication.
Pursuing individual goals at others' expense.
 Self-Disclosure: Sharing personal information to
 Accommodating:
build trust.
Neglecting personal needs to satisfy others.
Results of norming
 Collaborating:
Working; members will feel connected with the
Working together to fully satisfy everyone's group and will be able to concentrate on productive
concerns. rather than protecting themselves

 Avoiding: The Working Stage in a Group: Performing

Ignoring conflicts. Stage 4

 Compromising: The Working Stage

Finding a mutually acceptable solution that partially • Focuses on the achievement of individual and
satisfies everyone. group goals and the movement of the group itself
into a more unified and productive system
Norms and Norming
• Described as the group’s “performing stage” and
Stage 3 “action stage”; a time of problem solving that lasts
Norms longer than any of the other group stages

Expectations about group members’ behaviors that • Often regarded as the most productive stage in
should or should not take place group development and is characterized by its
constructive nature and the achievement of results
Peer Relationships during norming
Peer relationships in the working stage
 Identification: Members see themselves as
similar. • There appears to be genuine concern on a deep,
personal level by members for one another
 Here-and-Now Experiences: Focusing on (increased cohesiveness)
current feelings and interactions.
• There is greater willingness to self-disclose (reveal
 Hope: Belief that desired outcomes are possible. information about oneself to the group) on the part
 Cooperation and Collaboration: Working of members
together harmoniously. • Members become increasingly aware of individual
 Cohesion: Strong sense of unity and belonging. participants and the world of each person

Task processing during norming Task processes during the working stage

Main task is for members to reach an agreement on The major emphasis in the working stage is
the establishment of norms or rules or standards productivity, whether the results are tangibly visible
from which to operate the group or not. The maintenance of interpersonal
relationships must be attended to and balanced with
Promoting Norming productivity
 Supporting: Encouraging and reinforcing each  Rounds: Ensuring everyone gets a chance to
other. speak.
 Role-Playing: Practicing new behaviors. • Exercises – involve less direct showing and more
an experiential integration. Exercise may be used in
 Homework: Applying skills outside the group.
groups at specific times for specific reasons, such as
 Incorporation: Recognizing and appreciating (Jacobs et al. 2012):
group accomplishments.
- To increase comfort level
Among specific problems that arise during the
- To provide the leader with useful information
working stage are fear and resistance, challenges to
leaders, and a lack of focus on achieving individual - To generate discussion and focus the group
and group goals. These problems are expressed in
- To shift the focus
numerous ways, such as increased emotionality in
members, projection or scapegoating of a member, - To deepen the focus
and lack of constructive participation
- To provide the opportunity for experiential
• Racial issues – racial prejudice is based on learning
assumptions about the beliefs and attitudes of
persons of a given race. Individuals who hold - To provide fun and relaxation
stereotypical views and act accordingly are • Group observing group – requires that the group
“culturally encapsulated” and behave in a rigid and break up into two smaller groups in any way the
stereotypical manner. Contact with others from leader directs and that each observe the other
different cultures in a group context often helps function as outsiders (fishbowl procedure)
members become more aware of their racial feelings
• Brainstorming – a way to stimulate divergent
• Gender issues – males and females must learn thinking that requires an initial generating of ideas
new roles within the group that give them greater in a nonjudgmental manner.
freedom to be flexible and competent. It has a good
chance of success if it is begun early in the group’s • Nominal-Group Technique (NGT) – does not
development. require the open exposure of members as much as
brainstorming and places more objectivity in the
• Group Collusion – cooperating with others group decision-making process than almost any
unconsciously or consciously to reinforce prevailing other method.
attitudes, values, behaviors, or norms. The purpose
of such behavior self-protection; its effect is to • Synetics – from the Greek, means the joining
maintain the status quo in the group. In extremes, together of different and apparently irrelevant
group collusion prevents open discussion from elements. Synetics theory applies to the integration
occurring to any great extent, group membership of diverse individuals into a problem-stating,
should be diversified, open discussion should be problemsolving group.
promoted, and goals and purposes should be • Written projections – members are asked to see
continuously clarified. themselves or their groups in the future having been
STRATEGIES FOR ASSISTING GROUPS IN successful and to describe what the experience was
THE WORKING STAGE like.

• Modeling by the Leader – used to teach group • Group processing – capitalizing on significant
members complex behaviors in a relatively short happenings in the hereand-now interactions of the
time by copying or imitating. Modeling depends on group to help members reflect on the meaning of
timing, reinforcement, the amount of positive their experience; better understand their own
feedback received, the view of the group leader, the thoughts, feelings and actions; and generalize what
degree of trust, and the amount of motivation for is learned to their life outside the group.
imitation.
• Teaching of skills – through teaching members
skills, group functioning improves because
THE CLOSING STAGE IN A GROUP:
members feel more confident in their abilities and
ADJOURNING
indeed improve them
• According to Corey (2008), the closing stage is
Outcomes of the Working Stage
equally important as the beginning stage of a group
• When groups are successful in the working stage, because it is at this stage that the members come to
they achieve goals and move toward termination. know themselves on a deeper level.
Members of such groups increase their insight and
• Primary activities of group members in closing are
use of basic therapeutic devices through such
to:
devices such as feedback, confrontation, corrective
emotional response, and humor. In successful - Reflect on their past experiences
groups, the working stage is the one that is
remembered fondly and proudly by its members. - Process memories

• Feedback – known as “immediacy”, “here-and- - Evaluate what was learned

now interventions,” and “impact disclosure”; it is - Acknowledge ambivalent feelings, and
the pantheoretical intervention in group work. It
refers to the response of one individual to the words - Engage in cognitive decision making
and actions of another. Feedback usually involves • Closing is a transition event that ends one set of
sharing relevant information with other people, such conditions so that another experience can begin. It is
as how they are perceived or how they behave, so considered the last stage of the group process, but in
they can decide whether to change. Information reality it marks a new beginning. Closing provides
should be given in a clear, concrete, succinct, and group members an opportunity to clarify the
appropriate manner. meaning of their experiences, consolidate the gains
• Confrontation – the idea behind confrontation is they have made, and make decisions about the new
for members to challenge one another to examine behaviors they want to carry away from the group
the discrepancies between their words and actions. and apply to their everyday lives.

• Corrective Emotional Response – described by Preparing for Closing a Group

Yalom and Leszcz (2005) as the hallmark of the • Proper preparation for ending a group begins in
working phase of therapy groups. Components: the planning stage. To ensure proper group
First, the group member must risk making a strong procedures from start to end, leaders must establish
expression of emotion, which is interpersonally appropriate boundaries. Boundaries are physical and
directed. Reality testing, which allows the group psychological parameters under which a group
member to examine the incident with the aid of operates.
consensual validation from the other members, is
also necessary. Then the group member must • Closing occurs on two levels in groups: at the end
recognize the inappropriateness of certain of each session, and at the end of a certain number
interpersonal behavior. Finally, the group and its of sessions.
leader must help the member going through this • Closing entails four steps (Epstein & Bishop,
experience in every way possible to interact with 1981)
others more deeply and honestly.
1. Orientation – during orientation, the subject of
• Humor – the ability to laugh at oneself or a closing is raised. At times during the process, group
situation in a therapeutic and nondefensive manner. members are reminded when a session or a group
Groups that last make more frequent and longer use will end.
of humor than those that are short-lived.
2. Summarization – material that has been covered likely to be appropriate factors in deciding to end a
and processes that have occurred in the group are group experience early.
reviewed. Ideally, both the group leader and group
Preventing Premature Closing
members participate in this summary.
• The leader or members should inform the group as
3. Discussion of Goals – the group focuses on what
soon as possible about their departure from the
members will do after the session or the group ends.
group.
4. Follow-up – group members inform one another
• When a member wants to leave, group leaders
of the progress they have made in obtaining their
should discuss thoroughly the ramifications of such
objectives.
a move with the member and the group in a safe,
- In closing a group session, a leader should inform protected atmosphere.
members that the group is ending about 5 to 30
• Members should be helped to realize what they
minutes before its conclusion.
have gained from the group and what positive steps
- In ending a total group experience, the orientation they can take in the future to build on these
to closing involves a planned number of sessions achievements.
that are devoted to the topic of termination.
CLOSING OF GROUP SESSIONS
Premature Closing of a Group
Member Summarization
• 3 types of premature endings that must be dealt
• One or more members of the group summarize
with (Yalom &
what has transpired during the session, describing
Leszcz, 2005): what has happened to them and how they have
gained from the particular session. Each member
- The termination of the group as a whole
who speaks must keep his or her summary brief.
- The successful ending of a group for an individual
Leader Summarization
member
• When leaders summarize, they give a personal
- The unsuccessful ending of a group for a member
reaction to what they perceive to have occurred in
the group. The leader’s advantage is the emphasis
they can place on certain points and comments. The
Premature Closing of the Group as a Whole disadvantage is that leaders may neglect some
• This may occur because of a group leader or group important developments during the session or fail to
member action. Group leaders may appropriately mention the contributions of one or two members.
terminate the group prematurely if they become Also, leaders may misinterpret behaviors or
sick, move, or are reassigned to other duties. interchanges.
Leaders need to have at least one group session to Rounds
say goodbye to the group as a whole, or they need
to be able to contact group members directly. • A variation on member summarization, except in
this procedure every group member comments
Premature Closing Initiated by Group Members briefly about highlights of the group session.
• For individuals, premature termination may be due Dyads
to appropriate reasons, and the experience may be
successful or unsuccessful. Among a number of • By having members form into groups of two at the
reasons listed by Yalom, those involving external end of a session, group leaders make sure all
factors, not fitting in, and complications of members are involved in the closing, and the same
concurrent individual and group therapy are most time, the group is energize.
Written Reactions may occur among the group members themselves,
between each member and leader, and between each
• Frequently used at the end of group sessions, it is
member and the group as a whole. One way of
an aid to promoting reflection because of the time
dealing with transference perceptions is to become
and structure group members have to devote on it.
aware of them and recognize them for what they are
Writing can demystify the group process, encourage
initially in the group.
deeper participation, validate members’ feelings
about group experiences, and increase cohesiveness • Countertransference – the leader’s emotional
among members of the group. Examples are responses to members that are a result of the
journals, logs, and journal letters. leader’s own needs or unresolved issues with
significant others. It can also occur between
Rating Sheets
members of unequal status. The first step in dealing
• Members can rate themselves, other members, and with countertransference is to recognize how it
the leader on a number of dimensions, including being manifest.
involvement, risk taking goals, emotional
involvement, feedback, and productivity. They can
give their opinions on how satisfactory the group HANDLING THE CLOSING OF A GROUP
was for them and how they think it could be
ACTIVITY
improved.
• If a group is closed abruptly and issues about
Homework
ending are processed then the group is being closed
• Getting homework assignments at the close of the improperly. Another sign is when members are left
session allows group members to be more concrete with a number of unresolved issues. In open-ended
in determining their betweengroup goals. groups, this problem may be handled by extending
the number of sessions in the group. In closed-
FINAL CLOSING OF A GROUP
ended and time-limited groups, leaders must try to
• Movement into the stage of finally ending a group resolve as many of these issues in the time left in
rests squarely on the shoulders of group leaders. the group and make appropriate referrals or offer
Leaders can make the process positive and individual counseling to those who still have
productive through: difficulties when the group ends.

- Setting a time limit for the group (a number of Follow up sessions

meeting times that are announced in advance)
• Follow up – the procedure of reconnecting with
- Capping (easing out of emotional interaction and group members after they have had enough time to
into cognitive reflection) process what they experienced in the group and
work on their goals or objectives. Usually follow-up
- Using appropriate closing skills (calling the is planned for 3 to 6 months after a group ends.
group’s attention to whaty needs to be done to
terminate) • Evaluation questionnaire – another way to
conduct a follow-up, which serves the purpose of
PROBLEMS IN CLOSING OF GROUPS helping group members be concrete in assessing the
• Denial – acting as if an experience will never end. group in which they have participated. It must be
The group leader must remind participants, brief and should cover at least the leadership of the
especially in closed-ended groups, when the last group, the facilities in which the group was held,
session will be and encourage them to prepare and the group’s effectiveness in achieving its
accordingly. objectives.

• Transference – the displacement of effect from

one person to another. Within a group, transference