Introduction
Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is one of the world’s most densely populated and rapidly
urbanizing megacities. Over the past decades, the city’s expansion has been accompanied by
rapid industrialization, heavy traffic, inadequate waste management, and unregulated land use.
These factors have contributed to severe soil pollution, particularly from heavy metals such as
chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). In many cases,
these contaminants originate from industrial discharges (for example, from tanneries and brick
kilns), vehicular emissions, and improper disposal of municipal and hazardous wastes. In
addition, natural processes (e.g., weathering of parent rock) can release trace elements into the
soil, but anthropogenic activities now dominate the pollutant load in Dhaka’s urban soils.
In recent years, several studies have documented extremely high concentrations of heavy
metals in soils from Dhaka’s former industrial areas—including the tannery clusters of
Hazaribagh and the relocated Savar industrial estate. For example, a recent investigation in the
Savar tannery region revealed average soil chromium concentrations of 3,220 mg/kg, with
certain samples in the primary processing zone (Zone 3) reaching up to 53,400 mg/kg—levels
far exceeding international safety guidelines (
[Link]
). In parallel, review articles on heavy metal and metalloid pollution in Bangladesh have noted
that urban and industrial zones of Dhaka often exhibit heavy metal levels several orders of
magnitude above background values (
[Link]
). This research report reviews the major sources, distribution patterns, numeric contamination
data, health risk assessments, and recommendations for mitigating soil pollution in Dhaka.
Sources of Soil Pollution in Dhaka
Industrial Effluents and Tannery Waste
One of the principal sources of soil contamination in Dhaka is industrial effluent. Historically, the
tannery industry was centered in Hazaribagh—a densely built-up area in central Dhaka. In
response to mounting environmental and health concerns, many tanneries were relocated to the
Savar region; however, the legacy of heavy metal contamination persists. Studies in these areas
report exceptionally high levels of chromium from the use of chromium-based tanning agents.
For instance, in one study, the average chromium concentration in soils from the tannery area
was reported at 3,220 mg/kg, with maximum values reaching 53,400 mg/kg in the processing
zone (
[Link]
). In contrast, control or background soils in non-industrial areas had chromium levels around
15 mg/kg.
Vehicular Emissions and Traffic-Related Pollution
Vehicular traffic is another major contributor to soil contamination in Dhaka. Heavy traffic along
major roads results in the deposition of metals (such as lead, zinc, and copper) from exhaust
emissions, tire wear, and brake linings. A review of soils from high-traffic areas in Dhaka
(outside industrial clusters) revealed lead concentrations averaging 45.7 mg/kg with a standard
deviation of 25.5 mg/kg, indicating significant variability and hotspots near busy intersections (
[Link]
).
Waste Disposal and Landfills
Improper disposal of municipal waste, including hazardous industrial residues and electronic
waste, has further aggravated soil pollution. Landfill sites and open dumping of waste lead to
leachate rich in heavy metals infiltrating nearby soils. Recent news reports have highlighted
that, in Dhaka, large quantities of topsoil are being lost or degraded due to the continuous
deposition of industrial and urban wastes (
[Link]
).
Brick Kilns and Construction Waste
Brick kilns—which are prevalent in and around Dhaka—consume large volumes of topsoil and
release pollutants during the firing process. Estimates indicate that brick kilns in Bangladesh
may remove up to 800,000 tons of topsoil daily, depleting the nutrient content of urban soils and
contributing further to soil degradation.
Types and Levels of Soil Contaminants
Heavy Metals
Chromium (Cr)
Chromium is the most frequently cited pollutant in Dhaka’s industrial zones. In one study of soil
samples around the Savar tannery area, mean Cr concentrations were:
● Overall Mean: 3,220 mg/kg
● Zone 3 (tannery processing area): Mean of 10,200 mg/kg with some samples as high
as 53,400 mg/kg
● Control samples: Approximately 15.4 mg/kg
Such high chromium levels—up to 32 times higher than the WHO/FAO recommended
limits—are attributed primarily to the discharge of chromium-laden effluents from leather
processing units (
[Link]
).
Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd)
In addition to Cr, lead and cadmium have been detected in Dhaka’s soils, albeit at lower
concentrations in some areas:
● In high-traffic zones of Dhaka, Pb concentrations averaged about 45.7 mg/kg (with high
variability).
● Cadmium levels in the same areas were measured at around 0.38 mg/kg, though
industrial areas sometimes report higher values. These values exceed safe limits in
several cases and pose risks for both human health and ecological systems (
[Link]
).
Other Metals
Other metals such as copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) are also present. For example, in
the Savar study:
● Copper: Mean concentrations around 14.8 mg/kg
● Nickel: Mean concentrations of about 2.89 mg/kg
● Zinc: Mean values around 32.2 mg/kg
These values vary by location and land use; industrial sites typically show higher
concentrations.
Soil pH and Physicochemical Characteristics
Soil pH in polluted sites generally ranged from 6.4 to 7.3 in the studied areas, indicating that
most soils are slightly acidic to neutral. Although pH itself is not a pollutant, it influences metal
mobility and bioavailability. For example, in the tannery area study:
● Zone 1 (residential adjacent to industrial zone): pH ~6.4
● Zone 3 (industrial tannery zone): pH ~7.3
Spatial Distribution of Soil Pollution
Studies have often divided polluted areas into zones to better characterize the spatial
distribution of heavy metals. One detailed study around the Savar tannery area (which is part of
the greater Dhaka district) classified the region into four zones:
● Zone 1: A residential area adjacent to the tannery with high industrial spillover.
○ Mean Cr: ~2,620 mg/kg
● Zone 2: Downstream or peripheral areas with less direct industrial influence.
○ Mean Cr: ~54.2 mg/kg
● Zone 3: The core tannery processing zone.
○ Mean Cr: ~10,200 mg/kg, with extreme values in some samples
● Zone 4: Areas upstream or away from the primary effluent discharge.
○ Mean Cr: ~50.1 mg/kg
Similar spatial patterns are observed for other heavy metals. Generally, contamination is highest
in and around industrial clusters (Zones 1 and 3) and lower in peripheral or less affected areas.
These findings underscore the importance of spatially targeted remediation efforts (
[Link]
).
Health and Environmental Impacts
Human Health Risks
Soil pollution in Dhaka poses significant risks to human health. Exposure to heavy metals can
occur directly (e.g., through ingestion of contaminated soil by children) or indirectly (e.g.,
through the food chain when vegetables and crops are grown in polluted soils).
Risk Assessment Indices
Researchers have used several indices to quantify health risks:
● Contamination Factor (CF): Indicates how much metal concentrations exceed
background levels. For example, CF for Cr in the tannery area reached values as high
as 517 in some zones (
[Link]
).
● Pollution Load Index (PLI): Values greater than 1 indicate pollution; in the studied
zones, PLI values ranged from 0.72 to 1.90, indicating moderate to severe pollution.
● Hazard Index (HI): This is the sum of hazard quotients (HQs) for various metals. In one
study, the mean HI for soil contaminants via vegetable consumption was as high as 8.71,
with values for children often exceeding those for adults. In direct soil exposure
assessments, HI values ranged from 0.20 to 2.47 for adults and from 0.32 to 3.93 for
children (
[Link]
). These numbers imply that in many areas, particularly near the industrial zones, the risk
of non-carcinogenic health effects (such as neurological damage, kidney failure, and
gastrointestinal disorders) is significant.
Exposure Pathways
The primary exposure pathways include:
● Ingestion of contaminated soil: Particularly concerning for children, who may ingest
soil particles through hand-to-mouth activities.
● Consumption of contaminated crops: Vegetables grown in polluted soils have been
shown to accumulate heavy metals. For example, mean chromium levels in vegetables
from the industrial zone were around 10.7 mg/kg—several times higher than safe
consumption levels (
[Link]
).
● Dermal contact: Although less significant than ingestion, direct skin contact with
contaminated soils also contributes to overall exposure.
Ecological Impacts
Soil contamination adversely affects soil fertility and biodiversity. High levels of heavy metals
reduce the population of beneficial microbes and adversely affect the growth of plants. Recent
reports indicate that in Dhaka and its environs, soils are becoming “lifeless”—losing organic
matter (with values dropping below 2%, whereas 5% is ideal) and nutrients, largely due to
industrial and vehicular pollution as well as the intensive use of chemical fertilizers (
[Link]
). The loss of soil fertility not only undermines agricultural productivity but also contributes to
broader environmental degradation.
Impact on Food Safety
Vegetables and Crop Uptake
Polluted soils in Dhaka are often used for urban and peri‑urban agriculture. Several studies
have documented that vegetables grown in or near industrial areas accumulate high
concentrations of heavy metals:
● In one study, vegetables from Zone 3 of the tannery area exhibited mean chromium
concentrations of 10.7 mg/kg—up to 21 times higher than the maximum allowable limits
recommended by WHO/FAO (
[Link]
).
● Other metals, such as lead and cadmium, were also detected at levels exceeding safe
consumption guidelines in various vegetable samples from Dhaka’s industrial fringes.
This contamination of the food chain exacerbates the overall health risks to urban populations,
especially children and pregnant women.
Risk Assessment and Indices: A Closer Look
Metal Evaluation Index (MEI)
The MEI is calculated by comparing the observed concentration of each metal with its maximum
permissible concentration (MAC). In one study from the Savar area, the MEI ranged from 0.39
to 17.97 with an average of 6.71. Samples with an MEI below 10 are considered low in
contamination, those between 10 and 20 are medium, and values above 20 indicate high
contamination. In Dhaka’s industrial zones, several sites fell into the medium contamination
category (
[Link]
).
Nemerow Pollution Index (NI) and Degree of Contamination (C₍d₎)
The NI incorporates both the mean and maximum values of single-factor pollution indices to
provide an overall picture of soil quality. In the studied areas, NI values ranged from 0.14 to
12.33 with an average of 4.35. According to standard classifications, values above 1 indicate
pollution and those above 3 indicate heavy pollution. In the Savar study, eight out of fifteen
samples were classified as severely polluted. Similarly, the Degree of Contamination (C₍d₎) had
a mean value of 5.71, reinforcing the finding that nearly 50% of the samples are unsuitable for
safe use without remediation (
[Link]
).
Hazard Index (HI)
The HI for non-carcinogenic risk is computed by summing the hazard quotients for all
contaminants. Values above 1 indicate potential health risks. In Dhaka’s polluted zones, HI
values for soil exposure ranged from 0.20 to 2.47 for adults and from 0.32 to 3.93 for children.
The higher HI in children underscores their increased vulnerability to heavy metal exposure
through direct soil ingestion and through the food chain.
Mitigation Measures and Recommendations
Technological and Remediation Strategies
Given the severity of contamination, several mitigation measures are recommended:
● Phytoremediation: Planting hyperaccumulator species can help extract heavy metals
from the soil over time.
● Soil Washing and Stabilization: Chemical methods to reduce metal mobility and
bioavailability may be used in hotspots.
● Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Upgrading effluent treatment plants in industrial
areas, particularly in tannery zones, is critical to reduce ongoing contamination.
Policy and Regulatory Actions
To curb further soil degradation, authorities should:
● Enforce Strict Pollution Controls: Implement and enforce stringent discharge norms
for industries and vehicular emissions.
● Urban Planning and Zoning: Relocate highly polluting industries away from residential
areas and protect prime agricultural soils.
● Regular Monitoring: Establish long-term soil quality monitoring networks to identify
emerging hotspots and track the efficacy of remediation efforts.
Public Awareness and Community Action
Community-based initiatives are essential:
● Education and Awareness Programs: Inform local communities about the risks of soil
contamination and safe agricultural practices.
● Promotion of Sustainable Agriculture: Encourage the use of organic fertilizers and
environmentally friendly practices to reduce chemical inputs that may contribute to soil
degradation.
Research and Capacity Building
Continued research is needed to:
● Refine Risk Assessments: Expand the database of soil pollutant concentrations across
different parts of Dhaka to better understand spatial variability.
● Develop Innovative Remediation Technologies: Support academic and industry
partnerships to create cost-effective and scalable solutions for soil decontamination.
● Build Local Expertise: Enhance the capacity of local institutions (e.g., the Soil
Resources Development Institute and university research centers) to conduct regular
assessments and advise policymakers (
[Link]
).
Conclusion
Soil pollution in Dhaka City represents a critical environmental and public health challenge.
Industrial effluents—especially from the tannery sector—combined with vehicular emissions,
waste disposal practices, and brick kiln operations, have led to exceptionally high
concentrations of heavy metals in the soils of Dhaka and its peri‑urban areas. For instance,
studies report mean chromium concentrations in certain industrial zones as high as
10,200 mg/kg and maximum values reaching over 50,000 mg/kg—levels that are orders of
magnitude above international guidelines (
[Link]
). In addition, indices such as the Nemerow Pollution Index and the Hazard Index consistently
indicate that a significant proportion of soil samples are severely contaminated, posing
non-carcinogenic risks particularly to vulnerable groups such as children.
The adverse effects of these pollutants extend beyond human health; they impair soil fertility
and disrupt ecological functions, thereby undermining agricultural productivity and long-term
environmental sustainability. Mitigation efforts must therefore be multifaceted, incorporating
technological remediation, stringent regulatory oversight, sustainable urban planning, and
robust public awareness campaigns.
Given the ongoing urbanization and industrial growth in Dhaka, urgent action is required.
Policymakers should enforce pollution control measures, rezone high-risk areas, and invest in
innovative remediation techniques. Moreover, continuous monitoring and research are vital to
adapt strategies to evolving conditions and to safeguard both human health and the
environment for future generations.
In summary, the available evidence paints a concerning picture of Dhaka’s soil quality. With
heavy metals present at alarming concentrations and significant health risks identified through
rigorous risk assessment indices, there is an urgent need for coordinated action to restore soil
health and protect the city’s population.
References
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
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5. [Link]