SIGNALS & SYSTEMS ET 382

Unit 2: Systems
Lecture 3
 Content of Unit 2
1. Introduction to systems
2. System properties
3. Summary

Unit 2: Systems 2
 Objectives/Outcomes
1. Define a system
2. Describe different classes of systems and their
properties
3. Demonstrate ability to solve application
problems on the properties of systems

Unit 2: Systems 3
 Introduction to Systems

❖ A system can be defined as

• combination of elements that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function and produces some
output
• quantitative description of a physical process which
transforms signals at its input into signals at its output
• mathematical abstraction that deterministically transforms
input (excitation) signals into output (response) signals
• is an operator represented as the ratio of the output signal
over the input signal

Unit 2: Systems 4
 Continuous-time (CT) and
Discrete-time (DT) Systems
• CT system is a system in which CT input signals
are applied and result in CT output signals.
• DT system is a system that transforms DT
inputs into discrete-time output.

Unit 2: Systems 5
 Systems as Mathematical Operators

Input or Output or
Excitation system Response
signal signal
H
Operator 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑯{𝑥 𝒕 }or
𝑥(t)
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝑯{𝑥[𝑛]}
or 𝑥[𝑛]

Example
Discrete-time shift operator H = S k operating on the discrete-time signal
𝑥[𝑛] to produce 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]
• Operator H denotes the action performed by the system.

Unit 2: Systems 6
 Systems as Mathematical Operators

Unit 2: Systems 7
Signals and Systems: Relationship

Open system Closed or feedback system

E.g. TV remote control E.g. Cement processing control

Unit 2: Systems 8
 Classification of Systems
• Causal & Anticausal
• Linear & Non Linear
• Time invariant (Constant-parameter) and
Time-varying-parameter systems
• Stable & Unstable
• Static (memoryless) & Dynamic (memory)

Unit 2: Systems 9
 Causal Systems
• Causal or physical or nonanticipative system: the present value
of the output signal y(t) at any arbitrary time 𝑡𝑜 depends only
on the present and/or past values of the input signal x(t) and
not future input i.e. 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑜
• The system output does not anticipate future values of the
input
• Response (output) cannot occur before input is applied
• If the independent variable represents time, a system must be
causal in order to be physically realizable.
• Any practical system that operates in real time must
necessarily be causal.
y(t) = x(t −1) is causal
y[n] = x[n −1] is causal
Unit 2: Systems 10
 Examples
1. A system with input x t or x[n]and output y t or y n is described by
y t = x −t or y n = x[−n], respectively. Determine whether this system is
causal
Solution
• For positive time t>0 or n>0, y(t) or y[n] depends only on the value of x(-t) at
-t or x[-n] at –n, which is negative and therefore in the past of t or n.
• We may be tempted to conclude at this point that the given system is causal.
• However, For t < 0 or n < 0, y (t) or y[n] depends on x t or x[n] for t >
0 or n > 0. So, for example, if t = −1 or n = −1, y t = y −1 or y n =
y[−1] depends on x 1 or x[1] for t > −1 or n>-1 respectively..
• The output at this time depends on future values of the input.
• Hence, the system is noncausal
2. Is the system described by y n = x n − x[n + 1] causal?
3. Is the system described by y t = x(t + 1) causal?
4. Is the system described by y t = x t − 2 + x(t + 2) causal?
Unit 2: Systems 11
 Examples
Solution for Q2
For illustration purpose, consider the discrete – time signal x[n] with
the following values; x[-2]=3, x[-1] =2, x[0]=0 , x[1]=3, x[2]=1, x[3]=2

𝑦[n]= x[ n ] − x[n + 1]
• When n=0, 𝑦[0]= x[ 0 ] − x[0 + 1]
𝑦[0]= x[ 0 ] − x[ 1]
X[0]= present input, x[1]= future input. ∴ system is non-causal

Solution for Q4
y(t)=x (t − 2)+ x(t + 2) , when t=0,
y(0)=x (− 2)+ x(2)
X[-2]= past input, x[2]= future input. ∴ system is non-causal

Unit 2: Systems 12
 Examples
1. A system with input 𝑥(𝑡) and output 𝑦(𝑡) is described by
𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 . Determine whether this system is
causal.
• Solution: consider the calculation of 𝑦(𝑡0) for arbitrary 𝑡0. We
see that 𝑦(𝑡0) depends only on 𝑥(𝑡) for −∞ < 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0.
Therefore, this system is causal
2. A system with input 𝑥(𝑡) and output 𝑦(𝑡) is described by
𝑦(t)=𝑥 (𝑡) cos(𝑡 + 1). Determine whether this system is causal.
• Solution: In this system, the output at any time t equals the
input at that same time multiplied by a number that varies
with time. Specifically, we can rewrite the equation as
y(t)= 𝑥 (t)g(t)
• Where g( t ) = cos(t + 1) is a time-varying function.
• Thus, only the current value of the input 𝑥(t)
influences the current value of the output 𝑦and we
conclude that this system is causal
Unit 2: Systems 13
 Anticausal or Anticipative Systems
• Non causal systems are systems whose output signal y(t)
depends on future values of the input signal x(t) at any
arbitrary value time 𝑡𝑜.
• If the response starts before the input, it means that the
system knows the input in the future and acts on this
knowledge before the input is applied.
• We do not yet know how to build a system that can
respond to future inputs (inputs not yet applied).
• For this reason, noncausal systems are unrealizable in real
time.
y(t) = x(t +1) is Anticausal
y[n] = x[n +1] is Anticausal

Unit 2: Systems 14
Noncausal Systems and its realization by a
delayed causal system
• In signal processing applications such as speech, geophysical, and
meteorology, the input data used to process the output is prerecorded.
• In such cases, the input future values are available to us. For example,
suppose we had a set of input signal records available for the system
described by y t = x t − 2 + x(t + 2) .
• We can then compute y(t) since, for any t, we need only refer to the
records to find the input's value 2 seconds before and 2 seconds after
t.
• Thus, noncausal systems can be realized, although not in real time. We
may therefore be able to realize a noncausal system, provided we are
willing to accept a time delay in the output. Consider a system whose
output Ŷ(t) is the same as y(t) in y( t)= x (t − 2)+ x(t + 2) delayed
by 2 seconds, so that

𝑌෠ 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 − 2 = x (t − 2-2)+ x(t + 2-2)

𝑌෠ 𝑡 = x (t − 4)+ x(t ), the system is now causal

Unit 2: Systems 15
Noncausal Systems and its realization by a
delayed causal system
• Here the value of the output Ŷ at any instant t is the sum of the
values of the input x at t and at the instant 4 seconds earlier [at (t
− 4)].
• In this case, the output at any instant t does not depend on
future values of the input, and the system is causal.
• The output of this system, which is Ŷ(t), is identical to that in
y t = x t − 2 + x(t + 2) except for a delay of 2 seconds.
• Thus, a noncausal system may be realized or satisfactorily
approximated in real time by using a causal system with a delay.

Unit 2: Systems 16
 Noncausal systems are the Optimum
Solutions of Causal Systems

• One reason for studying noncausal systems is that they

provide an upper bound on the performance of causal
systems.
• For example, if we wish to design a filter for separating
a signal from noise, then the optimum filter is invariably
a noncausal system.
• Although unrealizable, this noncausal system's
performance acts as the upper limit on what can be
achieved and gives us a standard for evaluating the
performance of causal filters.
Unit 2: Systems 17
 Exercise
• Show that a system described by the following
equation is noncausal:
𝑡+5
• 𝑦( 𝑡)= ‫𝑡׬‬−5 𝑥(𝜏)𝑑 𝜏

• Hint: Show that this system can be realized

physically if we accept a delay of 5 seconds in
the output

Unit 2: Systems 18
 Exercise

• Determine whether the systems described below

are causal or noncausal.
1. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑒3𝑡)
2. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(sin 𝑡)
3. 𝑦 𝑡 = 3 sin 𝑡 + 1 + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑡
4. 𝑦 t = 𝑥( )
7
𝑡
5. y(t) =‫׬‬− ∞ 𝑥(3𝜏) 𝑑𝜏

Unit 2: Systems 19
 Linear and nonlinear systems
• Linear system obeys the principle of Homogeneity (scaling) and
additive property (Superposition theorem)
• If input x1 (t) → output y1 (t) and input x2 (t) → output y2 (t) &
If input x1[n] →output x1[n] and input x2[n] →output y2[n], then
1) ax1(t) → ay1(t) &
ax1[n] → ay1[n] Scaling or homogeneity property
2) x1(t) + x2(t) → y1(t) +y2(t) &
x1[n] + x2[n] → y1[n] +y2[n] Additive or Superposition
3) ax1(t) + bx2(t) → ay1(t) +by2(t) &
ax1[n] + bx2[n] → ay1[n] +by2[n] Scaling & Additive Property
for any scalar a,b
• Otherwise, the system is nonlinear
Unit 2: Systems 20
 Linear and nonlinear systems

• T[ax1(t) + bx2(t)] = T[ax1(t)] +T[bx2(t)]

= ay1(t) +by2
• For a continuous time system,
T[ax1(t) + bx2(t)] = ay1(t) +by2
• For a discrete time system,
T[ax1[n]+bx2[n]] = ay1 [n]+ by1 [n]
• Examples of linear systems are filters and communication
channels.

Unit 2: Systems 21
 Example
• Determine whether the system whose input 𝑥(𝑡) and output
𝑦(𝑡) are related by 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥 𝑡 is linear or non-linear
• Solution:

Unit 2: Systems 22
 Examples
1. Determine whether the system whose input 𝑥(𝑡) and
output y(t) are related 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 is linear or not.
2. Determine whether the system whose input 𝑥(𝑡) and
output y[n] are related y[n]= 2x n + 3 is linear or not.
Solution to Q1
Transform of individual inputs
𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥1 2 𝑡 ,
𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥2 2 𝑡 ,
T[ax1(t)] +T[bx2(t)] = a𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 2 𝑡
Transform of combined inputs

Let the combined inputs be given by 𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +b𝑥2 𝑡

𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑥3 2 𝑡 = [𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +b𝑥2 𝑡 ]2
Since 𝑦3 𝑡 ≠ a𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 , the system is non linear

Unit 2: Systems 23
 Examples
Solution to Q2
Transform of individual inputs
𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 = 2𝑥1 𝑡 + 3,
𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 𝑡 = 2𝑥2 𝑡 + 3,
T[ax1(t)] +T[bx2(t)] = a𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑎(2𝑥1 𝑡 + 3) + 𝑏(2𝑥2 𝑡 + 3)

Transform combined inputs

Let the combined inputs be given by 𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +b𝑥2 𝑡

𝑦3 𝑡 = 2𝑥3 𝑡 + 3 = 2(𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +b𝑥2 𝑡 ) + 3
Since 𝑦3 𝑡 ≠ a𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 , the system is non linear.

Unit 2: Systems 24
 Exercise
• Determine whether the following systems are
linear or nonlinear
a) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇𝑥[𝑛]
= 𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)
b) 𝑦 𝑡
c) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡2)
d) 𝑦 𝑛 = 3𝑥2[𝑛]
e) 𝑦 𝑛 = 2𝑥 𝑛 − 2 + 5
f) 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 1) − 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
Unit 2: Systems 25
 Time-invariance
• A system is time-invariant if a time shift in the input results in a corresponding
time shift in the output
• They respond identically no matter when the input signal is applied, that is,
characteristics do not change with time
• For time-invariant continuous-time signals x(t – t0) → y(t – t0) for any t0
• Any system not meeting this requirement is said to be time-varying

IF x1(t) System y1(t)

THEN x1(t-𝝉) System y1(t- 𝝉)

x1(t) y1(t)
t t
x1(t-t) y1(t-t)
𝝉 t 𝝉 t
Unit 2: Systems 26
 Time-invariance: Discrete signals
IF x1[n] System y1 [n]

THEN x1[n - m] System y1[n - m]

x1[n] y1 [n]

t t
x1[n - m] y1[n - m]

t t
m m
Unit 2: Systems 27
 Time-invariant Systems

Unit 2: Systems 28
 Time-invariance
• A system is time-invariant if a time shift in the input results in a corresponding
time shift in the output
• They respond identically no matter when the input signal is applied, that is,
characteristics do not change with time
• For time-invariant continuous-time signals x(t – t0) → y(t – t0) for any t0
• Any system not meeting this requirement is said to be time-varying

IF x1(t) System y1(t)

THEN x1(t-𝝉) System y1(t- 𝝉)

x1(t) y1(t)
t t
x1(t-t) y1(t-t)
𝝉 t 𝝉 t
Unit 2: Systems 29
 Example 10
• Is the system described by input x(t) and output y(t) relationship below time-
invariant?
• 𝑦 𝑡 = sin[𝑥 𝑡 ]
• Solution:

Unit 2: Systems 30
Summary Procedure to Test for Time
Variance and Time Invariance of a System
1. If the system is DT delay the input signal independent variable
by ‘𝑛𝑜 ’ samples. If otherwise CT, delay by ‘𝑡𝑜 ’ samples. Denote
the output signal by y(n, 𝑛𝑜 )/ y(t, 𝑡𝑜 )
2. Secondly delay the output signal y[n]/y(t) by ‘𝑛𝑜 ’/ ‘𝑡𝑜 ’ samples
respectively. i.e. replace n by 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 or t by 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 . Denote the
output signal by y(n - 𝑛𝑜 )/ y(t - 𝑡𝑜 ).
3. If y(n, 𝑛𝑜 )≠ y(n − 𝑛𝑜 ) the system is time variant.
4. If y(n, 𝑛𝑜 )= y(n − 𝑛𝑜 ) the system is time invariant.

Unit 2: Systems 31
 Examples
Example
Check whether the systems below are time variant or time invariant.
1. y[n]=x[-n+3]
2. y(t)=x(2t)
Solution for Q1
• The system has time shifted the time reversed the input signal.
• To check whether it is TV or TI, we first delay the input signal,
the independent variable n by ‘𝑛𝑜 ’ samples. Therefore,
y(n, 𝑛𝑜 )=x(−𝑛 + 3 − 𝑛𝑜 )
• Secondly, we delay the output signal by y[n] by ‘𝑛𝑜 ’ samples. That
is replace n by 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 . Therefore,
y(n − 𝑛𝑜 )=x[−(𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 ) + 3]
• y(n, 𝑛𝑜 )≠ y(n − 𝑛𝑜 ). ∴ the system is TV.
Unit 2: Systems 32
 Examples
Example
Check whether the systems below are time variant or time invariant.
1. y[n]=x[-n+3]
2. y(t)=x(2t)
Solution for Q2
• The system has time scaled the independent variable for the
input signal x(t).
• To check whether it is TV or TI, we first delay the input signal,
the independent variable t by ‘𝑡𝑜 ’ samples. Therefore,
y(t, 𝑡𝑜 )=x(2𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 ), the time scaling is on ‘t’ and not ‘𝑡𝑜 ’
• Secondly, we delay the output signal by y(t) by ‘𝑡𝑜 ’ samples. That
is replace t by 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 . Therefore,
y(t − 𝑡𝑜 )= x(2(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 )), y(t, 𝑡𝑜 )≠ y(t − 𝑡𝑜 ). ∴ the system is TV.
Unit 2: Systems 33
 Exercise
• Determine whether the system described by
input x(t) and output y(t) relationship below is
time-invariant or not.
a) y n = nx n
b) y t = x 𝑡 2
c) y t = sin t x(t − 2)

Unit 2: Systems 34
 Stable and Unstable Systems
• A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-output stable (BIBO
stable) if every bounded input x(t)/x[n] results in a bounded
output y(t)/y[n].
• Hence, a finite input in terms of magnitude should
produce a finite output, if the system is stable
• The output does not diverse if the input does not diverge
• From an engineering perspective, it is important that a system of
interest remains stable under all possible operating conditions.
• It is only then that the system is guaranteed to produce a
bounded output for a bounded input.
• Unstable systems are usually to be avoided, unless some
mechanism can be found to stabilize them.

Unit 2: Systems 35
 Stable and Unstable Systems
• A system is said to be BIBO stable if the output signal y(t)/y[n]
satisfies the condition
|y(t)|/|y[n]|≤ 𝑴𝒚 < ∞
whenever the input signal x(t)/x[n] satisfies the condition
|x(t)|/|x[n]|≤ 𝑴𝒙 < ∞

• 𝑀𝑦 and 𝑀𝑥 represent finite positive values.

Unit 2: Systems 36
 Stable and Unstable Systems
• Examples of bounded signals :
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 (amplitude between 1 and -1)
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 "
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
• dc values e.g. 𝑦 𝑡 = 6 . In this case, the amplitude is
6.
• To determine whether a system is stable or not, we replace the
input signal x(t) or x[n] with bounded input signal
• If the output signal is bounded (finite amplitude)then the system
is stable otherwise unstable.

Unit 2: Systems 37
 Exercise
Determine whether the following systems are stable or
unstable.
a) y(t)=tx(t)
b) Y(t)=𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)
c) Y(t)=𝑥 2 (𝑡)
Solution for (a)
Let x(t)= u(t), u(t) =1 for t≥ 0. y(t)=r(t)=t, a ramp signal. its
magnitude is infinite. Therefore, the system is unstable.
Solution for (b)
Let x(t)= 6, y(t) = 𝑒 6 = 403.43. Therefore, the system is
stable.

Unit 2: Systems 38
 Static or Memoryless Systems
• A static system is memoryless system and has no storage
devices
• It's output signal y(t) or y[n] at every value of t or n depends
only on the present values of the independent variable input
x(t) or x[n] at the same value of t or n
• A resistor is memoryless since the current flowing through it in
response to the applied voltage is defined by
1
i(t) = v(t)
R

Unit 2: Systems 39
 Dynamic Systems
• A dynamic system possesses memory and has storage
devices
• Its output signal depends on past values and future
values of the input signal
• Networks containing inductive and capacitive
elements generally have infinite memory because the
response of such networks at any instant t is
determined by their inputs over the entire past (− ∞,
t) t
1
i(t) =
L −
 v(t)dt

Unit 2: Systems 40
 Examples
• Determine whether the following systems are
dynamic or static.
1. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥2 𝑡
2. 𝑦[𝑛] = 2𝑥[𝑛]
3. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 1 + 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
4. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥2[𝑛] + 2𝑥[𝑛 + 1]
5. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥2[𝑛]

Unit 2: Systems 41
 Exercise
• Determine whether the following systems are
memoryless or have memory
a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡)
b) 𝑦 𝑛 = (2𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 2 𝑛 )2
c) 𝑦 [𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

Unit 2: Systems 42
 Summary
• The properties of a system describe the characteristics of the
operator 𝐻 representing the system
• On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals
with certain properties:
• Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only
depends on input values up to that time.
• Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled sum of
two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of outputs
• Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the system’s
output is the same, given the same input signal, regardless of
time.
• These properties define a large class of tractable, useful
systems and will be further considered in the coming lectures
Unit 2: Systems 39
 END OF UNIT 2

Unit 2: Systems 40