Introduction Sources of water Impurities in water Water as a green solvent Hardness of Water Boiler Problems Softening of water (External & Internal Treatments) Domestic water treatments Waste water treatments Desalination of Brackish water Reuse of Brine eeeINTRODUCTION « Water is not only essential for the survival of humans, animals and plants but it is equally important for domestic, agricultural and industrial use. « Its most important use as an engineering material is in the boilers for steam generation. It is also used as a coolant in power and chemical plants. e However about 90% of the earth surface is covered by water, only less than 1% of the world’s water resources provide water for ready to use. e Hence demand of the day is development of economically viable technologies for conversion of water of oceans and icebergs into directly usable form. PacesSOURCES OF WATER Y SOURCES OF WATER SSS =SOURCES OF WATER 1. River water : e Contains dissolved minerals like Cl,SO,?, HCO; of Na, Ca, Mg and Fe and suspended impurities. e Composition is not constant and it may vary depending on its contact with the soil. 2. Lake water : e Contains high quantity of organic matter but lesser amounts of dissolved minerals. PaciSOURCES OF WATER . Rain water : The purest form of natural water as it is obtained as a result of evaporation from the surface water. But during the journey downwards through the atmosphere, it dissolves industrial gases like CO,, SO,, NO, etc. and suspended solid particles. }. Underground water : Free from organic impurities and is clear in appearance due to the filtering action of the soil but contains large amount of dissolved salts. |. Sea water : Very impure as continuous evaporation increases the dissolved impurity content. Very saline for most industrial uses except cooling. Paci1) 2) 3) 4) Suspended Impurities: It may be inorganic or organic in nature. These impurities impart turbidity, colour and odour to water. Colloidal Impurities: Products from organic waste, finely divided silica and clay etc. are responsible for colloidal impurities. Dissolved Impurities: It may be due to the presence of dissolved salts like CO;?, HCO,;,CI and SO,” of Ca, Mg, Fe and Na. Dissolved gases like O2, CO, etc. also come under this category. Microorganisms: They include bacteria, fungi and algae. PaCSHARDNESS OF WATER aoe (soap consuming capacity) of water is the characteristic of water which prevents the lathering of soap. [Soaps are generally made up from Saponification reaction in which vegetable oil or fat (which are esters of higher fatty acids - Cig to Cig and Glycerol) are hydrolyzed by NaOH or KOH to form Glycerol and Na or K — salt of higher fatty acid.] e Hardness is due to the presence of certain salts of Ca, Mg and other heavy metal ions like Al*?, Fe*? etc. dissolved in it. Pwnen hard water is treated with soap, it does not form lather but forms precipitates or scum of insoluble soap of Ca and Mg. PacesHARDNESS OF WATER Svs can be explained from the following reactions: 2 Cy7H3sCOONa + CaCl, = (Cy7H35COO),Ca | 2 NaCl Sodium Stearate Calcium Stearate 2 Cy7H3sCOONa + MgSO, = (Cy7H3sCOO)2Mg | + NagSO4 Magnesium Stearate e Thus on this basis water can be classified into two types: »t._ Soft water: The water which produces lather easily with soap & 2. Hard water: The water which does not produce lather with soap but forms a white precipitates. PacesHARDNESS OF WATER mlypes of Hardness: e There are two types of hardness: o4e®Temporary (Carbonate/Alkaline) Hardness: e tis due to the presence of dissolved HCO; of Ca, Mg and other heavy metals and CO? of Fe. e It can be removed by boiling of water when HCO; are decomposed and converted into CO3? or OH: which are deposited as precipitates. + Ca(HCO;), Heat, CaCO; + H,0 + CO,HARDNESS OF WATER Mg(HCO3), Heat Mg(OH),| + 2 CO,’ e Itis also known as carbonate or alkaline hardness. 2_¢Permanent (Non-carbonate/Non-alkaline) Hardness: e It is due to the presence of dissolved Cl and SO,? of Ca, Mg, Fe and other heavy metals. e Itcan’t be removed by boiling. e Itis also known as non-carbonate or non-alkaline hardness. PaciHARDNESS OF WATER pUNITS OF HARDNESS: e Hardness can be expressed into mainly following units: 1. ppm (parts per million) 2. milligram per liter (mg/L) 3. Clarke’s degree (°Cl) 4. Degree French (°Fr) 5. miliequivalent per liter (meq/L) e The relationship between all these units can be given as 1 ppm = 1 mg/L = 0.07 °Cl = 0.1 °Fr = 0.02 meq/LHARDNESS OF WATER ‘estimation OF HARDNESS: e Hardness can be estimated mainly by following two methods: 1. Soap — titration method 2. EDTA (Complexometric) method {EDTA Method: e In this method EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid) forms complexes with Ca*? and Mg*? of hard water. « The structure of EDTA is as follows: HOOC H,C CH,COOH KN — CH, — CH, — N< HOOC H,C CH,COOHHARDNESS OF WATER the structure of EDTA Complex with Ca*2 / Mg*? is as follows: fe ee een N ——_ — CH,———_-_ N "OOCH,C e The advantages of EDTA method are: |. Greater accuracy \|. Convenient lll. Rapid procedureBOILER PROBLEMS e Water is mainly used in boilers for the steam generation. sAboiterfeed water should satisfy the following requirements: 1) Its hardness should be below 0.2 ppm. 2) Its caustic alkalinity (due to OH-) should be between 0.15 — 0.45 ppm. 3) Its soda alkalinity (due to Na,CO,) should be between 0.15 — 1 ppm. e Excess of impurities, if present, in boiler-feed water generally cause the following problems: a) Scale and Sludge formation c) Caustic embrittlement b) Boiler Corrosion d) Priming and foaming PacesBOILER PROBLEMS \iy/Scate and Sludge Formation: e In boilers, water evaporates continuously and the concentration of the dissolved salts increase constantly. e When their concentrations reach saturation point, they are thrown out of water in the form of precipitates on the inner walls of the boiler. e If the precipitates formed are soft, loose and slimy, its called sludge formation while if the precipitates are hard and adhering on the inner walls of the boiler then its called scale formation. PacesBOILER PROBLEMS Sludge Formation: It's a soft, loose and slimy precipitates formed within the boiler. Sludge is formed by the substances having more solubility in hot water than in cold water e.g. MgCO3, MgCl,, CaCl, MgSO, etc. It is formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and gets collected at places where the flow rate is slow. It can be easily scrapped off with a wire brush. If sludge is formed along with scale, then sludge gets entrapped in the scale and both get deposited as scale. PacesBOILER PROBLEMS » Disadvantages of sludge formation: i. Sludge is a poor conductor of heat, so it tends to waste a portion of heat generated and thus decreases the efficiency of boiler. ii, Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of the boiler as it settles in the regions of poor water circulation and choking of the pipes. > Prevention of sludge formation: i. By using soft water ii. By frequently “blow down operation” i.e. removing a portion of the concentrated water. PaciBOILER PROBLEMS (©) NF, scale Formation: e Scales are hard deposits firmly sticking to the inner surfaces of the boiler. e They are difficult to remove and are the main source of boiler problems. » Reasons for Scale Formation: Ca(HCO,), Heat. CaCO, + H,0 + CO, |BOILER PROBLEMS * Scale composed of CaCO, is soft and is the main cause of scale formation in low-pressure boilers. e In high-pressure boilers, CaCO3 is soluble due to the formation of Ca(OH),. CaCO, + H,O » Ca(OH), + CO,) . Deposition of CaSO,: The solubility of CaSO, in water decreases with increase in temperature [3200 ppm at 15°C, 55 ppm at 230°C and 27 ppm at 320°C]. Hence, it gets precipitated as hard scale on the hot parts of the boiler. PaciBOILER PROBLEMS ° This type of scale causes problems mainly in high-pressure boilers. CaSO, scale is quite adherent and difficult to remove. lll. Hydrolysis of Magnesium Salts: * Dissolved magnesium salts get hydrolyzed forming precipitates of Mg(OH)2 which forms a soft type of scale. MgCl, + 2H,0 Mg(OH), + 2HcI | Iv. Presence of Silica: * SiO, (Silica) even present in small quantities, deposits as Calcium Silicate (CaSiO3) and / or Magnesium Silicate (MgSiO3). ° These deposits adhere very firmly on the inner side of the boiler surface and are very difficult to remove. PaciBOILER PROBLEMS > Disadvantages of Scale Formation: 1. Wastage of fuel: e Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so the rate of heat transfer from boiler surface to inside water is reduced. In order to provide a steady supply of heat to water, excessive or over heating is done and this causes increase in fuel consumption. . Lowering of boiler safety: Over-heating makes the boiler material softer and weaker and also makes the boiler unsafe to bear the pressure of the steam especially in high-pressure boilers. PaciBOILER PROBLEMS lll. Decrease in efficiency: e Deposition of scale in boiler parts choke them partially which results in decrease in efficiency of the boiler. iv. Danger of explosion: e When thick scales crack due to uneven expansion, the water comes suddenly in contact with over-heated portion and large amount of steam is formed suddenly. e This may result in development of sudden high-pressure which may cause explosion of the boiler. PacesBOILER PROBLEMS » Removal of Scale: e Scales can be removed either by mechanical or chemical methods. e If the scales are loosely adhering, it can be removed with the help of scraper or piece of wood or wire brush or it can also be removed by frequent blow-down operation. If the scales are adherent and hard, they can be removed by dissolving them by adding chemicals. e.g. CaCO3 scale can be dissolved by using 5-10% HCI. CaSO, scale can be removed by adding EDTA. PacesBOILER PROBLEMS 2) Boiler Corrosion: e It is decay or disintegration of boiler body material either due to chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. e Main reasons for boiler corrosion are dissolved O5, dissolved CO, and acids from dissolved salts. A. Dissolved O,: In boilers, O, is introduced through the raw water supply. « At room temperature, the concentration of O, in water is 8 ppm. « As the water is heated, the dissolved O, is set free and the boiler starts corroding. PaciBOILER PROBLEMS « Dissolved O, reacts with the Fe of boiler in presence of water at high temperature to form rust. » 2Fe(OH), | 2 [Fe,03.2H,0] | 2Fe+2H,0+0, 4 Fe(OH), + O, issolved O, can be removed by chemical or mechanical method. in be removed by adding N.H, (Hydrazine) or Na,SO3; (Sodium sulphite) or Na,S (Sodium sulphide) as per the following reactions: PacesBOILER PROBLEMS NoH, + O2 Np + 2H,O0 2 Na,SO3+ O, - 2. NaySO, Na,S + 20, Na,SO, 40% aqueous solution of hydrazine is a preferable option as it removes dissolved oxygen without increasing the concentration of dissolved solids / salts like sodium sulphite and sodium sulphide. + NazSOx (produced on addition of NazSO; or Na2S) at high pressure may decompose to give SO, which may further produce corrosive sulphurous acid (H2SO3). PacesBOILER PROBLEMS Dissolved oxygen can be also removed from the water by mechanical de-aeration. his method water is sprayed in a perforated plate-fitted tower which is heated from sides and connected to vacuum pump. temperature, low pressure and large exposed surface reduces the dissolved oxygen in water. PaCSBOILER PROBLEMS B. Dissolved CO,: « There are two sources of CO, in boiler water i.e. dissolved CO, in raw water and CO, formed by decomposition of bicarbonates in H,0. e Dissolved CO, is carbonic acid (H,CO3) which has a corrosive effect on the boiler material. H,O + CO, = H,CO; « CO, is released if water used for steam generation contains bicarbonates. Mg(HCO3), Heat, MgCO, + H,0 + CO,BOILER PROBLEMS It can be also removed by chemical or mechanical method. It can be removed by adding calculated quantity of NH3. 2 NH,OH + CO, = (NH,)2,CO3 + HO e Dissolved CO, can be removed along with dissolved O, by mechanical de-aeration process. [Link] from dissolved salts: e Water containing dissolved Mg salts liberate acids on hydrolysis. MgCl, + 2H,O = Mg(OH), + 2HCIBOILER PROBLEMS « The liberated acid reacts with Fe of the boiler in chain-like reactions producing HCl again and again. Fe + 2HCI = FeCl,+ Hp | FeCl, + 2H,O = Fe(OH), + 2HCI e Thus, presence of even a small amount of MgCl, will cause corrosion of boiler to a large extent.BOILER PROBLEMS 3) Caustic Embrittlement: e It is a phenomenon during which the boiler material becomes brittle due to the accumulation of caustic substances. e This type of boiler corrosion is caused by the use of highly alkaline water in the high pressure boiler. e During softening by lime-soda process, free Naj,CO, is normally present in small amount. In high pressure boilers, Na,CO3 decomposes to give NaOH and CO, and NaOH thus produced makes the boiler water caustic. Na,CO, + HO = 2 NaOH + CO, PacesBOILER PROBLEMS « This caustic water flows into the minute hair cracks, present in the inner side of boiler by capillary action. e Here water evaporates and the concentration of dissolved caustic soda increases progressively which attacks the surrounding area, thereby dissolving Fe of boiler as sodium ferrate (Na,FeO,). e This causes embrittlement of boiler parts, particularly stressed parts like bends, joints etc. causing the failure of the boiler. Caustic cracking can be explained by the following concentration cell: Fe at bends, Concentrated Dilute NaOH soln. Fe at plane surface Joints etc. NaOH soln. PacesBOILER PROBLEMS « The Fe in contact with concentrated NaOH becomes anodic part which is corroded. « Caustic embrittlement can be avoided by a. using Na3PO, as softening agent instead of Na,CO,; b. adding tannin or lignin to boiler water since these blocks the hair- cracks, thereby preventing infiltration of caustic soda solution in these c. adding Na,SO, to boiler to block the hair-cracks. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER e The process of removing hardness producing salts from water is known as softening of water. e The hardness causing salts can be removed from water by two methods: (1) External treatment and (2) Internal treatment e The External treatment of water is carried out before its entry into the boiler. e The Internal treatment of boiler feed water refers to the conditioning of water in the boiler itself by the addition of chemicals. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER Zelite Limesoda Ion-exchange Colloidal . Carbonate Phosphate Calgon process process process conditioning conditioning conditioning conditioning PacesSOFTENING OF WATER e difference between the External and Internal treatment methods is as below: PaCSSOFTENING OF WATER » External Treatment: e It can be done by the following methods: (1) Lime-soda process (2) Zeolite process (3) lon-exchange process 1) Lime-soda process: « The basic principle of this process is to chemically convert all the soluble hardness causing impurities into insoluble precipitates which may be removed by settling and filtration. PaciSOFTENING OF WATER e The soluble calcium and magnesium salts of water are converted into the precipitates of CaCO; and Mg(OH), by adding calculated amounts of lime [Ca(OH),] and soda [Na,CO.]. Ca*? + Na,CO, + CaCO, + 2Na* Mg*2 + Ca(OH), » Mg(OH), + Ca*? « The precipitates are filtered off. If this process is carried out at room temperature its termed as Cold lime-soda process and if carried out at high temperature (80 - 150°C) its termed as Hot lime-soda process. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER a) Cold lime-soda process: e In this method, calculated quantities of chemicals are mixed with water at room temperature. e At room temperature, the precipitates formed are finely divided, so they do not settle down easily and cannot be filtered easily. e Hence, it is necessary to add small amounts of coagulants (like Alum, Al,(SO,)3, NaAlO, etc.) which hydrolyze to the precipitates of Al(OH) 3 which entraps the fine precipitates. NaAlO, + 2 H,0 » NaOH + AI(OH)s, « This process provides water containing a residual hardness of 50-60 ppm. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER © Motor Driving belt Chemicals (soda +lime ———=— + coagulant) feed inlet Raw water ~-=~— Filtered lood. softened water} bis _ outlet filter Stirrer . peaawe Inner chamber Stirrer Sedimented sludge 1CaCOy . Mg (OH), | ANAT ATM + Sludge outletSOFTENING OF WATER b) Hot lime-soda process: e In this method, calculated quantities of softening chemicals are mixed with water at a temperature of 80 - 150°C. Since this process is carried out at nearly the boiling point of the solution it offers some advantages over cold lime-soda process as below: 1. The reaction proceeds faster. 2. The precipitates settle down rapidly and hence coagulants are not needed. 3. Much of the dissolved gases are also driven out of the water. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER ) [Link] of softened water is lower, so filtration of water becomes much easier. 5. This provides the water of residual hardness of 15 to 30 ppm. Raw water | Super pay jreated \ 3 Chemicals dime + soda) steam inlet d inlet ==] , Softened 4 water >), Coarse sand Reaction tank To inyer ieee Gravels layers Filtered softened * water outlet - Precipitated judge outl a PacesSOFTENING OF WATER Advantages of L-S process Disadvantages of L-S process It is very economical. Treated water is alkaline and hence less corrosion tendencies. Due to alkaline nature of treated water, amount of pathogenic bacteria in water is also reduced considerably. It removes minerals, Fe, Mn etc. also up to some extent. Careful operation and_ skilled supervision is required. Sludge disposal is a problem. This can remove hardness only up to 15 ppm which is not good for high pressure boilers.SOFTENING OF WATER 2) lon-exchange process: * It is a process by which ions held on a porous, essentially insoluble solid (resins) are exchanged for ions in solution that comes in contact with it. e lon-exchange resins are insoluble, cross-linked, high molecular weight organic polymers with a microporous structure and the functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion-exchange properties. e Resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH, -SO3H etc.) are capable of exchanging their H* ions with other cations while resins containing basic functional groups are capable of exchanging their OH ions with other anions. ° The ion-exchange resins may be classified as Cation and Anion exchange inSOFTENING OF WATER |. Cation exchange resins (R°H*): e They are mainly styrene-divinyl benzene copolymers, which on sulphonation or carboxylation, become capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with the cations in the water. Ste —SH — CHe — cr - Che com — a — Leo too) sou “Sos ut —cHs — cre —— cree —— os — epee as SS Soe SognSOFTENING OF WATER ll. Anion exchange resins (R*OH’): e They are styrene-divinyl benzene or amine-formaldehyde copolymers, which contain basic functional groups such as quaternary ammonium cations as an integral part of the resin matrix. e This after treatment with dil. NaOH solution, become capable to exchange their OH: anions with anions of hard water. PaciSOFTENING OF WATER > Process: « The hard water is first passed through cation exchange column which removes all the cations from it and equivalent amount of H* ions are released from this column to water.SOFTENING OF WATER © 2 RH* + Cat? =R,Cat? + 2 Ht 2 RH* + Mg*? = R,Mg*? + 2 Ht e After cation exchange column, the hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the anions present in the water and equivalent amount of OH ions are released from this column. e ROH: + Cl =R'Cr + OH 2 ROH + SO,* = R,'SO,? + 2 OH « H* and OH: ions get combined to produce water. H* + OH: = H,O PacesSOFTENING OF WATER e Thus, the water coming out from the exchanger is free from cation and anions. e This ion-free water is known as deionized or demineralized water. Finally, the demineralized water is passed through a degasifier, a tower whose sides are heated and which is connected to a vacuum pump. e High temperature and low pressure reduces the amount of dissolved gases like CO, and O3. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER Raw water =» To vacuum pump Steam jacket Demineralized water Degasifier .SOFTENING OF WATER >» Regeneration: e When capacities of cation and anion exchangers to exchange H* and OH: ions respectively are lost, they are said to be exhausted. e The exhausted cation exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of [Link] or H,SO,. R,Ca*? + 2 H*= 2 RH* + Cat? e The column is washed with deionized water and washing (which contains Ca*?, Mg*? etc.) is passed to sink or drain. PacesSOFTENING OF WATER e The exhausted anion exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of dil. NaOH. R,'SO,2 + 2 OH-= 2 R'OH: + SO,2 e The column is washed with deionized water and washing (which contains SO,*, Cl etc.) is passed to sink or drain. e The regenerated ion exchange resins are then used again. PaciSOFTENING OF WATER Advantages of lon-exchange | Disadvantages of eda ed exchange process The process can be used to soften Capital cost involved is high highly acidic or alkaline waters. since chemical and equipment used both are costly. It produces water of very low If water contains turbidity then hardness (say 2 ppm). the efficiency of the process is reduced. Treated water is very good for use in high pressure boilers. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT e Municipalities have to supply potable (drinking) water. e The potable water should satisfy the following requirements: 4) It should be colourless and odourless. 2) It should be good in taste. 3) It should be perfectly cool. 4) Its turbidity should be less than 10 ppm. 5) It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like H2S. 6) It should be free from objectionable minerals such as Pb, As, Cr and Mn salts. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT 7) Its alkalinity should not be high. pH should be in the range of 7.0 — 8.5. 8) It should be reasonably soft. 9) Its total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm. 10)It should be free from disease producing microorganisms. e Natural water from rivers, canals etc. does not confirm to all the essential requirements of drinking water. e Domestic water treatment mainly involves following stages: (A) Removal of suspended impurities (B) Removal of micro-organisms PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT A. Removal of suspended impurities: e Suspended impurities can be removed by using following methods: (a) Screening (b) Sedimentation and (c) Filtration a. Screening: e It is a process of removing floating materials like wood pieces, leaves etc. from water. e Raw water is passed through screens having holes, when the floating matter is retained by them and water is allowed to pass. Pacesb. DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT Sedimentation: It is a process of allowing water to stand undisturbed in big tanks, about 5 m deep, when most of the suspended particles settle down at the bottom, due to the force of gravity. The clear supernatant water is then drawn from tank with the help of pumps. The retention period in a sedimentation tank ranges from 2-6 hours. This process removes only 70-75% of the suspended matter. PaciDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT e When water contains fine clay particles and colloidal matter, it becomes necessary to apply sedimentation with coagulation. Itis the process of removing fine suspended and colloidal impurities by the addition of requisite amount of chemicals (coagulants) to water before sedimentation. e Coagulant, when added to water, forms an insoluble gelatinous, flocculant precipitate, which descent through the water, adsorbs and entraps very fine suspended impurities forming bigger flocs which settle down easily. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT « The coagulants are generally, added in solution form. e The commonly used coagulants are Alum [K2SO,. Al2(SO,4)3.24H20], Sodium aluminate (NaAIO2), Copper or Ferrous sulphate [FeSO,4.7H,O] etc. c. Filtration: e It is the process of removing colloidal matter and most of the bacteria, micro-organisms etc. by passing through a bed of fine sand and other proper-sized granular materials. e Itis carried out by using sand filter. PacesB. Removal of micro-organisms: DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT Even after filtration, water still contains a small percentage of disease producing (pathogenic) bacteria which must be removed or destroyed. The process of destroying / killing the pathogenic bacteria, micro- organisms etc. from the water to make it safe for use is known as disinfection. The chemicals or substances, which are added to water for killing the bacteria etc. are known as disinfectants. The examples of disinfectants are Bleaching powder (CaOCl.), Chlorine (Cl,), Chloramine (CINH2), Ozone (Oz) etc. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT ¢ Characteristics of an ideal disinfectant: 1. It should kill the disease producing micro-organisms quickly at room temperature. 2. It should be inexpensive. 3. It should not be toxic to human. 4. It should provide protection against any contamination in water during conveyance or storage. Disinfection does not ensure total destruction of all living organisms but sterilization does. PaciDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT « Sterilization means complete destruction of all living organisms which is done by boiling of water for a period of time. e This process can kill only the existing germs in water at the time of boiling, but does not provide any protection against future possible contamination. e It is a costly process and can be used only by individuals and hence impossible to employ it in municipal water-works. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT 1) Disinfection by bleaching powder: e The chemical reaction of bleaching powder in water is given below: CaOCl, + H2O = Ca(Oh), + Clo Bleaching powder Clp + H20 = HC! + HOCI Hypochlorous acid e Enzymes present in the cells of the micro-organisms and are essential for the metabolic process, get deactivated by their chemical reaction with HOCI which results in the death of micro- organisms.DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT e Drawbacks of bleaching powder: |. Excess of it imparts bad taste and smell to treated water. As it is not stable, during storage it undergoes continuous decomposition and thus deteriorates. |i. It introduces Ca in water and thus increases hardness. 2) Disinfection by chlorine (Chlorination): « Chlorine (Cl,) can be used directly as a gas or in the form of concentrated solution in water. It produces HOCI, which is a powerful germicide. PaciDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT For filtered water, about 0.3 — 0.5 ppm of Cl, is enough. e Apparatus used for disinfection by Clz is known as Chlorinator. Factors like temperature of water, pH of water, time of contact etc. affect efficiency of Cl, as a disinfectant. e At high temperature and low pH (5 — 6.5), the death rate is maximum and with time, it goes on decreasing. The treated water should not contain more than 0.1 — 0.2 ppm of free chlorine. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT It is more effective and economical. Excess of Cl, produces bad taste and unpleasant odour. It is stable, requires small space for Excess of Cl, produces irritation storage and does not deteriorate. | on mucus membrane. It can be used at high as well as It is not effective at higher pH. low temperature. It does not introduce any impurity in treated water. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT > Break-point chlorination: It means the chlorination of water to such an extent that pathogens as well as other organic impurities in water are destroyed. It involves addition of sufficient amount of Cl, to oxidize organic matter, reducing substances and free NH; in raw water, leaving behind mainly free Cl, which possesses disinfecting action against pathogens. It is also known as free-residual chlorination. * A typical relationship between the amount of Cl, added to water and the experimentally determined free residual Cl, is shown in figure. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT ‘ue | une ction | of chloro- | Free nic and residual eno loramines | chlorine Formation chloramines | Residual chlorine —» eer Applied chlorine dose ——>DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT « Initially for lower doses of Cl,, there is no free residual chlorine since all added Cl, gets consumed for complete oxidation of reducing substances in water. « As the amount of Cl, dosage is increased, amount of residual Cl, also show steady increase which is due to the formation of chloro-organic compounds without oxidizing them. At still higher dose of applied Cl,, oxidation of organic compounds starts and consequently the amount of free residual Cl, also decreases. When the oxidative destruction is complete it reaches a minima. After minima, the added Cl, is not used in any reaction and the residual Cl, keeps increasing in direct proportion to added Cl,. PacesDOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT e The addition of Cl, at the dip or break, is called break-point chlorination. e Usually, all taste and odour disappear at break-point. » Advantages of break-point chlorination: 1) It ensures complete destruction of organic compounds which impart colour, bad odour and unpleasant taste to water. 2) It completely destroys all the disease producing bacteria. 3) It prevents the growth of any weeds in water.