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 Biotechnology for Green Energy: Biofuels

Pocket K No. 24: Biotechnology for Green

Energy: Biofuels
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What are biofuels?

Biofuels are alternative fuels made from plant and plant-derived resources. Biofuels are used
mainly for transportation. There are two types of biofuels: bioethanol and biodiesel.

Bioethanol, the principal fuel used as substitute for petrol for road transport vehicles, is
mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process of cellulose (starch), which is mostly
derived from maize and sugar cane. Biodiesel on the other hand is mainly produced from oil
crops such as rapeseed, palm, and soybean (Table 1).

Table 1: Main energy crops worldwide

Country Bioethanol Biodiesel
Brazil sugar cane ---
United States maize sobyean
China sweet sorghum rapeseed, sunflowerseed
Germany sugar beet rapeseed, sunflowerseed
France sugar beet rapeseed, sunflowerseed
Italy --- rapeseed, sunflowerseed
Canada cereals ---
Thailand cassava ---
Spain sugar beet ---
Denmark --- rapeseed, sunflowerseed
Czech Republic --- rapeseed, sunflowerseed
Australia cereals, sugar cane ---
Sources: United States Department of Agriculture, United States
Department of Energy, the European Commission.

Why have biofuels?

Meeting future energy demands

Energy demand is projected to grow by 50% by 2025, with much of the increase in demand
predicted to originate from developing countries. The vast majority of energy is currently
derived from fossils fuels, a limited, non-renewable and polluting resource.
Brazil is the world’s leader in biofuels, with 30% of transport fuel currently derived from
biomass. In addition, many countries are setting up new initiatives for the production and use
of biofuels for transportation (2; Table 2). Switching to biofuels for transportation needs
would reduce energy dependency on oil imports and could boost rural development,
providing farmers with an additional source of income.

Table 2. Biofuel Production, Top 12 Countries, 2004. Adapted from

(2).
Country Bioehtanol (billion liters) Biodiesel (billion liters)
Brazil 15 ---
United States 13 0.1
 China 2 ---
Germany 0.02 1.1
France 0.1 0.4
Italy --- 0.35
Canada 0.2 ---
Thailand 0.2 ---
Spain 0.2 ---
Denmark --- 0.08
Czech Republic --- 0.07
Australia 0.07 ---
World Total 31 2.2

Several countries have set goals for increasing the proportion of biofuels used for transport:
the US plans to replace 30% of the liquid petroleum with biomass-derived products by 2025
(3); India has a target to increase the proportion of biofuels from 5% to 20% by 2012 (4); and
the European Union targets close to 6% of fuels to be derived from biomass by 2010 (4).

Reducing greenhouse emissions

Despite the uncertainty in understanding something as complex as global climate, there is

strong evidence that the emission of greenhouse gases from human activities is resulting in
significant global warming. Fossil fuel and electricity consumption are main sources of
greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol (5), an international agreement made under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established with the aim
of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous human interference with global climate.

Environmental advantages of biofuels

The main environmental advantage of biofuels stems from the fact that they are carbon-
neutral: the carbon dioxide they release upon combustion is initially extracted from the
atmosphere during biomass production, resulting in zero net greenhouse gas emissions.

Biofuels also reduce the release of volatile organic compounds, as the addition of ethanol to
gasoline oxygenates the fuel mixture so it burns more completely. Ethanol also eliminates the
need to add lead. In addition, biofuels are biodegradable and non-toxic, meaning spillages
represent far less of a risk than fossil diesel spillages.

The cost of biofuels

The cost of biofuels needs to be estimated not only in terms of energy derived, but also in
terms of how much energy/resources are required for the production and distribution of
biofuels (6). The production of energy crops requires land, fertilizers, and farm machinery,
while the fermentation and distillation of biofuels needs biomass and water. The
environmental impacts of producing biomass include increased soil erosion, and pollution
related to an increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.

Calculating energy efficiency is however very difficult, as we also have

to factor in the resources saved by substitution of a renewable energy
source for a fossil fuel product, a non-renewable resource. Energy
efficiency calculations involve many assumptions on how energy crops
are grown, harvested and processed, and also on what resources are
saved, which makes these calculations controversial (6).

In addition, the cost of biofuels will also ultimately depend on several

parameters that need to be better addressed and are inherently difficult
to quantify. Among these are: increased security of supply; effect on
climate change; employment generation; and the impact of an
expanding bioenergy sector on land demand, and how this will affect
alternative land uses, such as food production and biodiversity conservation.

The cost of biofuels is also inextricably linked to the cost of fossil fuels, and is likely to
remain so for the next decades. Therefore, currently the main driver for biofuel production is
governmental policies. The development of a second generation of perennial, woody energy
crops, and the improvement of the efficiencies of biorefineries, will likely shift the economic
balance towards more economically competitive applications of biofuels.

Plant Biotechnology and Biofuels

The US Department for Agriculture (USDA) has estimated that one billion dry tons of
biomass per year are needed to replace 30% of transportation fuels with biofuels (7).
According to an USDA study, this amount of biomass could be produced by 2050, with
feasible technological advances while still meeting food, fibre and export demands. The
biomass would be mostly derived from crop residues and from the cultivation of perennial
energy crops.

The challenge for biotechnology is therefore to substantially increase crop yield, and at the
same time develop crops with a suitable set of chemical and physical traits for energy
production (8).

Increasing plant yield

Plant growth can be improved by increasing the efficiency of

light capture during photosynthesis (8, 9). The most
successful approaches have involved introducing genes from
photosynthetic bacteria into plants, without effecting changes
in the level of activity of plant-specific genes. Conventional
breeding techniques are therefore unsuitable for the
development of crops with more efficient use of solar
energy.
Also successful has been the manipulation of genes involved in the metabolism of nitrogen,
an essential element in proteins and DNA. Over-expression of a glutamine synthesis gene
(GS1) in poplar trees significantly increases tree height (10). Further strategies include
extending the growth phase of plants, by reducing seed dormancy, or by preventing or
delaying flowering, as plants devote a large proportion of their energy to making reproductive
structures which could be harnessed into vegetative growth.

Raising plant protection to abiotic and biotic stress

Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields by over
50%. Further losses incur due to attack by pests and pathogens. Developing crops with
improved resistance to stress, and equipping plants with enhanced resistance to pests and
pathogens, are therefore at the center of numerous crop improvement initiatives, both by
conventional breeding and by novel biotechnological methods (11). For example, transgenic
rice over-expressing the chloroplastic glutamine synthase gene (GS2) shows increased
tolerance to high soil salinity. Such initiatives will have a fundamental impact on plant
productivity.

Bt cotton, a variety that has been genetically engineered

with the insecticidal gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thurengiensis is a very successful example of a biotech crop
developed with improved resistance to pests. The transgene
produces a protein that paralyzes the larvae of pest insects,
including the cotton bollworm and the Asian and European
corn borers. According to a recent study (12), Bt cotton
contributed US$ 8.12 billion to the cotton sector in
countries adopting the technology (8 in 2005). The economic contribution of Bt cotton stems
from both increased yields and reduced production costs.

Optimizing the chemical and physical attributes of biofuel sources

The switch to renewable biomass sources will also require the development of a suite of
energy crops tailored with the desired chemical and physical characteristics.

For bioethanol production, attention must shift from plant grains toward corn stovers (dried
leaves and stems), trees and perennial grasses, and low-cost agricultural and municipal
wastes. Several approaches would improve the efficiency of energy production from biomass
sources. As the biosyntheses of cellulose and of lignin are co-regulated, reducing the
proportion of lignin in a plant will also increase the proportion of cellulose (13). An alteration
of the properties of the cell wall could also be a strategy to facilitate access by key
hydrolysing agents for a more efficient release of sugars for fermentation. In addition,
research is required to identify new potential biomass sources.

Concluding remarks: the road to biofuels

Biofuels can replace 30% of current transportation energy needs in an environmentally
responsible way without affecting global food production with plausible technology
developments (8). Current practices, however, do not make biofuels economically
competitive, nor optimize energy use and emission characteristics.
 For biofuels to play an important role in meeting future
energy needs, a multidisciplinary approach is required, in
which the activities of biologists, agronomists, engineers,
energy experts and policy specialists are integrated. In
addition to developing specific high-yielding energy crops,
the impact, efficiency and sustainability of biorefinery
facilities need to be improved. Research is required to
enhance the infrastructure for the development of biofuels
(including transport, distribution, and production chain), in order make the production of
biofuels economically sustainable. Commercialization and policy support are critical for
success.

Socio-economic concerns, such as land management practices and the choice of biomass
source, should be carefully addressed so that biofuel production does not negatively impact
either food production or the preservation of biodiversity.

Equally important are studies to obtain a clear diagnosis of the environmental impact of
specific biofuels, in terms of combustion emissions, which vary according to the specific
biofuel used; of energy inputs required for the manufacture of biofuels; and in terms of the
environmental footprint of fertilizers and herbicides used during the production of energy
crops.

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References:
1. Advanced Energy Initiative. 2006. U.S. Department of Energy.
[Link]
2. Renewables 2005: Global Status Report. Notes and References Companion
Document. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century.
[Link]
3. National Mission on Bio-Fuel. The Energy and Resources Institute of India.
[Link]
4. EU Strategy for Biofuels. European Commission. 2006.
[Link]
5. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
[Link]
6. Harvesting the Potential of BIOMASS. [Link] J. Tenenbaum. Environ. Health
Perspect. 2005 November; 113(11): A750-A753.
 7. Biomass as feedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry: the Technical
Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Annual Supply. 2005. United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and United States Department of Energy (DOE).
8. The Path Forward for Biofuels and Biomaterials. 2006. Ragauskas, A.J., et al. Science
311: 484-489.
9. Enhancing crop yield in Solanaceous species through the genetic manipulation of
energy metabolism. 2005. Nunes-Nesi, A. et al.. Bioch. [Link]. 33: 1430-1434.
10. Improved growth in a field trial of transgenic hybrid poplar overexpressing glutamine
synthetase. 2004. Jing, Z. P. et al. New Phytologist 164: 137-145.
11. Recent advances in engineering plant tolerance to abiotic stress: achievements and
limitations. 2005. Vinocur, B. & Altman, A. Curr. Op. Biotech.16:123-32.
12. GM Crops: The Global Economic and Environmental Impact - The First Nine Years
1996-2004. 2005. Graham Brookes and Peter Barfoot. AgBioForum Vol 8, Number 2
& 3, Article 15.
13. Combinatorial modification of multiple lignin traits in trees through multigene
cotransformation. 2003. Li, L. et al. PNAS 100: 4939-4944.

Next Pocket K: Biotech Plants for Bioremediation

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