Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple
signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line.
Types of Multiplexing
There are three types of Multiplexing :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :
Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of
a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency
channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-
channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel. These
unused strips between each channel are known as guard bands.
2. Time Division Multiplexing :
Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of
sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each
connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth) at
different times.
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame already
has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one
cycle of time slots.
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot
remains empty in the output frame.
In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of each
frame.
Statistical TDM :
Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame collects data
from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.
In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the slot that is
being sent to the output frame.
Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the channel capacity
is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing :
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single
fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals from the different sources are
combined to form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers. At the receiving end,
the demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
North American digital multiplexing hierarchy
North American Digital Hierarchy for multiplexing digital signals into a single higher-speed
pulse stream suitable for transmission on the next higher level of the hierarchy. A
special device called muldem (multiplexers/demultiplexer) is used to upgrade from one level
in the hierarchy to the next-higher level. They handle bit-rate conversions in both directions
and are designated as M12, M23 etc. which identifies the respective input and output
digital signals. As shown, an M12 muldem interfaces DS-1 and DS-2 digital signals. Also DS-
1 signals can be further multiplexed or line encoded and placed on specially conditioned cables
called T1 lines.
Digital signals are routed at central locations called digital cross-connects (DSX), which are
convenient for making patchable interconnections and routine maintenance
and troubleshooting. Each digital signal (i.e. DS-1, DS-2, etc) has its own digital switch (DSX-
1, DSX-2…
European TDM multiplex hierarchy
Higher level TDM multiplexing is used to combine E1 systems by interleaving bits from the various E1
inputs. For example, the E2 transmission system combines four E1 inputs into an 8.448 Mbps data
stream byte interleaving. Additional bits are required for framing and control purposes. Table 6.5
illustrates the various ITU-T circuit designations and their corresponding bit rates.
Circuit Designation Voice Channels Data Rate (Mbps)
E1 30 2.048
E2 120 8.448
E3 480 34.368
E4 1920 139.264
E5 7680
European TDM multiplex hierarchy
Spread Spectrum Signals
The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown in the following
frequency spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −
• Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.
• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.
With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or
jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access techniques.
FHSS and DSSS / CDMA
Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
These are of two types.
• Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS
•
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS
This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after a
while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which was
previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS
Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user
data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is nothing
but the spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and transmitted. The
receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.
Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA
Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a clear
understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.
FHSS DSSS / CDMA
Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used
Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant
User frequency, once allotted is always the same
of time
Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed
Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy
Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low
Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to FHSS
It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference
It is cheaper It is expensive
This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −
• Cross-talk elimination
• Better output with data integrity
• Reduced effect of multipath fading
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Co-existence with other systems
• Longer operative distances
• Hard to detect
• Not easy to demodulate/decode
• Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military uses, they are
now being used widely used for commercial purpose
Switched Communication Networks
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or
goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
• Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous
handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
• Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is
a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then
forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for
future use or can be turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is
called circuit [Link] 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels
and no other data is [Link] circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be
established so that the data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have
to go through three phases:
• Establish a circuit
• Transfer the data
• Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example
of circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.
Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In
message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred
in its entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having
enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the
whole path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet
switching. Message switching has the following drawbacks:
• Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
• Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are
available, message switching is very slow.
• Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire
message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is
added in the header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not
take much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
Hybrid Switching
Hybrid switching enables both circuit and packet-switched services to be provided in the same communication
network. It uses synchronous slots based on circuit-oriented network.
Hybrid switching, which combines the principles of both circuit and packet-switching. This technique first partitions a
message into packets (packet-switching) and transmits each packet via a dedicated circuit (circuit-switching). As soon
as a packet is ready for transmission, a circuit meeting appropriate bandwidth requirements is established between
the sending and receiving nodes. When the packet reaches its destination, the circuit is terminated so that it can be
used again. This scenario has many advantages but it also requires extremely fast circuit-switching equipment.
Hybrid Switch : Using both Connection-orient(CO) and Connection-less-orient(CL) slot
In hybrid architecture, packet and circuit switching exist side by side so that trunk bandwidth is shared by the two
services. Thus the packet sub network is visualized as a network with varying trunk capacities according to load. The
user can select either circuit or packet service, depending on connection characteristics and needs.
The hybrid packet and circuit switching system allows merging of packet and circuit traffic from user interface modules
on a TDM (time division multiplexing) bus and transfer of packet information from one module to another module or
the exchange circuit information between modules. Circuit exchanges or packet transfers are performed synchronously
on the TDM buses in bursts of period T, with each burst comprising a fixed number of bytes.
Block diagram of hybrid switching
Hybrid switching dynamically combines both virtual cut-through and wormhole switching to provide higher
achievable throughput than wormhole alone, while significantly reducing the buffer space required at
intermediate nodes when compared to virtual cut-through. This scheme is motivated by a comparison of virtual
cut-through and wormhole switching through cycle-level simulations, and then evaluated using the same
methods.
Hybrid Switching Techniques
The availability and flexibility of virtual channels have led to the development of several hybrid switching techniques.
These techniques have been motivated by a desire to combine the advantages of several basic approaches or have
been motivated by the need to optimize performance metrics other than traditional latency and throughput, for
example, fault tolerance and reliability.
Some common hybrid switching techniques are:-
1. Buffered Wormhole Switching – A switching technique that combines aspects of wormhole switching and
packet switching is buffered wormhole [Link] switching technique and message formats have
been motivated by the interconnection network utilized in the SP systems.
2. Pipelined Circuit Switching – Pipelined circuit switching (PCS) combines aspects of circuit switching and
wormhole switching. PCS sets up a path before starting data transmission as in circuit [Link],
PCS differs from circuit switching in that paths are formed by virtual channels instead of physical channels.
In pipelined circuit switching, data flits do not immediately follow the header flits into the network as in
wormhole switching. Consequently, increased flexibility is available in routing the header flit.
3. Scouting Switching – Scouting switching is a hybrid message flow control mechanism that can be
dynamically configured to provide specific trade-offs between fault tolerance and performance..In PCS the
first data flit is injected into the network only after the complete path has been set up. In an attempt to
reduce PCS path setup time overhead, in scouting switching the first data flit is constrained to remain at
least K links behind the routing header.
Advantages of hybrid switching
• Handles a much more diverse range of traffic.
• Optimization between circuit switching and packet switching.
• Lower complexity and board than fast packet switch.
• Can provide dedicated hardware for each traffic type.
Disadvantages of hybrid switching
• Cannot maintain maximum flexibility for future services because the future distribution of satellite
circuit and packet traffic is unknown.
• Waste of satellite resources in order to be designed to handle the full capacity of satellite traffic.
Softswitch: System Architecture
A softswitch is a general telecommunications industry construct. There are no industry
specifications governing the implementation of a softswitch. The figure below depicts a
general softswitch system architecture.
In a typical softswitch implementation, the control plane is decoupled from the transport
plane and the system is decomposed into three distinct functional elements: a signaling
gateway, a media gateway and media gateway controller.
The signaling gateway interworks IP signaling protocols such as SIP (session initiation
protocol) and H.323 with legacy SS7 (signaling system 7) protocols employed in the PSTN.
The media gateway terminates TDM circuits and packetizes the media streams for IP
transport using protocols such as RTP (real-time transport protocol) or SRTP (secure RTP).
The media gateway controller instructs the media gateway, media servers and application
servers (not shown) to set up and tear down calls, play recorded messages, and perform
application functions like call forwarding, or call waiting. A media gateway controller is also
referred to as a softswitch, call agent or call controller.
Session Border Controllers
Service providers typically deploy session border controllers (SBCs) to protect and control
communications flows in softswitch implementations. SBCs manipulate IP communications
signaling and media streams to protect against denial of service attacks and other security
threats, to mitigate multivendor interoperability or multiprotocol interoperability issues, to
enforce quality of service (QoS) policies or to route sessions to ensure high availability.
Class 4 Softswitch vs Class 5 Softswitch
Softswitches are sometimes categorized as Class 4 or Class 5 softswitches. Class 4
softswitches are used to route calls between carriers or over long distances. For example, in a
VoIP trunking application the Class 4 switch sits at the intersection of the local PSTN
network and the long-haul IP backbone network. Class 5 softswitches are used in the access
network, for example to interface TDM access lines to a local carrier’s VoIP network.
X.25
X.25 was a standard suite of protocols used for packet-switched communications over a wide
area network — a WAN. A protocol is an agreed-upon set of procedures and rules. Two
devices that follow the same protocols can understand each other and exchange data.
History of X.25
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X.25 was developed in the 1970s to carry voice over analog telephone lines — dial-
up networks — and is one of the oldest packet-switched services. Typical applications of
X.25 included automatic teller machine networks and credit card verification networks. X.25
also supported a variety of mainframe terminal and server applications. The 1980s were the
heydays of X.25 technology when it was used by public data networks Compuserve, Tymnet,
Telenet, and others. In the early '90s, many X.25 networks were replaced by Frame Relay in
the U.S. Some older public networks outside the U.S. continued to use X.25 until recently.
Most networks that once required X.25 now use the less complex Internet Protocol. X-25 is
still used in some ATMs and credit card verification networks.
X.25 Structure
Each X.25 packet contained up to 128 bytes of data. The X.25 network handled packet
assembly at the source device, the delivery, and the reassembly at the destination. X.25
packet delivery technology included not only switching and network-layer routing but also
error checking and re-transmission logic should a delivery failure occur. X.25 supported
multiple simultaneous conversations by multiplexing packets and using virtual
communication channels.
X.25 offered three basic layers of protocols:
• Physical layer
• Data link layer
• Packet layer
X.25 pre-dates the OSI Reference Model, but the X.25 layers are analogous to the physical
layer, data link layer and network layer of the standard OSI model.
With the widespread acceptance of Internet Protocol (IP) as a standard for corporate
networks, X.25 applications migrated to cheaper solutions using IP as the network layer
protocol and replacing the lower layers of X.25 with Ethernet or with new ATM hardware.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
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These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice,
video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched
telephone network. Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system
was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available for data. The main
feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines, which were not
available in the classic telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet-
switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in
potentially better voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a
packet-switched connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of
128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was
achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to
eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in data-link and physical
layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These
protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling protocols establishing and breaking
circuit-switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides
simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing systems.
ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –
There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’ channel)
in BRI to initiate connections. The B channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D
channel operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are independent of each
other. For example, one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other
channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN supports a basic rate
interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels of
64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In
addition, the BRl service itself requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore
a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is required.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –
Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B channels
depending on the country you are in. PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with
23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface (PRI).
Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps.
The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a digital pipe of 1.544
Mbps.
3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current communications
infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly
on the evolution of fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service
requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the primary rate.
ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into 3 categories-
bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services.
1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users without the network
manipulating the content of that information is provided by the bearer network. There is no
need for the network to process the information and therefore does not change the content.
Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in the
ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-switched, frame-
switched, or cell-switched networks.
2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services
correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer
services and are designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need not be aware
of the details of the process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex,
and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by name yet they have not yet
become standards.
3. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are provided by
supplementary services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling are examples
of supplementary services which are all familiar with today’s telephone company services.
Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT). The
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for
telecommunications on behalf of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is
based in Geneva, Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T recommendation
are:
• To support switched and non-switched applications
• To support voice and non-voice applications
• Reliance on 64-kbps connections
• Intelligence in the network
• Layered protocol architecture
• Variety of configurations
Advantages of ISDN:
• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
• It has faster data transfer rate.
Disadvantages of ISDN:
• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.
• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.