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The Chemical Context of Life 🌿
Concept 2.1: Matter and Chemical Elements 🌎
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. It exists in many forms, including rocks, metals,
oils, gases, and living organisms.
Matter: Anything that takes up space and has mass.
Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
They are the simplest substances in the universe.
Element: A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
Compounds are substances consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio. They have
characteristics (emergent properties) different from those of their elements.
Compound: A substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio.
Essential Elements in Living Organisms 🌱
About 25% of the 92 natural elements are required for life (essential elements). The most abundant
elements in living organisms are:
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)
These elements make up 96% of living matter. The remaining 4% consists of:
Calcium (Ca)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Sulfur (S)
Subatomic Particles 🔋
Atoms are composed of subatomic particles, including:
Neutrons: Particles with no electrical charge
Protons: Particles with a positive charge
Electrons: Particles with a negative charge
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass ⚖️
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. The atomic mass is the sum of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Term Definition
Atomic Number Number of protons in an atom's nucleus
Atomic Mass Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Isotopes 🔄
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Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. They have the same
atomic number but different atomic masses.
Radioactive Isotopes ⚠️
Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy. They are used as diagnostic
tools in medicine and in radiometric dating.
The Energy Levels of Electrons ⚡️
Electrons in an atom have different amounts of potential energy based on their distance from the
nucleus. Changes in potential energy occur in steps of fixed amounts.
Electron Shells and Energy Levels 🌀
Electrons are found in different electron shells, each with a characteristic average distance and energy
level.
Chemical Bonding 🔗
Chemical bonding is the attraction between atoms that holds them together. There are two main types
of chemical bonds:
Covalent Bonds: Sharing of valence electrons between atoms
Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of ions
Covalent Bonds 💕
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share valence electrons. A molecule consists of two or more
atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Type of Covalent Bond Description
Single Bond Sharing of one pair of valence electrons
Double Bond Sharing of two pairs of valence electrons
Ionic Bonds 🔋
Ionic bonds are formed when atoms transfer electrons, resulting in the formation of ions. Compounds
formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds or salts.
Weak Chemical Interactions 💡
Weak chemical interactions are important in organisms, including:
Hydrogen Bonds: Attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an
electronegative atom and another electronegative atom
Van der Waals Interactions: Attraction between molecules that are close together due to
uneven distribution of electrons
Molecular Shape and Function 🔍
A molecule's shape is determined by the positions of its atoms and orbitals. Molecular shape is key to
its function.
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Molecular Recognition 🔑
Molecules recognize and respond to each other based on their shape. This is important in biological
processes, such as the binding of opiates and endorphins to receptors in the brain.
Chemical Reactions ⚗️
Chemical reactions involve the making and breaking of chemical bonds. The starting molecules of a
chemical reaction are called reactants, and the resulting molecules are called products.
Photosynthesis 🌱
Photosynthesis is an important chemical reaction that converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose
and oxygen.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Chemical Equilibrium ⚖️
Chemical equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate. At
equilibrium, the relative concentrations of reactants and products do not change.## Elements and
Compounds 🌎
Elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical
reactions.
Each element has a unique symbol, usually the first letter or two of its name.
There are 92 naturally occurring elements, including gold, copper, carbon, and oxygen.
Compounds
A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed
ratio.
Examples of compounds include table salt (NaCl) and water (H2O).
Compounds have emergent properties, meaning they have characteristics different from
those of their individual elements.
The Elements of Life
Element Percentage of Living Matter
Oxygen (O) 65%
Carbon (C) 18%
Hydrogen (H) 10%
Nitrogen (N) 3%
Calcium (Ca) 1.5%
Phosphorus (P) 1%
Potassium (K) 0.4%
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Sulfur (S) 0.3%
These elements make up approximately 96% of living matter.
Essential elements are required by an organism to live a healthy life and reproduce.
Trace elements are required by an organism in only minute quantities.
Toxic Elements
Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to organisms, such as arsenic.
Arsenic has been linked to numerous diseases and can be lethal.
Atomic Structure 🔬
Subatomic Particles
Protons: positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons: neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electrons: negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus, which is unique to each
element.
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
The atomic mass is the total mass of an atom, which is close to the mass number.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Examples of isotopes include carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.
Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.
Radioactive isotopes can be used as diagnostic tools in medicine and as tracers to track atoms
during metabolism.
Radioactive Tracers 📊
Radioactive isotopes can be incorporated into biologically active molecules and used as
tracers.
Radioactive tracers can be used to diagnose certain diseases and track the growth and
metabolism of cancers.
PET Scanners
PET scanners use radioactive tracers to detect locations of intense chemical activity in the
body.
PET scanners can monitor the growth and metabolism of cancers in the body.## Radioactive
Decay and Radiometric Dating 🌎
Radioactive Decay: the process by which unstable atoms lose energy and stability by emitting
radiation.
"Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process in which unstable atoms lose energy and stability by
emitting radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves."
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Half-Life: the time it takes for half of the parent isotope to decay into its daughter isotope.
Isotope Half-Life
Carbon-14 5,730 years
Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
Uranium-235 704 million years
Radiometric Dating 🕰️
Radiometric Dating: a method used to determine the age of rocks and fossils by measuring the ratio
of different isotopes.
"Radiometric dating is a technique used to determine the age of rocks and fossils by measuring
the ratio of different isotopes, which decay at a constant rate."
How Radiometric Dating Works
A parent isotope decays into its daughter isotope at a fixed rate.
The ratio of the parent isotope to the daughter isotope is measured.
The age of the rock or fossil is calculated based on the ratio and the half-life of the parent
isotope.
Carbon-14 Dating 🌿
Carbon-14 Dating: a type of radiometric dating that uses the isotope carbon-14 to determine the
age of organic materials.
"Carbon-14 dating is a technique used to determine the age of organic materials, such as wood
and bone, by measuring the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12."
How Carbon-14 Dating Works
Carbon-14 is present in the atmosphere in small amounts.
Plants absorb carbon-14 during photosynthesis.
Animals absorb carbon-14 by eating plants.
When an organism dies, it stops absorbing carbon-14.
The carbon-14 in the organism decays at a constant rate.
The age of the organism is calculated based on the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.
Limitations of Carbon-14 Dating ⚠️
Carbon-14 dating is only suitable for dating organic materials up to 75,000 years old.
Fossils older than 75,000 years contain too little carbon-14 to be detected.
Energy Levels of Electrons ⚡️
Energy Level: a fixed level of potential energy that an electron can occupy.
"An energy level is a fixed level of potential energy that an electron can occupy, and it is
correlated with the electron's average distance from the nucleus."
Electron Shells
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Shell Energy Level Average Distance from Nucleus
First Shell Lowest Closest to nucleus
Second Shell Higher Farther from nucleus
Third Shell Highest Farthest from nucleus
Electron Movement
Electrons can move from one shell to another by absorbing or losing energy.
Electrons can only occupy specific energy levels, not between them.
The energy level of an electron is determined by its average distance from the nucleus.##
Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties 🌟
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the distribution of electrons in its electron shells.
Electron Shells
The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons.
The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons.
Each shell has a specific number of orbitals, which are the three-dimensional spaces where
electrons are found.
Electron Orbitals
An orbital is the three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the time.
Each electron shell contains electrons at a particular energy level, distributed among a specific
number of orbitals of distinctive shapes and orientations.
The first electron shell has only one spherical s orbital (called 1s).
The second shell has four orbitals: one large spherical s orbital (called 2s) and three dumbbell-
shaped p orbitals (called 2p orbitals).
Valence Electrons and Valence Shells
Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom.
The valence shell is the outermost electron shell of an atom.
Atoms with the same number of electrons in their valence shells exhibit similar chemical
behavior.
Periodic Table
Element Atomic Number Electron Distribution
Hydrogen 1 1 electron in the first shell
Helium 2 2 electrons in the first shell
Lithium 3 2 electrons in the first shell, 1 electron in the second shell
Beryllium 4 2 electrons in the first shell, 2 electrons in the second shell
... ... ...
Chemical Bonding 🌈
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Chemical bonding is the interaction between atoms that results in the formation of molecules and
ionic compounds.
Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.
Covalent bonds are formed when two or more atoms share valence electrons to complete their
valence shells.
The number of electrons required to complete an atom's valence shell generally determines
how many covalent bonds that atom will form.
Examples of Covalent Bonds
Molecule Molecular Formula Structure
Hydrogen H2 H:H
Oxygen O2 O=O
Water H2O H-O-H
Methane CH4 H-C-H
Valence and Bonding Capacity
Valence is the number of electrons required to complete an atom's valence shell.
Bonding capacity is the number of covalent bonds an atom can form.
Element Valence Bonding Capacity
Hydrogen 1 1
Oxygen 2 2
Nitrogen 3 3
Carbon 4 4
Ionic Bonds 🔋
Ionic bonds are formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges.
Ionic bonds are the strongest kind of chemical bond.
Ionic bonds are typically formed between atoms with a large difference in electronegativity.
The resulting ions are held together by electrostatic attraction.## Electronegativity and
Covalent Bonds 💡
Electronegativity is the attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. The more
electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself.
"In a covalent bond between two atoms of the same element, the electrons are shared equally
because the two atoms have the same electronegativity."
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Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A nonpolar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond where the electrons are shared equally
between two atoms of the same element.
Examples: H2, O2
Polar Covalent Bonds
A polar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond where the electrons are not shared equally
between two atoms of different elements.
The bond is polar because the electrons spend more time near the more electronegative atom.
Example: Water (H2O) - oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, so the electrons spend
more time near the oxygen nucleus.
Ionic Bonds 🔗
Ionic bonds are formed when two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that
the more electronegative atom strips an electron completely away from its partner.
"The attraction between oppositely charged atoms, or ions, is an ionic bond."
Cations and Anions
Ion Charge
Cation +
Anion -
Formation of Ionic Bonds
When a sodium atom (Na) encounters a chlorine atom (Cl), the lone valence electron of
sodium is transferred to the chlorine atom.
The sodium atom becomes a cation (Na+) and the chlorine atom becomes an anion (Cl-).
The oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, forming an ionic bond.
Weak Chemical Interactions 🌈
Weak chemical interactions are important in organisms, contributing to the emergent properties of
life.
Types of Weak Chemical Interactions
Ionic bonds in water
Hydrogen bonds
Van der Waals interactions
Hydrogen Bonds
A hydrogen bond is a noncovalent attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative
atom.
The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge, allowing it to be attracted to a different
electronegative atom with a partial negative charge.
Examples: Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3)
Van der Waals Interactions
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Van der Waals interactions are weak interactions between atoms and molecules that occur
when electrons accumulate by chance in one part of a molecule or another.
These interactions are individually weak but can be powerful when many occur simultaneously.
Example: Gecko's foot - the van der Waals interactions between the foot molecules and the
wall molecules allow the gecko to walk straight up a wall.
Molecular Shape and Function 🔍
Molecular shape is determined by the positions of the atoms' orbitals.
When an atom forms covalent bonds, the orbitals in its valence shell undergo rearrangement.
The shape of a molecule is key to its function in the living cell.## Molecular Shape and
Chemical Reactions 🧬
Molecular Shape
Molecular shape is crucial in determining how biological molecules recognize and respond to each
other with specificity. Biological molecules often bind temporarily to each other by forming weak
interactions, but only if their shapes are complementary.
Hybrid Orbitals
In an atom, the single s and three p orbitals form four new hybrid orbitals shaped like identical
teardrops extending from the region of the atomic nucleus.
These hybrid orbitals are occupied by electrons and determine the shape of the molecule.
Examples of Molecular Shape
Molecule Shape
Water (H2O) V-shaped
Methane (CH4) Tetrahedral
Chemical Reactions 🔬
Chemical reactions involve the making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the
composition of matter.
Definition of a Chemical Reaction
A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances (reactants) are converted into
new substances (products).
Example of a Chemical Reaction
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen molecules that forms water:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Key Points about Chemical Reactions
Matter is conserved in a chemical reaction: Reactions cannot create or destroy atoms but can
only rearrange (redistribute) the electrons among them.
Chemical reactions are theoretically reversible, with the products of the forward reaction
becoming the reactants for the reverse reaction.
The rate of a reaction is affected by the concentration of reactants.
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Chemical Equilibrium ⚖️
Chemical equilibrium is a state in which the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, and
the relative concentrations of products and reactants stop changing.
Definition of Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
Photosynthesis 🌱
Photosynthesis is a biological example of how chemical reactions rearrange matter. It is the process by
which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the
form of glucose.
Equation for Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2
Key Points about Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a solar-powered rearrangement of matter.
The raw materials of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water, which are converted into
glucose and oxygen.
Photosynthesis is a sequence of many chemical reactions, but the overall equation shows that
matter is conserved.## Molecular Shape and Chemical Reactions 🧬
Molecular Shape
Molecular shape is determined by the positions of an atom's valence orbitals. Covalent bonds result in
hybrid orbitals, which are responsible for the shapes of molecules such as H2O, CH4, and many more
complex biological molecules.
"Molecular shape is usually the basis for the recognition of one biological molecule by another."
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions change reactants into products while conserving matter. All chemical reactions are
theoretically reversible.
Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.
Definition
Chemical Equilibrium A state in which the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.
Effect of Adding Reactants to a Reaction in Chemical Equilibrium
If more reactants are added to a reaction that was in chemical equilibrium, the concentration of
products will increase. This addition will affect the equilibrium, causing it to shift towards the products.
Atomic Structure and Reactivity
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Atomic Number and Isotopes
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. Isotopes are atoms
of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Definition
Atomic
The number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
Number
Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
Isotope
different numbers of neutrons.
Reactivity of Atoms
The reactivity of an atom arises from the existence of unpaired electrons in the valence shell.
Definition
The outermost energy level of an atom, which contains the valence
Valence Shell
electrons.
Valence
The electrons in the valence shell of an atom.
Electrons
Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
Definition
A process in which one or more substances are converted into new
Chemical Reaction
substances.
Reversible
A reaction that can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions.
Reaction
Chemical Equilibrium
Definition
Chemical Equilibrium A state in which the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.
Multiple Choice Questions
Levels 1-2: Remembering/Understanding
1. Compared with P31, the radioactive isotope P32 has:
A. a different atomic number.
B. one more proton.
C. one more electron.
D. one more neutron.
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Answer: D. one more neutron.
2. In the term trace element, the adjective trace means that:
E. the element is required in very small amounts.
F. the element can be used as a label to trace atoms through an organism's
metabolism.
G. the element is very rare on Earth.
H. the element enhances health but is not essential for the organism's long-term
survival.
Answer: E. the element is required in very small amounts.
Applying/Analyzing
Representing Atoms
Atoms can be represented by listing the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. For example,
helium can be represented as 2p+, 2n0, 2e.
Definition
Protons Positively charged particles in an atom's nucleus.
Neutrons Particles with no charge in an atom's nucleus.
Electrons Negatively charged particles that orbit an atom's nucleus.
Predicting Molecular Formulas
The atomic number of sulfur is 16. Sulfur combines with hydrogen by covalent bonding to form a
compound, hydrogen sulfide. Based on the number of valence electrons in a sulfur atom, the
molecular formula of the compound can be predicted.
Definition
A chemical bond that forms when two or more atoms share one or more
Covalent Bond
pairs of electrons.
Valence
The electrons in the valence shell of an atom.
Electrons
Evaluating/Creating
Evolution Connection
The percentages of naturally occurring elements making up the human body are similar to the
percentages of these elements found in other organisms. This similarity can be accounted for by the
fact that all living organisms share a common ancestor and have evolved from a common set of
elements.
Scientific Inquiry
Female luna moths attract males by emitting chemical signals that spread through the air. A male
hundreds of meters away can detect these molecules and fly towards their source. The sensory organs
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responsible for this behavior are the comb-like antennae visible in the photograph shown here. Each
filament of an antenna is equipped with thousands of receptor cells that detect the sex attractant.
Definition
Receptor Cells Specialized cells that detect specific molecules or signals.
Sex Attractant A chemical signal that attracts a mate.
Write About a Theme: Organization
While waiting at an airport, Neil Campbell once overheard this claim: "It's paranoid and ignorant to
worry about industry or agriculture contaminating the environment with their chemical wastes. After
all, this stuff is just made of the same atoms that were already present in our environment." Drawing
on your knowledge of electron distribution, bonding, and emergent properties, write a short essay
(100-150 words) countering this argument.
Synthesize Your Knowledge
This bombardier beetle is spraying a boiling hot liquid that contains irritating chemicals, used as a
defense mechanism against its enemies. The beetle stores two sets of chemicals separately in its
glands. Using what you learned about chemistry in this chapter, propose a possible explanation for
why the beetle is not harmed by the chemicals it stores and what causes the explosive discharge.
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