Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.
Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,
Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Definition of measurement:

Measurement is defined as the process of obtaining

a quantitative comparison between a predefined
standard & an unknown magnitude.

Example-consider the measurement of length of

bar.
We make use of a scale/steel ruler(i.e a standard)

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Basic Requirements of Measuring System

Two main requirements must be met in the act of measurement.

They are;

• The standard used for comparison must be accurately defined and commonly
accepted.

• The procedure employed for the measurement & the apparatus used for
comparison must be provable.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

A Standard is a value of some quantity that is setup and established by authority as a

rule for the measurement of a quantity.

The system of measurement must be related to a known standard or else the standard
has no meaning.

• Any system may be represented by a simple block diagram.

• Simple diagrams of rectangles and circles connected by lines with indicators of input
and output directions.
• Shows the essential elements of a system.
• Functional arrangements + functions of each element.
Basic Requirements of Measuring System
Two main requirements must be met in the act of measurement.
They are;
• The standard used for comparison must be accurately defined and commonly
accepted.
• The procedure employed for the measurement & the apparatus used for
comparison must be provable.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Standard

• i.e. compare the unknown length of the bar with a known length/pre-defined standard.
• We say that the bar measures so many mm’s, cm’s or inches in length.

• Definition pf measurement is an act of quantitative comparison between an

unknown magnitude and a pre-defined standard.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Significance of Measurements
1. We require measuring quantities for performance in our day-to-day activities.
2. Fundamental requirement of any process is the measurement.
Example

i.e. inputs are fed to the system it undergoes a process outputs are indicated.

4. Output is compared with input measurement. ( its Feed back system)

5. Quantities pertaining to the operation & performance of the device being developed.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Significance of Measurements

6. Measurement provides the fundamental basis for research & development as it

involves the measurement of various quantities and parameters.

7. A fundamental element of any control process also requires the measured discrepancy
between the actual & desired performances.

• Measurement is also considered as a method of inspection

• Measurement technology combined with computer-integrated manufacturing and

database management systems provide information-based process control

• I.e. to prevent the occurrence of more defects

8. To ensure proper performance in operations of modern power stations to monitor
temperature, pressure, vibration amplitudes etc.

9. Establish the cost of products on the basis of the amount of material, power, time &
labor, etc.

10. Place/give realistic tolerance for each of the measured values.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system
• It can be considered as a system that is used to measure the required
quantity/parameter.
The generalized measurement system consists of the following elements:

1. Primary Sensing Element(detecting element) ( detector-transducer element)

2. Variable Conversion Element- Intermediate modifying element.

3. Data Processing and Data Presentation element- Terminating stage element.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system

Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a generalized system consisting of
three stages namely
(1) A detector-transducer or sensor stage
(2) An intermediate modifying stage or signal conditioning stage
(3) A terminating or read-out stage, as shown in the block diagram above.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system –Example

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system –Example

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system –Example

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system –Example

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 15

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system

Stage-I-Detector Transducer stage:

The important function of this stage is to detect or to sense the input signal. At the
same time, it should be insensitive to every other possible input signal.

For ex, if it is a pressure signal, it should be insensitive to acceleration. In the

measurement of strain, the strain gauges should be insensitive to temperature.

• Automobile tyre gauge-used for measurement/checking air pressure of an

automobile tyre.

• Construction: consists of a cylinder, a piston, a spring resisting the piston movement

and a stem with graduation.

• As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force compresses the
spring until the spring force and air forces are balanced.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 16

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system

Stage-II-Intermediate modifying stage:

• As the name itself indicates, this lies between stage 1 and stage 3.

• The main function of this stage is to modify the detected/transduced information

so that it is acceptable to the third, or terminating stage.

• The important function of this stage is to increase either amplitude or power of the
signal or both, to the level required to drive the final terminating device.

• It may also perform selective filtering, integration, differentiation, etc. as required.

• Generally these will be electrical or electronics circuits.

• Examples: Amplifiers, mechanical levers

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Generalized measurement system
Stage III-Terminating stage
• This stage provides an indication or a recording of the signal in a form that can be
understood by a human being or a control system.

• This is done by the data presentation element.

• Here the information output may be obtained in different forms such as a pointer moving over a
graduated scale, in digital form as in computers or as a trace on an oscilloscope etc.

• An example of a generalized measurement system is a simple Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

• In this case, the pressure is sensed by a tube of elliptical cross section which undergoes
mechanical deformation. (c/s tends to become circular)

• The gearing arrangement amplifies the displacement at the end of the tube so that a relatively
small displacement of the tube end produces a greater revolution of the center
gear.

• The final indicator stage consists of a pointer and scale arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of pressure signal acting on the
bourdon tube.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 19

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold,
Sensitivity, Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic
characteristics- System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement,
Classification of errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Instrument Characteristics(Behavior)

The instrument and measurement system characteristics can be

divided into two distinct categories-

1. Static characteristics - Accuracy, Precision, Calibration,

Threshold, Sensitivity, Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity,
Loading effect

2. Dynamic characteristics - System response, Time delay.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics
• Pertain to a system where quantities to be measured, are
constant or vary very slowly with time.

• Normally static characteristics of a measurement system are

those that must be considered when the system\equipment is
used to measure a condition not varying with respect to time.

• The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring

instruments that do not vary with respect to time are called
static characteristics.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Instrument Characteristics(Behavior)
The instrument and measurement system characteristics can be
divided into two distinct categories-
Static characteristics –
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Calibration
4. Threshold
5. Sensitivity
6. Hysteresis
7. Repeatability
8. Linearity
9. Loading effect

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Accuracy

Example:
An archer hitting a bulls-eye is an example of high accuracy, while an archer
hitting the same spot on the bulls-eye three times would be an example of
high precision.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Accuracy

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Precision

Example :
If you weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each time, then
your measurement is very precise.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Precision
Accuracy and Precision Examples
• A good analogy for understanding accuracy
and precision is to imagine a football player
shooting at the goal.
• If the player shoots into the goal, he is said
to be accurate.
• A football player who keeps striking the
same goalpost is precise but not accurate.
• Therefore, a football player can be accurate
without being precise if he hits the ball all
over the place but still scores.
• A precise player will hit the ball to the same
spot repeatedly, irrespective of whether he
scores or not.
• A precise and accurate football player will
not only aim at a single spot but also score
the goal.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Calibration

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Threshold

Threshold of a measuring instrument is the minimum value of input signal that is

required to make a change or start from zero

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Sensitivity
5 Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount.

Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

Sensitivity (k)= change of output signal

change of input signal

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Hysteresis

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Hysteresis

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Repeatability
7

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Linearity

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 16

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Loading effect
9 Loading effect
• The presence of a measuring instrument in a medium to be measured will
always lead to the extraction of some energy from the medium, thus
making perfect measurements theoretically impossible.

• This effect is known as ‘loading effect’ which must be kept as small as

possible for better measurements.

For ex,

• in electrical measuring systems, the detector stage receives energy from

the signal source, while the intermediate modifying devices and output
indicators receive energy from the auxiliary source.

• The loading effects are due to impedances of various elements connected

in a system

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 17

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Static characteristics – Loading effect
The loading effect is the effect to which a measurement
instrument impacts electrical properties like the voltage, current,
and resistance of a circuit. In other words, the Loading effect can
be defined as the effect on the source by the load impedance.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 18

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Instrument Characteristics(Behavior)

The instrument and measurement system characteristics can be

divided into two distinct categories-

1. Static characteristics - Accuracy, Precision, Calibration,

Threshold, Sensitivity, Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity,
Loading effect

2. Dynamic characteristics - System response, Time delay.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity is varying rapidly with
time.
• In practice, the characteristics of one group may well influence the
characteristics of the other.

• In order to access overall instrument performance, however, the two

groups of characteristics are normally studied separately and then a
semi-quantitative superposition is carried out.

• There are many phenomena that can be conveniently described by the

static response while on the other hand, there are phenomena that can
only be reported by the dynamic response.

• • The overall performance of a system, many times can be evaluated by

semi-qualitative super position of static and dynamic characteristics.
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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Dynamic characteristics –
1. System response
• Response of a system may be defined as the ability of the system to
transmit & present all the relevant information contained in the input
signal & to exclude all others.

• If the output is faithful to input, i.e. the output signals have the same
phase relationships as that of the input signal, the system is said to
have a good System response.

• If there is a lag or delay in the output signal which may be due to the
natural inertia of the system, it is known as ‘measurement lag’

• “Rise time” is defined as the time taken for system to change from 5%
to 95% of its final value.

• It is a measure of the speed of response of a measuring system and a

short rise time is desirable

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Dynamic characteristics –
1. System response • When an input is applied to an instrument or
a measurement system, the instrument or
the system cannot take up immediately its
final steady state position.

• It goes through a transient state and then

after a steady state.

• The transient state response of the

instrument is called as dynamic response of
the instrument, whereas steady-state
analysis determines static response.

• A figure showing the static & dynamic parts

of the response as transient & steady state
response.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Dynamic characteristics –
2. Time Delay

Dynamic lag of a measuring instrument is the amount of time that passes between
the time the input reaches a certain temperature and the output that follows input
reaches also at the same temperature.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Dynamic characteristics –
2. Time Delay

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Error may be defined as the difference between the measured
value and the true value.
No measurement can be made without errors at all times i.e.
100% accurate measurements cannot be made at all times.

Error definition:
• Is defined as the difference between the best measured value
and the true value of the quantity.

• A mistake, or in accuracy in action, speech or a typing error.

• A incorrect belief or a wrong judgment.
• Deviation from a standard. • Measure of the difference
between some quantity and an approximation to or estimate of
it. • Often expressed as a percentage. • Difference between the
true value of a measurement and the value obtained during the
measurement process.
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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Error definition:
• Is defined as the difference between the best measured value
and the true value of the quantity.
• A mistake, or in accuracy in action, speech or a typing error.
• A incorrect belief or a wrong judgment.
• Deviation from a standard.
• Measure of the difference between some quantity and an
approximation to or estimate of it.
• Often expressed as a percentage.
• Difference between the true value of a measurement and the
value obtained during the measurement process.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors

• Systematic error
• Random errors
• Illegitimate errors

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Systematic errors:

• Generally the will be constant / similar form /recur consistently every time
measurement is measured.

• May result from improper condition or procedures employed

Systematic or fixed errors:

(a) calibration errors
(b) Certain types of consistently recurring human errors
(c) Errors of technique
(d) Uncorrected loading errors
(e) Limits of system resolution Systematic errors are repetitive & of fixed value.
They have a definite magnitude & direction

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Calibration errors:

• Calibration procedure-is employed in a number of instruments-act of

checking or adjusting the accuracy of a measuring instrument.

Random or Accidental errors:

(a) Errors stemming from environmental variations
(b) Certain types of human errors
(c) Due to Variations in definition
(d) Due to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system
Random errors are distinguishable by their lack of consistency.
• An observer may not be consistent in taking readings.
• Also the process involved may include certain poorly controlled variables
causing changing conditions.
• The variations in temperature, vibrations of external medium, etc. cause
errors in the instrument.
• Errors of this type are normally of limited duration & are inherent to
specific environment.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Calibration errors:

• Calibration procedure-is employed in a number of instruments-act of

checking or adjusting the accuracy of a measuring instrument.
Human errors:

• Human errors : are due to variation of physical & mental states of a person
which may lead to systematic or random errors.

• The term “human error” is often used

• We assume that when we use it, everyone will understand what it means.

• But that understanding may not be same as what the person meant in using
the term.

• For this reason, without a universally accepted definition, use of such terms
is subject to misinterpretation.
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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Illegitimate errors:
(a) Blunders or Mistakes
(b) Computational errors
(c) Chaotic errors

Illegitimate errors :

• should not exist and may be eliminated by careful exercise & repetition of
measurement.

• Chaotic errors which may be due to extreme vibration, mechanical shock of the
equipment, pick up of extraneous noise make the testing meaningless unless all
these disturbances are eliminated.

• If a measuring instrument is not calibrated periodically it will lead to errors in

measurement.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Errors of technique: are due to improper usage of measuring apparatus. This may
include errors resulting from incorrect design, fabrication or maintenance.

Loading errors : result from influence exerted by the act of measurement on the
physical system being tested.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Errors in measurement, Classification of errors
Sources of errors

(1) Noise: It is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information.
(2) Design limitations: These are certain inevitable factors such as friction & resolving
power which lead to uncertainty in measurements.
(3) Response time: It is the time lag between the application of input signal & output
measurement.
(4) Deterioration of measuring system: Physical and/or chemical deterioration or
other alterations in characteristics of measuring system constitute a source of
error in measurement.
(5) Environmental effects: The change in atmospheric temperature may alter the
elastic constant of a spring, the dimensions of a linkage, electrical resistance etc.
similarly other factors such as humidity, pressure etc. also affect measurements.
(6) Errors in observation & Interpretation: It is the mistake of operators in observing,
interpreting & recording the data. (7) Poor maintenance of the syste

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:
• Transducer is a first-stage element of the measurement system.
• It detects and transforms the sensed signal into a more useful form.
• A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to
another.
• Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position
and pressure sensors, and antenna.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:
Advantages of converting a physical quantity into an electrical signal.

Here, we have listed the various advantages of converting a physical

quantity into an electrical signal:

•Electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.

•Electrical signals process less friction error.
•Small power is needed to control the electrical systems.
•Amplification and attenuation of electrical signals are easy.
•The measuring instrument used for measuring the electrical signal is
very compact and accurate.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Transfer efficiency

• The efficiency of the transducer always falls between 0 and 1.

• No transducer is 100% efficient; some power is always lost in the conversion process.

• This loss is manifested in the form of heat.

• In incandescent lamps of certain wattage, only a few watts are transformed into
visible light.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers and Sensors

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Detector or Primary Transducer
Here the sensing element may serve to transduce the sensed input and convert
into a more convenient form.

For example

1. Ordinary dial indicator-Spindle acts as a detector.

2. Load cell detects the force/load applied and gives an output in the form of a
deflection.
3. Bourdon's Tube.
- The tube act as a primary transducer. It detects the pressure and converts it into a
displacement from its free end. The displacement of the free ends moves the core of
the linear variable displacement transformer.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Primary and Secondary transducers
Detector Transducer or Primary Transducer• Bourdon tube pressure gauges are
extensively used for local
3. Bourdon's Tube.
-
indication. This type of pressure
gages were first developed by E.
Bourdon in 1849.
• Bourdon tube pressure gauges can
be used to measure over a wide
range of pressure: form vacuum to
pressure as high as few thousand
psi.
• It is basically consisted of a C-
shaped hollow tube, whose one
end is fixed and connected to the
pressure tapping, the other end
free, as shown in fig.
• The cross section of the tube is
elliptical.

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Primary and Secondary transducers
• When pressure is applied, the elliptical
Detector Transducer or Primary Transducer
tube (Bourdon tube) tries to acquire a
3. Bourdon's Tube. circular cross section; as a result, stress is
- developed and the tube tries to straighten
up.
• Thus the free end of the tube moves up,
depending on magnitude of pressure.
• A deflecting and indicating mechanism is
attached to the free end that rotates the
pointer and indicates the Pressure reading.
• The materials used are commonly
Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium
Copper.
• For a 2″ overall diameter of the C-tube the
useful travel of the free end is
approximately 1/8″ .
• Though the C-type tubes are most
common, other shapes of tubes, such as
helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in
use.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Secondary transducers
• Sensors are known as secondary transducers.

• The transducer which converts mechanical displacement into electrical output is

called secondary transducer.

• Output of primary transducer is converted into useful signal by secondary

transducer.
• It is an electrical device.

Example:
• LVDT

• Strain gauge load cell-It detects the force and gives an output in the form of
deflection.
• This deflection may further be converted into an electrical output by strain gauges
(whose resistance value changes) mounted on the load cell.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Secondary transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:

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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 19

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Transducers:

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Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 21

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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 22

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 23

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 24

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 25

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 26

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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 30

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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 31

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 32

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 33

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 34

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 35

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 36

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 37

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 38

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 39

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 40

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
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Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 41

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 42

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers:

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 43

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
• An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical
quantity to be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into an electrical
voltage/current proportional to the input measured.

• Most measuring devices have electrical elements as secondary transducers that convert the
displacement of a primary sensor into electrical current, resistance or voltage.

• • The transducers may be of resistive, inductive or capacitive type.

A transducer is a device that converts
one form of energy into another form of
energy. While an electrical transducer
converts one form of energy into an
electrical signal.
Example :
• A speaker is said to be a transducer
as it can change an electrical signal
into sound energy.
• But a microphone is an electrical
transducer because it converts sound
energy into an electrical signal.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Advantages of electrical transducers:

(1) Very small size & compact.

(2) Frictional & inertial effects are reduced.

(3) Remote recording & control possible.

(4) Amplification & attenuation of signals may be easily obtained.

(5) Less power consumption.

(6) Signal output may be easily processed and transmitted.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers

Example

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers

Types of Electrical Transducers

These transducers are classified into two types namely

1. Active transducers
2. Passive transducers.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
1). Active Transducer

• This transducer is also named as -self-generating transducer.

• They generate their voltage or current signal.
• The required energy for output signal production can be attained from the energy
required for the production of this output signal is obtained from the physical
occurrence being calculated.
• The best examples of active transducers are a thermocouple, PV cell, piezoelectric
transducer, photoelectric cell, moving coil generator, etc

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
2). Passive Transducer
• This transducer is also named as an externally power-driven transducer.
• They derive the required power for energy change from an exterior power source.
• Further, these transducers are classified into
➢ resistive- The resistive type mainly includes a thermistor, resistance strain
gauge and photoconductive cell.

➢ capacitive - capacitance includes photo emissive and devices which are based
on Hall Effect.
➢ inductive.-The inductive type includes LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer)
➢ Apart from these, optoelectronic transducers are there which use the principle
of converting the energy from light to electrical.
➢ Some of examples of optoelectronic transducers are a photoconductive cell,
photovoltaic cell, solar cell, photomultiplier tube, and photomultiplier.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Advantages
The advantages of this transducer mainly include the following.
• Attenuation can be done easily.
• Mass inactivity effects can be reduced.
• Friction effects can be reduced.
• The o/p can be specified & recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
• The signal can be mixed to get any permutation with outputs of related
transducers otherwise control signals.,
• Any system can be managed with a less power level.
• The output can be simply utilized to transmit as well as the process for
measurement.
• Thus, this is all about electrical transducer and the selection of this transducer
can be done based on the parameters like operating range, accuracy, sensitivity,
resonant frequency, frequency response, ruggedness, etc.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Applications of Electrical Transducer
The conversion of any physical quantity into an electrical signal is used in almost
every field. Here are some applications of transducers.
•In Biomedical Instrumentation, different transducers are used to help patient
diagnosing such as ultrasound machines, thermometers, ECG, ECHO, CT, MRIs, and
other instruments. They convert various signals generated from our body into
electrical signals and display them on a screen.
•In civil construction, stress gauges are used to measure the stress on a building,
bridge, etc.
•The temperature is converted into an electrical signal that is processed to maintain
temperature in a room. They are also used in fire alarms.
•A transducer such as an antenna converts the electromagnetic signal into an
electrical signal that enables data transmission over a long distance.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Applications of Electrical Transducer
•The pressure of any liquid or gas is easily measured using a transducer.
•Transducers such as microphones convert sound waves into electrical
signals that can be amplified as well as processed, modified, and stored.
•Photoelectric transducer such as solar cells is a source of green energy. They
are used to produce electrical energy from solar energy.
Other LDR, photodiodes and photo-transistors are used in various electrical
projects.
•Modern driverless cars operate on transducers that convert different signals
from its surrounding into electrical signals and process them to make
decisions.
•In robotics, Robots depend on transducers to understand and process real-
world quantities using their microprocessors.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Passive Electrical Transducers Resistive Transducers Resistance Thermometers
Resistive Displacement
Transducers
Resistive Strain Transducers
Resistive Pressure Transducers
Resistive Moisture Transducers
Capacitive Transducers Capacitive Moisture Transducers
Capacitive Displacement
Transducers
Capacitive Thickness Transducers
Inductive Transducers Inductive Displacement
Transducers
Inductive Thickness Transducers
Eddy-Current Inductive
Transducers
Moving core Inductive
Transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers
Active Electrical Transducers Photoelectric Transducers Photoconductive Transducers
Photoemissive Transducers
Photovoltaic Force Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers Piezoelectric Strain Transducers
Piezoelectric Acceleration
Transducers

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers

Piezoelectric Torque Transducers
Piezoelectric Force Transducers
Magnetostrictive Transducers Magnetostrictive Acceleration
Transducers

Magnetostrictive Force Transducers

Magnetostrictive Torsion Transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 14

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electrical transducers

Electromechanical Transducers Tachometers

Electrodynamic Pressure Transducers
Electrodynamic Vibration Transducers
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
Ionization Transducers Ionization Vacuum Gauge
Ionization Displacement Transducers
Nuclear Radiation Transducers
Radioactive Vacuum Gauge
Radioactive Level Gauge
Radioactive Thickness Gauge
Electrochemical Transducers
Hall-Effect Transducers
Thermoelectric Transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 15

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Mechanical transducers are a set of primary sensing
elements that respond to changes in a physical quantity with
a mechanical output.

As an example, a Bimetallic Strip is a mechanical Transducer,

which reacts to changes in temperature and responds with
mechanical displacement.

The output mechanical quantity can be anything like

displacement, force (or torque), pressure and strain.

For any measuring quantity, there can be both mechanical

and electrical transducers.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Quantity to be Measured Mechanical Transducer Type of Output Signal (Mechanical)
Temperature Bimetallic Strip Displacement and Force
Fluid Expansion Displacement and Force
Pressure Ring Balance Manometer Displacement
Metallic Diaphragms Displacement and Strain
Capsules and Bellows Displacement
Membranes Displacement
Force Spring Balance Displacement and Strain
Hydraulic Load Cell Pressure
Column Load Cell Displacement and Strain
Torque Dynamometer Force and Strain
Gyroscope Displacement
Spiral Springs Displacement
Torsion Bar Displacement and Strain
Flow Rate Flow Obstruction Element Strain and Pressure
Pitot Tube Pressure
Liquid Level Manometer Displacement
Float Elements Displacement, Force and Strain

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Bimetallic strip
• Bimetallic strip thermometers are mechanical thermometers.
• They are widely used in industry for temperature control because of their
robustness, temperature range and simplicity.
• It consists of a bimetallic strip which is made of two dissimilar’ metals
bonded together with one end fixed and the other free.
• A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical
displacement.
• The principle is that as the temperature changes, one strip will expand
more than the other causing the pair to bend at the free end.
• Most bimetallic strips use a high thermal expansion alloy such as steel or
stainless steel coupled with a low thermal expansion alloy such as Invar.
• Steel and copper or in some cases, brass is also used instead of copper for
bimetallic strips.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

• Figure 1.40 shows the configuration of a bimetallic temperature-controlled switch

or thermostat.
• The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of
the curve when the strip is heated and it is lower on the inner side when cooled.
• When the temperature of the switch is increased, the thermal expansion material
will be higher than the other side of the low thermal expansion material.
• It causes the strip to bend upward to make contact so the current can flow.
• The temperature can be adjusted or set by adjusting the size of the gap between
the strip and the contact.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Advantages of bimetallic strips
•Power source is not required
•Cost is low
•It is robust construction
•It is easy to use and it can be used up to 500°C.
Disadvantages of bimetallic strips
•It is less accurate
•It is limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a
household thermometer.
•It is not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of
metals tend to be too smaller. So, the device becomes a rather insensitive
thermometer.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 14

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 15

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
What is a Bimetallic Strip?
• A bimetallic strip is composed of two dissimilar metals
joined together, usually in the form of two strips or two
ribbons.
• The two metals are specifically dissimilar in terms of their
electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and
mechanical properties.
• When the strip is exposed to heat, the two dissimilar
metals expand at different rates, and the resulting bending
is utilized to determine the value of the temperature
change.
• This simplicity makes the bimetallic strip an ideal
component for a wide variety of applications.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 16

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
How is a Bimetallic Strip Constructed?
• A bimetallic strip consists of two thin strips of metal that are typically brass,
copper, or steel.
• The strips are layered on top of each other, with one end joined and the other
end free, allowing the assembly to bend and respond to temperature changes.
• Typically the two strips or ribbons that compose a bimetallic strip are secured
together by welding or soldering.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 17

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
How Does a Bimetallic Strip Work?
The two dissimilar metals in bimetallic strips are chosen based on the application
and the desired properties. The operating mechanism that allows for movement
of the bimetallic strip is from Thermodynamics, and the equation for linear
thermal expansion helps to understand it:
Now, if you have two metal strips exposed to the
same change in temperature and the same
original length, but they have different
coefficients of linear thermal expansion, you will
see varying changes in length.

For an increase in temperature, the metal with

the higher coefficient of thermal expansion will
grow more than the other strip, causing the strip
to bend towards the metal with the lower
thermal coefficient.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 18

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
• For a decrease in temperature, the strip with
the higher coefficient of linear thermal
expansion decreases in length more, causing
the strip to bend towards the metal with the
higher thermal coefficient.
• Now, the only operating mechanism for the
movement of a bimetallic strip is the
application of heat — the two metal strips
are joined together, and the bending is
caused by the difference in thermal
expansion coefficients of the two metals.
• Basically, the thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy and a
resulting displacement.
• In other words, when one metal expands more than the other due to a
change in temperature, the strip bends or flexes to the contact point.
That contact point is a bimetallic strip sensor that activates a switch and
sends a signal to a control device or circuit.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 19

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Important Physical Properties of Bimetallic Strip Materials
When designing a bimetallic strip for any application, it is important to evaluate
certain physical properties of the proposed materials:
•Coefficient of thermal expansion (how the material responds to changes in
temperature)
•Modulus of elasticity (the ratio of stress to strain for a material undergoing
elastic deformation)
•Maximum operating temperature (the maximum temperature the material can
operate at without losing significant mechanical properties or permanently
deforming)
•Electrical conductivity (especially for electrical applications)
•Stiffness and ductility

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 20

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 21

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers
Common Applications for a Bimetallic Strip
• The most common use for a bimetallic strip is as a temperature-sensitive
switch. This type of switch is used in a wide range of applications, including
thermostats, refrigerators, and other household appliances.

• But bimetallic strips are also used in a variety of mechanical applications. They
can be used as a spring to provide tension or adjust the tension on a part. They
can also be used to make a variety of mechanical linkages, such as a bell crank,
which changes the direction of a force.

• Bimetallic strips are also used in electrical applications, often as relays, which
are electrical switches that control circuits. They can also be used as a current-
limiting device, a type of resistor that limits the amount of current flowing
through a circuit. Bimetallic strips are also used in a variety of other
applications, including heat-sensitive switches, thermal fuses, and
temperature-sensitive resistance elements.
• In all of these applications, the two metals are carefully chosen based on their
properties in order to achieve the desired result.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 22

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Mechanical transducers Example

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 23

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electronic transducers
• An electronic transducer is a device that converts one form of energy
into another form in an electronic system.

• It is commonly used to measure physical quantities such as temperature,

pressure, position, or acceleration and convert them into electrical
signals that can be processed, analyzed, or transmitted.

• Electronic transducers play a crucial role in various applications,

including industrial automation, robotics, medical devices,
environmental monitoring, and telecommunications.

• The basic principle behind electronic transducers is the conversion of a

non-electrical quantity into an electrical signal.

• This conversion can be achieved through various mechanisms, such as

resistive, capacitive, inductive, or piezoelectric effects, depending on the
type of transducer.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electronic transducers
Here are a few examples of electronic transducers:

• Temperature Transducer: Converts temperature variations into electrical

signals. Common types include thermocouples, resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.

• Pressure Transducer: Converts pressure changes into electrical signals.

Examples include strain gauges, piezoresistive sensors, and capacitive
pressure sensors.

• Position Transducer: Measures the position or displacement of an object

and converts it into an electrical signal. Examples include linear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs), potentiometers, and optical encoders.

• Acceleration Transducer: Converts acceleration or vibration into

electrical signals. Accelerometers, piezoelectric sensors, and MEMS
(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) sensors are commonly used for this
purpose.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Electronic transducers

• Light Transducer: Converts light intensity or optical signals into electrical

signals. Photodiodes, phototransistors, and image sensors are typical
examples.

• Sound Transducer: Converts sound waves into electrical signals.

Microphones and ultrasonic transducers fall into this category.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Relative comparison of each type of transducer.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Relative comparison of each type of transducer.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Relative comparison of each type of transducer.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Transducers: Relative comparison of each type of transducer.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input
circuitry, Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode
ray oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

Stage-I-Detector Transducer stage:

The important function of this stage is to detect or to sense the input signal. At the same
time, it should be insensitive to every other possible input signals. For ex, if it is a
pressure signal, it should be insensitive to acceleration. In the measurement of strain, the
strain gauges should be insensitive to temperature.

• Automobile tyre gauge-used for measurement/checking air pressure of an automobile

tyre.

• Construction: consists of a cylinder, a piston, a spring resisting the piston movement

and a stem with graduation.

• As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring
until the spring force and air forces are balanced.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

Stage-II-Intermediate modifying stage:

• As the name itself indicates, this lies between stage 1 and stage 3.
• The main function of this stage is to modify the detected/transduced information so
that it is acceptable to the third, or terminating stage.
• The important function of this stage is to increase either amplitude or power of
the signal or both, to the level required to drive the final terminating device.
• It may also perform selective filtering, integration, differentiation, etc. as required.
• Generally these will be electrical or electronics circuits.
• Examples: Amplifiers, mechanical levers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
Intermediate Stage:
i. Signal amplification to increase the power or amplitude of the signal
without affecting its waveform. The output from the detector-transducer
element' is generally too small to operate an indicator or a recorder and
its amplification is necessary. Depending upon the type of transducer
signal, the amplification device may be of mechanical,
hydraulic/pneumatic, optical and electrical type.
ii. Signal filtration to extract the desired information from extraneous
data. Signal filtration removes the unwanted noise signals that tend to
obscure the transducer signal. Depending upon nature of the signal and
situation, one may use mechanical, pneumatic or electrical filters.
iii. Signal modification to provide a digital signal from an analog signal or
vice versa, or change the form of output from voltage to frequency or
from voltage to current.
iv. Data transmission to telemeter the data for remote reading and
recording.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

Stage-II-Intermediate modifying stage:

• This stage provides an indication or a recording of the signal in a form that can be
understood by a human being or a control system.
• This is done by the data presentation element.
• Here the information output may be obtained in different forms such as a pointer
moving over a graduated scale, in digital form as in computers or as a trace on an
oscilloscope etc.
• An example of a generalized measurement system is a simple Bourdon tube pressure
gauge.
• In this case, the pressure is sensed by a tube of elliptical cross-section which undergoes
mechanical deformation. (c/s tends to become circular)
• The gearing arrangement amplifies the displacement at the end of the tube so that a
relatively small displacement of the tube end produces a greater revolution of the center
gear. • The final indicator stage consists of a pointer and scale arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal acting
on the bourdon tube

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
Stage III-Terminating stage
• This stage provides an indication or a recording of the signal in a form which
can be understood by a human being or a control system.
• This is done by data presentation element.
• Here the information output may be obtained in different forms such as a
pointer moving over a graduated scale, in digital form as in computers or as a
trace on an oscilloscope etc.
• An example of a generalized measurement system is a simple Bourdon tube
pressure gauge.
• In this case, the pressure is sensed by a tube of elliptical cross section which
undergoes mechanical deformation. (c/s tends to become circular)
• The gearing arrangement amplifies the displacement at the end of the tube so
that a relatively small displacement of the tube end produces a greater
revolution of the center gear.
• The final indicator stage consists of a pointer and scale arrangement, which
when calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of pressure
signal acting on the bourdon tube.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE

• In the intermediate modifying stage of a measurement system,

the transduced signal is modified and amplified appropriately
with the help of conditioning and processing devices before
passing it on to the output stage for display.
• Signal conditioning (by noise reduction and filtering) is
performed to enhance the condition of the signal obtained in
the first stage, in order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
• If required, the obtained signal is further processed by means
of integration, differentiation, addition, subtraction,
digitization, modulation, etc.
• It is important to remember here that in order to obtain an
output that is analogous to the input, the characteristics of the
input signals should be transformed with true fidelity.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying-Example – Bourdons Tube
Bourdon's Tube. • Bourdon tube pressure gauges are
- extensively used for local
indication. This type of pressure
gages were first developed by E.
Bourdon in 1849.
• Bourdon tube pressure gauges can
be used to measure over a wide
range of pressure: form vacuum to
pressure as high as few thousand
psi.
• It is basically consisted of a C-
shaped hollow tube, whose one
The intermediate device of Bourdon Tube end is fixed and connected to the
(Mechanical Systems gear, Link sector) pressure tapping, the other end
free, as shown in fig.
• The cross section of the tube is
elliptical.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying-Example – Bourdons Tube
Bourdon's Tube. - • When pressure is applied, the elliptical
tube (Bourdon tube) tries to acquire a
circular cross section; as a result, stress is
developed and the tube tries to straighten
up.
• Thus the free end of the tube moves up,
depending on magnitude of pressure.
• A deflecting and indicating mechanism is
attached to the free end that rotates the
pointer and indicates the Pressure reading.
• The materials used are commonly
Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium
Copper.
• For a 2″ overall diameter of the C-tube the
useful travel of the free end is
approximately 1/8″ .
• Though the C-type tubes are most
common, other shapes of tubes, such as
helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in
use.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying-Example – Bourdons Tube
Bourdon's Tube. The intermediate parts of bourdon tube pressure gauge
- and its functions are as follows:

Sector Gear: The sector gear is a type of gear that is

quarter geared. It is used to oscillate and such oscillation
will rotate the pinion.
Segment Lever: The segment lever is a type of lever that
helps the sector and tube to keep in contact.
Socket: The socket will be housing for the end of the
bourdon tube.
Bourdon Tube: It is the C-Shaped component that will
move according to the fluid force. Bourdon tube will
convert the fluid force into pressure.
Spring: The spring helps the whole mechanism to return
to its original position after the movement of the
bourdon tube by fluid force.
Pinion: The pinion is the rotary gear that will convert the
oscillating motion of sector gear into rotary motion.
Pointer or Indicator: The pointer will show the
responses on the display. (Its Terminating device)
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

• Primary detector transducers transduce the input signal

into mechanical displacement.
• This intermediate analogous signal is passed on to the
secondary transducer and gets converted into an
electrical form, which is more easily processed by the
intermediate stage.
• Design problems of considerable magnitude arise when
the signals from the primary– secondary transducers
are fed into mechanical intermediate elements.
• The mechanical intermediate elements, which include
linkages, gears, cams, etc., are inadequate, especially in
handling dynamic inputs.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 14

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems – Example
Kinematic Linearity
• When a linkage system is to be used as a mechanical amplifier, it should be
designed in such a way that it provides the same amplification, which is often
termed the gain, over its entire range of output.
• The gain should be linear, which would otherwise result in a poor amplitude
response.
• Further, for recording the output, a straight line stylus movement should be
provided; otherwise, the recorded trace will be distorted along the time axis.
• This would result in a poor phase response.
• Hence, it is essential to have a proper kinematic layout to ascertain linearity
and straight line stylus movement.
• Additionally, due importance should be given to the control of tolerances on
link dimensions and fixed point locations.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 15

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:

Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input
circuitry, Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode
ray oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2
 duced signal is further modified and amplified with the help of conditioning and
essingModule 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
ces, soIntermediate
that the signalModifying
is appropriate before passing it on to the output or
inating stage
isplay. The terminating-stage elements usually comprise indicators, recorders,
ay and
processing units, and control elements.
al conditioning is essential in order to enhance the condition of the signal obtained

irst stage by reducing the noise and filtering such that the signal-to-noise ratio is
ased.
quired, the obtained signal has to be processed further by means of attenuation,
ration,
rentiation, addition, subtraction, digitization, modulation, etc. It is important to
ember
that, in order to obtain an output that is analogous to the input, the characteristics
e input
ls should be transformed for display with true fidelity. Hence, the dynamic
surement
echanical quantities imposes severe strain on the elements of the intermediate
e.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

• The primary detector transducer stage usually detects a mechanical quantity and
transduces it into an electrical form.

• In the intermediate modifying stage of the measurement system, the transduced

signal is further modified and amplified with the help of conditioning and processing
devices, so that the signal is appropriate before passing it on to the output or
terminating stage for display.

• The terminating-stage elements usually comprise indicators, recorders, display and

data processing units, and control elements.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
• Signal conditioning is essential in order to enhance the
condition of the signal obtained in the first stage by
reducing the noise and filtering such that the signal-to-
noise ratio is increased.
• If required, the obtained signal has to be processed
further by means of attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition, subtraction, digitization,
modulation, etc.
• It is important to remember here that, in order to obtain
an output that is analogous to the input, the
characteristics of the input signals should be transformed
for display with true fidelity.
• Hence, the dynamic measurement of mechanical
quantities imposes severe strain on the elements of the
intermediate stage.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

One of the major requirements of

intermediate modifying devices is large
amplification coupled with a good
transient response. Mechanical,
hydraulic, and pneumatic devices fulfill
both these requirements inadequately,
and hence electrical and electronic
devices are preferred (Table 13.2)

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES
• From the preceding discussions, it is now clear that in mechanical systems, transient
response characteristics, which are essential for dynamic measurement, suffer due
to friction and inertia.
• Further, mechanical systems become bulky and heavy when attempts are made to
improve them or to provide them with required rigidity.
• Although hydraulic and pneumatic systems can be used to obtain higher signal
power, these cannot be applied for quick-response control applications.
• In other words, hydraulic and pneumatic systems are suitable only for slow-
response control applications

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES
Hence, electrical systems are preferred as they possess the following merits:
1. Amplification or attenuation can be realized easily. Increased power output
can be obtained by employing power amplifiers, which is not possible in
mechanical systems because mechanical counterparts for power amplifiers are
not available.
2. Effects of mass inertia and friction are minimized or are almost negligible.
3. An output power of almost any magnitude can be provided.
4. Remote indication of recording is possible. Remote telemetry and control
are essential aspects of aerospace R&D.
5. Transducers are commonly susceptible to miniaturization, especially in
integrated circuits, which are being extensively employed in the field of
instrumentation.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying-Active and Passive Transducers
Active Transducers
• Active transducers are of a self-generating type, wherein they develop their own
voltage or current output (Fig. 13.4).
• They do not need any auxiliary power source to produce the output.
• The energy required to produce the output is derived from the physical quantity
being measured.
• Examples of active transducers are piezoelectric crystals (used for force or
acceleration measurement), tachogenerators, thermocouples, and photovoltaic
cells.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying-Active and Passive Transducers
Passive Transducers
• Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary
source of power (Fig. 13.5).
• A part of the power required for generating the output is derived from the
physical quantity being measured.
• Since they receive power from an auxiliary source, they are termed externally
powered transducers.
• Further, these transducers remain passive in the absence of an external power
source; hence, they are called passive transducers. Resistive, capacitive, and
inductive transducers are some of the examples of passive transducers

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Intermediate Modifying

ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES

• One of the major functions of intermediate modifying devices is to transduce

mechanical inputs into analogous electrical signals.

• In addition, these signals will be modified or conditioned such that they are capable
of driving indicators and recorders in the terminating stage.

• In the intermediate modifying stage, amplification of either voltage or power, or

both can be accomplished, depending on the requirement of the terminating stage.

• If the terminating device is an indicator, then amplification of voltage will suffice.

Amplification of power is essential when a recorder is employed for driving a
terminating device.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry
There are two types of electrical transducer devices: passive transducers, which require
an auxiliary power source for energy, and active transducers, which are self-generating
or powering and do not require any external power source.

Simple bonded wire strain gauge and piezoelectric accelerometer are examples of
passive and active transducers, respectively.

Further, active transducers require minimum circuitry for the necessary transduction,
whereas some special arrangements need to be provided when passive transducers
are employed.

The operating principle of the passive transducer used determines the types of
arrangements to be provided.

Broadly, the most common forms of input circuitry employed in transduction are as
follows:
1. Simple current-sensitive circuits
2. Ballast circuits
3. Voltage-dividing circuits
4. Voltage-balancing potentiometer circuits
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Ballast circuits

• A ballast circuit is a variation of the current-sensitive circuit (Fig. 13.9).

• A voltage-sensitive device is placed across the transducer in the circuit instead
of a current-sensitive recorder or indicator.
• A ballast resistor Rb is introduced into the circuit. It is important to note that
in the absence of Rb , the indicator will not indicate any change with variation
in Rt and always show full source voltage.
• It is thus necessary to incorporate some value of resistance in the circuit to
ensure its proper functioning.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Ballast circuits Depending on the impedance of the meter,
two situations may arise:
1. In case some form of vacuum tube
voltmeter, which has high impedance, was
employed, the current that flows through the
meter is neglected.
2. If a low impedance meter is used, the
current flow through the meter has to be
considered.
Assuming a high impedance meter, by Ohm’s law, we get the following equation:

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 14

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Ballast circuits

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 15

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Ballast circuits

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 16

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Electronic amplifiers

• It is clear that due to the inherent problems associated with mechanical intermediate
devices, electrical or electronic systems are used to obtain the required amplification.
Invariably, in the circuitry some form of amplification is provided during mechanical
measurements.
• One of the factors that distinguishes electronic devices from electrical devices is
assumed from the fact that, in some part of the electronic circuitry, electrons are
made to flow through space in the absence of a physical conductor, which, in other
words, implies the use of vacuum tubes.
• With rapid technological advancement, solidstate devices, diodes, transistors, etc.,
have come into existence, giving a wider perspective to the word electronics.
• The performance of amplifiers is assessed by good dynamic responses, minimum
loading effects, no zero drift, and minimum noise.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 17

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Electronic amplifiers

• The principle employed in the working of vacuum tubes is based on the fact that

when a cathode is heated electrons are emitted.

• Emitted electrons get attracted to a positively charged plate, resulting in a flow of

current through the plate circuit.

• A third element, called a grid, can be used to control the flow of current. The grid is

introduced between the cathode and the plate such that it is duly charged negatively

relative to the cathode.

• The negative voltage on the grid is termed bias.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 18

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Input Circuitry - Electronic amplifiers

• A single-stage amplifier in its simplest form.

• It can be seen from the figure that A heats
the filament, which in turn heats the
cathode; B represents the plate supply, and
the required bias voltage is supplied by C.

• Normally, in an amplifier, a common supply

makes use of voltage dividers or dropping
resistors to obtain various voltages.

• If greater amplification is required, tubes

with more elements can be incorporated;
stages can be interconnected in such a way
that the load for the input stage is a second
stage, and so on.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 19

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems

[Link]
Professor and Head
Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 1
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Measurement system and basic concepts of measurement methods:
Definition, Significance of measurement, generalized measurement system,
Static characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis, Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics-
System response, Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of
errors.

Transducers: Transfer efficiency, Primary and Secondary transducers,

Electrical transducers, Mechanical, Electronic transducers, Relative
comparison of each type of transducers.

Intermediate Modifying and Terminating Devices: Mechanical systems,

Inherent problems, Electrical intermediate modifying devices, Input circuitry,
Ballast circuit, Electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices, Cathode ray
oscilloscope, Oscillographs.

Pedagogy Power point presentation along with solving numerical using

chalk and board

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 2

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating device

Terminating Device
• Provides an indication or recording in a form that can be evaluated by human sense
or by a controller.

INDICATORS
(a) Displacement types Moving pointer & scale, light beam & scale, CRO, liquid
column, etc.
(b) Digital types: Direct alphanumeric readout
(c) Recorders: Digital printing, inked pen & chart Light beam & photographic
Film, magnetic recording
(d) Controllers: All types

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 3

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices
• This stage provides an indication or a recording of the signal in a form which can be
understood by a human being or a control system.

• This is done by data presentation element.

• Here the information output may be obtained in different forms such as a pointer moving
over a graduated scale, in digital form as in computers or as a trace on an oscilloscope etc.
•
An example of a generalized measurement system is a simple Bourdon tube pressure
gauge.

• In this case, the pressure is sensed by a tube of elliptical cross section which undergoes
mechanical deformation. (c/s tends to become circular)

• The gearing arrangement amplifies the displacement at the end of the tube so that a
relatively small displacement of the tube end produces a greater revolution of the center
gear.
• The final indicator stage consists of a pointer and scale arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of pressure signal acting on the
bourdon tube.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 4
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope

• Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for the
development of electronic circuits and systems.
• CRO allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they are voltage,
current or power to be displayed as a function of time.
• CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is bombarded on
the screen, coated with a fluorescent material, to produce a visible spot.
• If the electron beam is deflected on both the conventional axis. I.e. X-axis & Y-
axis, a two-dimensional display is produced.
• “The oscilloscope is a kind of voltmeter which uses beam instead of a pointer
and a kind of recorder which uses an electron beam.”
• The heart of CRO is cathode ray tube (CRT) which makes the applied signal
visible by the deflection of a thin beam of electrons.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 5

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 6

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope
The CRO consists of the following component:
(i) CRT (ii) Vertical amplifier (iii) Delay line (iv) Horizontal amplifier (v) Time-base
generator (vi)Triggering circuit (vii) Power supply
(i) CRT- This is a cathode ray tube that emits electrons that strikes the phosphor screen
internally to provide a visible display of signals.
(ii) Vertical Amplifier-Vertical amplifier determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an
oscilloscope. Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical deflection at the
mid-band frequency.
(iii) Delay Line-It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections till the
time the horizontal amplifier also receives the signal.
(iv) Time-Base Generators-The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a
function of time. If the waveform is to be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a
constant horizontal velocity. It is used to generate the sawtooth voltage required to
deflect the beam in the horizontal section.
Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 7
Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope
(v) Horizontal Amplifier- This is used to amplify the saw tooth voltage before it is
applied to horizontal deflection plates.

(vi) Trigger Circuit-This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that
the input signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.

(vii) Power Supply-There are two power supplies, a –Ve high voltage (HV) supply and a
+ve low voltage (LV) supply. The –Ve supply is from -1000V to -1500V. This voltage is
passed through a bleeder resistor at a few mA. The intermediate voltages are obtained
from the bleeder resistor for intensity, focus and positioning controls resistor for
intensity

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 8

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope
Working of CRO:

• The electron beam generated from an electron gun will be accelerated toward a
phosphorous screen by a potential difference between the electron gun and the
screen.

• As the beam emerges from the gun, it passes through a set of parallel plates (the
vertical deflection plates) oriented horizontally.

• The voltage to be displayed is amplified by a vertical amplifier and applied across

these plates producing an electric field that deflects the path of the electron
vertically.

• The polarity of the signal determines whether the deflections will be up or down and
the magnitude of the signal determines the amount of vertical displacement of the
electrons.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 9

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope
Working of CRO:

• After the beam has passed through the vertical deflection Plates, it passed through a
second set of similar plates that are oriented horizontally.

• A potential difference applied to these plates produces an electric field that deflects
left or right. Under normal configuration, these horizontal deflection plates are
connected to a time-base circuitry.

• This circuit can control how fast the electron beam sweeps from left to right (use
Sweep Knob).

• Adjusting the sweep speed, the resulting trace on the screen can be spread out or
compressed.

Application of CRO
(a) Examination of waveforms. (b) Voltage measurement. (c) Current measurement.
(e) Frequency measurement. (f) Phase measurement

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 10

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Cathode ray oscilloscope

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 11

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices

oscilloscope, formerly known as an oscillograph (informally scope, oscope, or o-

scope), is an instrument that graphically displays electrical signals and shows how
those signals change over time

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 12

Module 2 18RA42 Measurement Systems
Terminating devices- Oscillographs

What is the difference between oscilloscope and cathode ray oscilloscope?

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) are two
types of oscilloscopes used to measure and display electrical signals. The main
difference is that a CRO uses a cathode ray tube to display electrical signals while a
DSO uses digital technology to store and display signals.

Dr. M K, Professor and Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation, RRCE 13