Basics of

weld joints

By
Sarath Chandran
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Types of weld joints
The American Welding Society defines a joint as “the manner in which materials fit
together.” there are five basic types of weld joints:
• Butt joint.
• T-joint.
• Lap joint.
• Corner joint.
• Edge joint.

1. Butt joint:
Butt joints are end to end joint, in which the parts lie in the same plane and are joined
at the ends.

2. T-joint:
In a T-joint (also called as Tee Joint), one part is at the right angle to the other part
and it forms a shape similar to alphabet “T”.

3. Lap joint:
In Lap joint, two overlapping parts are joined together.

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4. Corner Joint:
In corner joint ends of the adjoining parts are joined, parts are placed at right angles
to each other.

5. Edge joint:
The adjoining parts in edge joints are kept parallel with each other with a common
edge and the joint is made at the common edge(s).

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Scope:
This article will deal with step by step guide for the preparation of Weld Map, Shop
Weld Plan, WPS, PQR & WPQ as per ASME SEC IX for a Static Pressure Vessel
designed in accordance with ASME SEC VIII DIV I for non-lethal Service.
The Reader must be wondering from where this requirement of Weld Map and Weld
Plan arises which is very common thinking when one (Welding Engineer) is making
them for the first time as many a time it is mandatory as per customer/client
specification and also if a company is ISO 9001 certified along with U stamp
designator holder as per ASME SEC VIII DIV I so to enable inspector and customer
of knowing what was approved, what was followed and as-built information
communication both Weld Map and Shop Weld Plan are required.

Weld Map: A document which includes but not limited to a Sketch of the
equipment locating all the welds along with a table with all the details (Material,
thickness, welding process, WPS, PQR etc…) required for getting
customer/client/TPI approval.

Definitions:
Shop Weld Plan: A document prepared based on weld map & drawings approved by
the customer which mentions specific seam no with WPS parameters, WPQ, etc.,
which is issued to shop for the fabrication activities.

WPS: It stands for welding procedure specification which is a document directing

welding personnel (supervisors, welders, operators) for details like the Type of
Joints, Base metals, Filler metals, Position, Preheat, PWHT, Gas(es), Electrical
characteristics and Technique to be used for joining of metals. The WPS will include
all the variables like Essential, Supplementary Essential, and Non-Essential
Variables (To learn more about WPS, Please click here).

PQR: It stands for procedure qualification record and it documents all the essential
variables and additional details recorded during its qualification, the testing’s (Non-
destructive and destructive) carried out and signed by Welding Engineer and in most
of the cases reviewed/witnessed by TPI (Third party inspector) depending on the
customer/client requirements. The Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) may include:
Visual, LPT, MPI, RT, UT, etc. and the destructive tests (DT) may include: Fracture
(Room temp Tensile, Bend, Impact), Fatigue (CTOD, etc..), Corrosion (HIC, SSC,
IGC, etc.…), Creep (Hot Tensile, S-N Diagram), Embrittlement (Temper
Embrittlement – Step Cooling etc…).

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We shall now discuss the step-by-step procedure for the creation and approval of
the Weld Map;
The sketch of a Static Pressure Vessel, designed as per ASME SEC VIII DIV-I is as
below.

Note: Every effort was being made so that our pressure vessel (PV) design seems
compliant to ASME SEC VIII DIV I, however, the author accepts no responsibility
whatsoever in this regard.
Bill of Materials is as mentioned below:

Note: The author has not considered the base ring below the skirt and the RF Pad
for manway, earthing lug of ASS, Lifting Lug, and any other internal or external
attachment for making it easier for the reader to understand.

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From above, the author will utilize GTAW & SMAW process (as per ASME SEC IX)
for procedure and performance qualification and considering the minimum design
metal temperature (MDMT) of the Vessel to be 0 °C there are no impact requirements
applicable (Refer UCS -66) and also the governing thickness (Refer UW-40 for
details) is less than 38 mm there is no need to carry out post-weld heat treatment
(PWHT).
The material combination utilized, will be SA 516 Gr 70 and SA 516 Gr 60 as a smart
welding engineer will be able to utilize it for welding of P1 G2 and P1 G1 (Note: P1,
G1 & G2 are parent metal grouping, to learn more about metal grouping, please click
here) when there is impact test requirement.
After having the above information, proposed Weld Map and WPS are made,
considering this is the first Job to be executed by Company Name: Welding and NDT
for approval of customer/client/TPI a sample of both are attached below:

Considering the above situation the Welding Engineer needs to plan the welder
qualification (WPQ) too, as the above WPS after qualification will be utilized for
Welder qualification.

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Proposed Welder List for Qualification

Scope:
In part-1 (Click here to read), of this article, we had discussed about the preparation
and approval of the weld map, shop weld plan, and proposed welder list which needs
to be submitted for the consent of the customer/client/TPI.
In this article, we shall discuss the steps required for PQR qualification. In general,
the Steps as mentioned below may be followed (But not mandatory for each and
every case) for PQR qualification:
(Note: In most of the cases the customer specifications demand the PQR (procedure
qualification record) to be witnessed by Third party inspection (TPI) agencies such
as Lloyds, BV, TUV, HSB, etc.. The welding engineer, shall in each case, qualify a
PQR in the presence of TPI’s only to show the credibility of the same to future
clients.)
The necessary steps required to be followed for PQR qualification are given below;
Step 1:
The Proposed WPS i.e PWPS, Filler Metal batch test certificate’s (SMAW
Consumable & GTAW Consumable), Base Metal test certificate (For WPS & WPQ),
machine calibration report (for constant current power source) shall be reviewed by
welding engineer and TPI. Sample test certificate for the following materials can be
downloaded.
E 7018 (3.2 mm Dia) consumable batch TC sample (Click here for sample TC).
ER70S-2 (2.4 mm Dia) consumable batch TC sample (Click here for sample TC).
SA 516 Gr 70 TC Sample for PQR (Click here for sample TC).
Step 2:

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Mostly the TPI will ask to witness the plate/pipe from which the test coupon will be
removed and also to verify the Heat/Plate No as mentioned in the TC reviewed in
step 1 (Figure 1). Also, it is essential in this step to take multiple stamps (TPI) on
plate/pipe so that before cutting and if possible after machining the stamp transfer
stages can be avoided which will unnecessarily prolong the PQR qualification
process. The length of each test piece(plate) generally to be kept 500 mm and the
width of each test piece shall be 150mm and the thicknesses as mentioned in the
proposed WPS (Recommendation based on the Author experience not to be
constituted as mandatory).

Figure 1

Step 3:
Now the edge preparation shall be prepared by the gas cutting (however machining
can also be used) but it will be recommended to use the edge preparation method
the same as that to be utilized in actual fabrication (however this is not an essential
variable). The Run in and run out cleats and the backing support to control angular
distortion (Figure 2) shall also be cut from the material of the same plate however for
backing a suitable fixture (Figure 3 and Figure 4) can be made to avoid
cutting/grinding and localized repair of the base metal at the location from where
supports will be removed after welding.

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Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Step 4:
The Edge preparation after cutting shall be ground smooth to base metal surface so
as to remove any slag formed during the cutting operation. Schematic Sketch is
shown below (Figure 5):

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Figure 5

Step 5:
Before doing the setup, the LPT examination of the edges may be performed to
ascertain no surface defects are present. Now the qualification of all three test
procedures shall be in vertical up position as it will qualify the procedure in all position
with/without impact test requirements verify: Included Angle/Bevel Angle, Root Face,
and Root Gap, etc. using the following items.
• Digital Vernier (Figure 6)
• Angle Protector (Figure 7)
• Universal Welding Gauge (Figure 8)
Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

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Step 6:
Now the welders will be briefed about the task on hand as per Proposed welding
procedure specification i.e. PWPS (essential, supplementary essential, and non-
essential variables) and a piece of the plate will be used to set the current, voltage
and travel speed which will be measured appropriately. An AC/DC Clamp meter
(Figure 9) can be used for this purpose.
Figure 9

Step 7:
Now the Welder shall start welding, as per the proposed welding procedure (PWPS),
and at least one welding engineer per test coupon shall be deputed to record the
parameters on the parameter format.

Step 8:
In most of the cases, the root run after its completion is witnessed by the TPI and
he/she signs the sheet and allows the rest of the welding, but all the passes can be
witnessed by the TPI (Refer 2nd page of the parameter sheet as mentioned in Serial
No. 8). For Measuring Preheat and interpass temperature following items can be
used.
• Infrared Pyrometer (Figure 10)
• Thermal Chalk (Figure 11)

Figure 10 Figure 11

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Step 9:
All the parameters need to be recorded on the parameters sheet (as mentioned in
Serial No 8) and after completion of the test coupon welding be signed by Welding
Engineer and TPI.

Step 10:
Test Coupon (Single Side Welded – GTAW & GTAW + SMAW process) is allowed
to cool below 30°C before removing the backing supports to avoid any spring back
effect (angular distortion) and for the test coupon (Double Side welded-SMAW
process) also follow the above procedure and remove the back supports do back
chip(Gouging/grinding etc..), allow the coupon to cool below 50° C and perform LPT
(For Procedure Refer Link) and after successfully clearing it and then by again
keeping the test coupon vertical complete the joint recording all the parameters.

Step 11:
Now generally the Pressure equipment manufacture possesses RT Facility (For
procedure refer to link) or UT facility (For Procedure refer to link) the test coupon on
both the sides shall have uniform bead profile so as to not interfere (Refer ASME
SEC VIII DIV I for limits of reinforcement) with the interpretation of the results.

Step 12:
If there is any repair in the test coupon same shall be marked suitably and if the
whole length of the test coupon is full of defects (Lack of Fusion, Inclusions, etc..)
same shall be discarded and the above procedure until step no 12 needs to be
repeated and if the test coupon clears either UT/RT a report of the same shall be
prepared by ASNT NDE Level II qualified personnel which later on will become part
of the PQR documentation.

Step 13:
Now test specimen marking shall be carried out manually and if an automatic facility
exists the test specimen dimensions can be feed to the machine (Considering
allowance for cutting and machining).

Step 14:
The Test specimens to be removed in the sequence as shown below in figure 12
(For Tensile and Bend Test only);

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Figure 12

Step 15:
After their removal machining shall be carried out to make Transverse Tensile (02
No’s) per test coupon, 04 Side bend Test for thickness > 10 mm and 02 Face and
02 Root Bend test for Thickness < 10mm and impact test removal location shall be
as per UG-84 of ASME SEC VIII DIV I (A separate article will deal with the cases for
the location of impact test), additionally a sample for macro and micro examination
may also be removed.

Step 16:
The “Transverse Tensile Test” shall (2 No’s per PQR) be performed in the Universal
Tensile machine (Duly calibrated).
Acceptance Criteria: the minimum tensile strength of the weaker of the two base
metals ie 415 Mpa (SA 516 Gr 60).
A Tensile test machine is shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13

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Step 17:
The Transverse side bend (04 No’s) or transverse face bend (2 No’s) & transverse
root bend (02 No’s) per PQR to be performed considering the mandrill diameter
selected in reference to the thickness of test coupon mentioned in the ASME SEX
IX.
Acceptance Criteria: The weld and HAZ (Heat affected zone) of the transverse (side,
root & face) shall be completely within the bend portion of the specimen after testing.
The guided bend test specimen shall have no open discontinuity in the weld or HAZ
(Heat affected zone) exceeding 3 mm in any direction on the convex surface of the
specimen after bending.
The bend test is shown in figure 14, given below.
Figure 14

Step 18:
Impact test to be performed at (-)20°C [below the minimum design metal temperature
(0°C)] with average absorbed impact value of 27 J (Acceptance) for weld and base
metal.
A single value of the specimen out of three of 20 J is also acceptable.
An impact test machine is shown in figure 15
Figure 15

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Step 19:
Macro Examination @ 20X magnification as per ASME SEC IX (Won’t be discussed
further).

Step 20:
Micro Examination as per ASM handbook Volume 9 (Won’t be discussed further).

Step 21:
Now after successful completion of all the testing’s mentioned from Sr No 14 thru 20
PQR format to be filled with the details (essential variables, parameters recorded
and the testing results and the same shall be endorsed with Welding Engineer and
TPI for documentation.
(Note: The purpose of this article is to give a general guideline to the readers, and it
shall not be considered as a substitute of code. For full terms and conditions please
read ASME Section VIII DIV I 2017 & ASME SEC IX 2017 edition).

Scope:
In part-2, of this article, we had discussed the sequence to be used for qualification
of procedure (PQR) which needs to be approved by customer/client/TPI.
Now we shall proceed for performance (welder) qualification i.e Welder performance
qualification – WPQ or welder qualification test – WQT (which will be discussed in
brief as the steps are identical to PQR qualification). This discussion shall be as per
the proposed list mentioned in Part-1. We will see the weld map preparation again
for final customer approval and issues of the shop weld plan to the shop for
fabrication.
The general steps for welder performance qualification (WPQ or WQT) are as
mentioned below (Please note that these steps are not mandatory and vary for each
and every case);
(Based on PQR qualified (let us assume that all the testing got cleared and PQR was
signed in article-2 by the concerned). WPS’s shall be prepared on basis of above
qualified PQR’s for use in the Static pressure vessel fabrication and qualification of
WPQ.)
Step 1:
The WPS along with test certificates of base metal, filler metal, and machine (welding
power source) calibration report to be used for WPQ shall be offered to TPI.

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In most of the cases, the customer specifications demand the WPQ to be witnessed
by TPI (Lloyds, BV, TUV, HSB, etc..) also the welding engineer shall in each case
qualify a WPQ under TPI’s only so as to show the credibility of the same to future
clients.
Step 2:
Now at this stage generally the TPI will just review the TC (considering he/she has
enough confidence in our QMS system). All the test coupons (pipes) on both sides
of the hard stamp of the TPI will be taken. The pipe shall have a width of at least 150
mm so can it be used repeatedly along with appropriate circumference (for either
RT/UT or mechanical testing – at least 150 mm recommended) and the thicknesses
as mentioned in the proposed WPQ (Recommendation based on the Author
experience not to be constituted as mandatory).
Step 3:
Before setup of the test coupon, LPT examination of the edges may be performed
so as to ascertain no surface defects are present. Now the qualification of test
coupon shall be in vertical up position, as it will qualify the procedure in all positions
with/without impact test requirements. The Included Angle, Bevel Angle, Root Face,
and Root Gap, etc. can be verified using the following instruments;
• Vernier Caliper – Photo 1
• Angle (Bevel Protector) – Photo 2
• Bridge Cam (Universal) Welding Gauge – Photo 3
• Hi-lo Gauge
Photo 1

Photo 2

Photo 3

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Step 4:
Now the edge preparation shall be done by gas cutting (however machining can also
be used) but it will be recommended to use the edge preparation method same as
that to be utilized in actual fabrication (however this is not an essential variable). Pipe
fixture (Photo – 4) can be used pipe alignment.
Photo 4

For setup of pipe fixture as mentioned below (Photo – 5) can be used for proper
alignment (C cleats can also be used @ 120° apart) and uniform root gap. While
keeping the fixture in place and filler wire inserted in form of U to maintain the
uniformity of root gap 3 tack welds of 10 mm length each as 120° to be made and
afterward the fixture can be removed.
Photo 5

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Note:
Fixtures shall not be used as a lifting device in any case.
For SMAW WPQ either a single root run of GTAW or ceramic backing can be used.
Step 5:
The Edge preparation after cutting shall be ground smooth to base metal surface to
remove any slag formed during the cutting operation. Schematic Sketch is shown
below (Photo – 6):
Photo 6

Step 6:
Now the welders will be briefed about the task on hand as per qualified WPS
(essential variables) and a piece of the plate will be used to set the current, voltage,
travel speed and gas flow rate which will be measured appropriately by using the
following instruments;
• AC/DC Clamp meter – Photo 7
• flow meter gauge – Photo 8
• Vernier – Photo 2
Photo 7 Photo 8

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Step 7:
Now the welder shall start welding (as per qualified WPS in 6G position) and at least
one welding engineer/welding training in charge per test coupon shall be deputed to
record the parameters on the parameter format.
In most of the cases, the root run is witnessed by the TPI and he/she signs the sheet
and allows the rest of the welding but all the passes can be witnessed by the TPI
(Refer 2nd page of the parameter sheet as mentioned in Serial No. 10).
Step 8:
All the parameters need to be recorded on the parameters sheet (as mentioned in
serial no 10) and after completion of the test coupon welding, the parameter sheet
shall be signed by Welding Engineer and TPI.
Step 9:
Pipes (Single Side Welded – GTAW & GTAW + SMAW process) are allowed to cool
below 50° C and then perform LPT (Liquid penetrant test)
Step 10:
After clearing LPT examination RT/UT or mechanical testing can be performed as
per ASME SEC IX (for this case author will perform RT only).
If there is any repair in the test coupon, the same shall be marked suitably and if the
whole length of the test coupon is full of defects (Lack of Fusion, Inclusions, etc..)
same shall be discarded and the welder stands disqualified and may be allowed to
weld another test piece after appropriate retraining and if the test coupon clears
either RT a report of the same shall be prepared by ASNT NDE L_II qualified
personnel which later on will become part of the WPQ documentation.
To understand more about acceptance criteria for Radiography Test (RT) of welder
performance qualification test coupon (As per ASME BPVC Section IX), Please
watch the following video.
Step 11:
Now supposing all the welders clear RT examination WPQ will be prepared for each
welder, and a welder id card will be issued detailing the essential variables as the
welders will not be allowed to keep a copy of WPQ (opinion of the author only).
Step 12:
Now after completion of all qualified WPS, PQR and WPQ’s, the welding engineer
shall now prepare weld map for fabrication approval of the customer/client/TPI and
which may take the following form (Photo 9):

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Photo 9

Step 13:
Now the Shop Weld Plan will be prepared in reference to the below-mentioned parts
list,

Step 14:
The List of the Welders shall be amended now to show the qualification of the
welders;

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Step 15:
Now all the documents viz. Weld map, WPS, PQR, Qualified Welder List, and WPQ
will be submitted for approval of the customer/client/TPI.
Step 16:
After approval, the Shop Weld Plan along with WPS and qualified welder list will be
issued in Welding & NDT (Manufacturer of Static Pressure Vessel) shop for
fabrication.
Note: If there are any changes like the addition of deletion of seam no the same will
need to be reflected in Shop Weld Plan and Weld map and those shall be then
submitted in the final dossier (supposing that the deviation was approved
beforehand).
Feedback Review: One of our readers in article-1 asked whether or not plate
qualifies for pipe as well for all diameters in case of procedure qualification.
Reply: If anyone goes through the essential variables for SMAW & GTAW procedure
qualification the diameter is not an essential variable and hence this provision in the
code saves us from doing an extra procedure qualification for qualification of welders
in 2” pipe (In our case Mr. Sandeep Singh with GTAW process).
(Note: The purpose of this article is to give a general guideline to the readers and it
shall not be considered as a substitute of code. For full terms and conditions please
read ASME Section VIII DIV I 2019 & ASME SEC IX 2019 edition).

Any discontinuity (or irregularity) in the weld metal, which exceeds the applicable
code limit, is termed as a WELD DEFECT (or Welding Defect). Please note that a
discontinuity can be called as a defect only when if it exceeds the specified code
limit, hence we can say that every defect present in the weld metal is a discontinuity
but every discontinuity present in the weld metal may not necessarily be a defect. A
defect can be macroscopic or microscopic.
(Note: Discontinuity is also termed as “reflector” in some codes and texts)
Defects may occur due to the following reasons.

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1. Incorrect welding parameters
2. Inappropriate welding procedures
3. Poor process condition
4. Inappropriate selection of filler metal and parent metal
5. Unskilled welder or welding operator
6. Incorrect job preparations

Classification of Defects:
Defects can be classified as external defect (also known as visual defect or surface
defect) or internal defect (also known as hidden defect or subsurface
defect). External defects are those which are found on the surface itself.
Internal defects are those which exist in the material at some depth. We can
say that defects that are not present on the surface are internal defects. Please
see the following table;

Different types of welding defects along with their causes and

remedies are explained below;
1. CRACKS:
It is the most dangerous of all defects. Cracks may be of any size or shape; it can be
either microscopic or macroscopic. Cracks may appear anywhere i.e. on the surface,
subsurface, at any depth, or at the root. The crack occurs when localized stress
exceeds the ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) of the material. It may propagate within
the material.

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Cracks are of two types.
• Hot Cracks
• Cold Cracks

HOT CRACKS:
Hot cracks occur during welding or soon after the completion of welding, It is most
likely to occur during the solidification of the molten weld pool. Hot cracks mostly
occur in the weld metal but it may occur at the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) region too.
When a hot crack occurs on the weld metal, then it is termed as Solidification Crack
and if it occurs in the HAZ then called Liquation crack.
Causes of Hot Crack:
1. High concentration of residual stress
2. Rapid cooling of the molten weld pool
3. High thickness of base material
4. Poor ductility of welded material
5. High welding current
6. Inadequate heat treatment
Prevention:
1. Preheating and post-heating to avoid rapid cooling
2. Using right filler metal

COLD CRACKS:
Cold cracks occur after the solidification of weld metal; it can even develop several
days after completion of welding. Most of the time it develops in the HAZ but may
occur on the weld metal too. It is often associated with non-metallic inclusion.

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Causes of Cold Crack:
1. Diffusion of Hydrogen atoms: Hydrogen atoms cause cold cracking. These
hydrogen atoms may be induced in the weld metal from the surrounding, electrode,
base metal, or any contamination present on the root face.
2. Lack of Preheating: Due to inadequate preheating, microstructural changes may
take place. Microstructural crystals may re-structure itself to form martensite.
Martensite is very prone to cracks. Preheating also helps in reducing the diffusion of
hydrogen atoms and ensures no moisture on the joint before welding.
Prevention:
1. Preheating and post welding the weld metal
2. Using low Hydrogen electrode

STAR CRACK (CRATER CRACK):

Star crack is a type of hot crack and it develops at the crater on the weld metal. A
crater is a depression formed on the weld bead where the arc gets broken or when
the electrode is changed.
It develops when the center of the weld pool solidifies before its surroundings and
due to this the center pulls the outer weld and thus star cracks are formed.

2. POROSITY & BLOW HOLES:

Porosity is a cavity-like discontinuity and occurs due to the entrapment of gases in
the molten weld pool. These entrapped gases don’t get a chance to escape from the
molten weld pool and hence cause porosity or blowholes. Porosity is basically a
small pore or void, whereas, blowholes are comparatively larger hole or cavity.
Porosity may be present on the surface or inside the weld metal. Porosity can occur
individually or it may occur in groups also (mostly), group of porosity is known
as cluster porosity.
Porosity is of five types mainly, these are;
• Scattered Porosity
• Cluster Porosity
• Piping Porosity
• Linear Porosity (Aligned Porosity)
• Elongated Porosity
Gases that are entrapped and cause porosity are mostly Hydrogen, Carbon mono
oxide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, and Oxygen. These gases are formed due to the
fluxes present on the welding electrode, Moisture, Oil, Grease other foreign
contaminants present on the joint, or on the welding electrode or on the filler wire.
Insufficient flow of shielding gas also causes porosity in GMAW, FCAW, GTAW &
PAW welding processes.

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Prevention:
• Use low Hydrogen electrode
• Baking of electrodes before welding as per the recommended procedure
• Thorough cleaning of the joint surface and adjacent area before welding
• Preheat the joint before welding
• Ensure sufficient flow of shielding gases if using TIG or MIG welding

3. UNDERCUT:
Undercut appears as a narrow groove on the base metal adjacent to the weld metal
along the edge. Undercut always runs parallel to the weld metal. It acts as a stress
raiser during fatigue loading.

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Causes of Undercut:
1. High welding current and arc voltage
2. Large electrode diameter
3. Incorrect electrode angle
4. Longer arc length

4. UNDERFILL:
When the weld metal surface remains below the adjacent surface of the base metal
then it is called an underfill. Basically, Underfill is undersized welding.

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5. LACK OF PENETRATION (INCOMPLETE PENETRATION):
When the weld metal doesn’t completely penetrate the joint, then it is called a Lack
of Penetration or Incomplete Penetration. It is one of the most dangerous defects
since it acts as a stress raiser, and hence crack may originate or propagate from
there.

Causes of Lack of Penetration:

1. Root gap too small
2. Fast travel speed
3. Low heat input
4. Too large an electrode diameter
Prevention:
1. Proper joint preparation i.e. providing a suitable root gap.
2. Proper heat input
3. Correct travel speed
4. Using electrode of suitable size
Lack of penetration can be repaired by proper back gouging.

6. LACK OF FUSION (INCOMPLETE FUSION):

It is the lack of proper melting (or proper fusion) either between the weld metal with
the base metal or one layer of the weld with the other layer. Lack of fusion is also
called as Cold lapping or cold shuts. One of the most prominent reasons for the
cause of lack of fusion is poor welding techniques. Lack of fusion is an internal defect,
but it can occur on the external surface too if the sidewall of parent metal doesn’t get
properly fused with the base metal, as shown in the below figure and for this case
lack of fusion can also be called as ‘lack of sidewall fusion’.

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Causes of Lack of Fusion:
1. Low welding current
2. Travel speed to high or too low
3. Unfavorable heat input

7. SPATTERS:
Spatters are small globular metal droplets (of weld metal) splashed out on the base
metal during welding. Spatters stick on the base metal hence can be removed by
wire brush or buffing.

Causes of Spatters:
1. Excessive arc current
2. Excessive long arc
3. Improper shielding gases
4. Electrode with improper flux
5. Damp electrodes

8. OVERLAP:
Overlap occurs due to the overflow of weld metal on the surface of base metal.
During welding, molten metal overflows on the base metal without fusing with the
base metal.

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Causes of Overlap:
1. Current too low
2. Large deposition in a single run
3. Longer arc
4. Slow arc travel speed

9. EXCESSIVE PENETRATION:
When the penetration of weld metal is too high, through the joints, then it is called as
excessive penetration. It acts as a notch where stress concentration takes place. In
addition to this, it results in economical wastage too.

Causes of Excessive Penetration:

1. Too wide a root gap
2. High welding current
3. Slow travel Speed

10. INCLUSION:
Any entrapped solid material (either metallic or non-metallic) in the weld metal, is
called as Inclusion. Tungsten, Oxides, Slag, and Flux are some of the common
foreign materials which are entrapped in the molten weld pool and form inclusion.
Inclusion may occur in most of the fusion welding processes but are very common
in flux shielded arc welding processes such as Shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), Flux core arc welding (FCAW), and Submerged arc welding (SAW).
Tungsten inclusion occurs in those welding processes which use “Tungsten” as
electrodes such as TIG welding and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Inclusions are of four types, these are;

• Tungsten Inclusion
• Oxide Inclusion
• Slag Inclusion
• Flux Inclusion
When slag gets entrapped and doesn’t get a chance to escape from the molten weld
pool then such inclusion is called as Slag Inclusion. Similarly, sometimes droplets of
tungsten get entrapped within the weld metal resulting in Tungsten Inclusion (in TIG
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welding or Plasma Arc Welding – PAW). Surface oxides also get entrapped resulting
in Oxide Inclusion. The words Flux and slag are often used interchangeably but they
are different. Flux is electrode coating (Solid material which covers the electrode)
whereas, Slag is a byproduct formed by the reaction between flux and the molten
weld pool metal.
Inclusion acts as a stress raiser hence should be avoided.

11. WAGON TRACKS:

Linear slag inclusion along the axis of the weld is called as wagon tracks. During root
pass, a groove is formed at the toe, due to wrong welding techniques, and that
groove is filled by slag (especially Hydrogen which has been trapped by the solidified
slag) and thus wagon tracks are formed. It is also known as worm tracks.

12. ARC STRIKE:

When the electrode or the electrode holder, unintentionally or accidentally strikes
with the workpiece, an unwanted arc is generated causing an arc strike. Arc strikes
may initiate failure in bending and cyclic loading. In addition to this, it also affects the
aesthetics of the workpiece.

13. SHRINKAGE CAVITY:

During solidification of the molten weld pool, metal shrinkage occurs. Due to the
shrinkage of weld metal, a cavity is formed known as the shrinkage cavity.

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Low Hydrogen electrodes are very popular in the industries because of the following
reasons;
• Ability to produce X-ray quality welds
• Good weld bead appearance
• Ability to weld thicker material with high deposition rates
• Less susceptible to failures and cracks especially Hydrogen Induced Cracks
• Sound weld metal properties with good toughness
• A smooth, stable and quiet arc with less spatters
• Good penetration and deposition rate
• Easy initiation of arc and good control over the arc for welders
• Faster post-weld cleaning
• Ability to join steels with poor weldability such as high carbon steels, low alloy
steels, etc.
The above benefits have made low hydrogen electrodes the first choice for welding
critical components that are prone to failures during service or which involves several
hazards and dangers.

Why low Hydrogen electrodes are so beneficial?

The reason behind the above-mentioned qualities lies in the covering or the flux
materials. The covering (flux) of a low Hydrogen electrode has two unique features;
1. Low Hydrogen content: The Hydrogen content or the amount of Hydrogen in the
covering of such electrodes is very low. A higher level of hydrogen in weld metal
possesses risks of brittle failures and delayed cracking or Hydrogen Induced
cracking. Hence, a lower level of hydrogen covering in the electrode will ensure that
only a limited amount of hydrogen will enter into the weld metal, which can prevent
the above-mentioned failures.
2. Contains basic minerals: The basic minerals in electrode coverings imply that
the chemicals present in the covering reduce the oxygen content in the weld and
minimize the harmful oxide inclusions at the grain boundaries of the microstructure,
which results in a cleaner weld with high toughness.

Which electrodes are known as Low Hydrogen

electrodes?
The following electrodes are known as low hydrogen electrodes;
• Exx15 (E7015)
• Exx16 (E7016)
• Exx18 (E6018, E7018)
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 • Exx28 (E7028)
• Exx48 (E7048)
The following table (Table – 1) gives a list of all low hydrogen electrodes, type of
covering, applicable welding positions and type of current and polarity
required.

Table – 1

Electrode Applicable Current

classification Type of welding and
(AWS 5.1) covering positions polarity

Low-hydrogen
potassium, iron AC or
E6018 powder F, V, OH, H DCEP

Low-hydrogen
E7015 sodium F, V, OH, H DCEP

Low-hydrogen AC or
E7016 potassium F, V, OH, H DCEP

Low-hydrogen
potassium, iron AC or
E7018 powder F, V, OH, H DCEP

Low-hydrogen
potassium, iron AC or
E7028 powder H-fillet, F DCEP

Low-hydrogen
potassium, iron F, OH, H, V- AC or
E7048 powder down DCEP

Where,
F – Flat, V – Vertical, OH – Overhead, H – Horizontal, H-fillet – Horizontal Fillet

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AC – Alternating Current
DCEP – Direct Current Electrode Positive (Reverse Polarity)

What happens if Hydrogen will be present in the weld

metal?
From the above discussion, it is clear that a low hydrogen electrode is used to
prevent failures or cracks by restricting Hydrogen from entering into the weld
metal. Nevertheless, what will happen if a significant amount of Hydrogen will enter
into the weld metal? or how the lower level of Hydrogen ensures good welding?
If a significant amount of Hydrogen atoms gets dissolved into the weld metal and
doesn’t get any chance to escape then delayed cracking occurs. Delayed cracks
may occur after several hours or days of solidification of weld metal.
Such cracks may occur parallel to the fusion boundary and within the heat-affected
zone or may originate in the weld deposit also. It is also known as underbead
cracking.
If molten weld puddle is rapidly cooled, then two things may happen;
1. The resulting crystal structure will be a mixture of ferrite and
carbide: Hydrogen is almost insoluble in ferrite, Hence the Hydrogen atoms will
escape or diffuse from the weld metal and the weld metal will be more ductile and
crack resistant.
2. The crystal structure will be transformed into martensite: The Hydrogen
atoms do not diffuse from a martensitic crystal structure and gets trapped in the weld
metal. Hence, chances of getting crack will be more. To prevent this preheating may
be carried out. Preheating of base metals essentially slows down the cooling rate
and helps in diffusion (escape) of Hydrogen atoms from weld metal

Baking of Low Hydrogen Electrodes:

Low-hydrogen electrodes must be kept free from moisture and other contaminants.
Because moisture/water is a potent source of hydrogen.
To prevent the electrodes from moisture contamination, they are frequently packed
and supplied in hermetically sealed containers.
The electrodes must be baked before using, as per the recommendation of the
manufacturer. However, preliminary guidance for baking is available in ASME
Section II Part C; an extract is available in table 2 of this article;

[Link]
Table -2

Electrodes (As per

AWS 5.1) Holding Ovens Drying Conditions

E6018
E7015
E7016
500°F to 800°F
E7018 50°F to 250°F
[260°C to 425°C]
E7028 [30°C to 140°C]
1 to 2 hours at
E7048 temperature

The E7018 electrode is one of the most preferred low hydrogen electrodes in the
industries. It contains a sufficient amount of iron powder in the covering and works
best if used with direct current reverse polarity (DCEP).
Due to the presence of iron powder, a higher deposition rate is achieved and it quiets
the metal transfer. The weld quality and bead appearance are very good.
The coverings of E7018 and E7015 electrodes are similar, except for the addition of
a slightly higher percentage of iron powder in E7018 covering. The coverings on
these electrodes are relatively thicker than those of the E7016 electrodes.
The E7016 is designed for direct current AC; The E7015 is similar to the E7016 but
operates with DC.
The covering of the E7028 electrode is quite thick and contains a high iron powder
content. Their deposition rate is the highest among all the low-hydrogen electrode
types. However, they can be used in a horizontal and flat position.
The E7048 class is similar to the E7018 type but designed for downhill applications
only

Mandatory and Optional Supplemental Designators

on electrodes:
An electrode is identified by the following.
mandatory classification designators
optional supplemental designators
For Example, EXXXX-1 HZR
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The first four-letter after ‘E’ are known as mandatory classification
designators and the digits and numbers given after hyphen (-) are known as
optional supplemental designators and these are optional hence may be used
depending upon the requirements.
Now, we will understand the meaning of mandatory classification designators;
In E7018:
The letter ‘E’ stands for an electrode
The first two digits i.e. ‘70’ denotes the minimum tensile strength i.e. 70 Ksi (or 70000
Psi)
The second last digit i.e. ‘1’ indicates the position in which the electrode can be used.
In particular, the letter ‘1’ depicts all positions
The last two digits together show the polarity and the flux composition of the
electrode.
As we have understood about the mandatory electrode designators, now we will
understand about the optional supplemental designators;

In EXXXX-1 HZ R
‘1’ indicates that the electrodes (E7016, E7018, or E7024) meet the requirements for
improved;
Toughness for electrode E7016 and E7018
Ductility for electrode E7024
‘HZ’ Designates that the electrode meets the requirements of the diffusible hydrogen
test with an average value not exceeding “Z” mL of Hydrogen per 100 g of deposited
metal, where “Z” is 4, 8, or 16.
For Example, E7018-H4R indicates 4ml (avg) diffusible hydrogen content in 100g of
deposited weld metal
Finally, the last optional designator i.e. ‘R’ Designates that the electrode meets the
requirements of the absorbed moisture test. The electrode is exposed to an
environment of 80°F [27°C]/80% relative humidity (RH) for not less than nine hours
by any suitable method for the moisture test.

The selection of right welding electrodes is a quite challenging job because we

need to consider many factors while choosing the best alternative. In this article, we
will discuss the various factors responsible for choosing the right welding electrode
for the Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process (SMAW) for Carbon steels. The Shielded
metal arc welding electrodes are always covered by flux and the electrode’s name

[Link]
starts with E followed by either a four-digit number or a five-digit number for example
E7018, E6010, E6013, E10018, etc.
Each letter and digit have a specific meaning, for example: in E7018 the letter ‘E’
stands for Electrode, ‘70’ denotes the minimum tensile strength i.e. 70 Ksi (or 70000
Psi) for this case, the second last digit i.e. ‘1’ indicates the position in which the
electrode can be used. In particular, the letter ‘1’ depicts all position and the last two
digits together shows the polarity and the flux composition of the electrode.
As discussed earlier, we need to consider various factors before choosing an
electrode. These factors are as under;
1. Base metal or Parent Metal
2. Welding Position
3. Power Supply
4. Joint Preparation
5. Welding Quality/Weld finish
6. Welding Cost
We will discuss these factors one by one. Please note that a selection chart for
choosing the correct welding electrode based on the parent material (in PDF format)
is given at the end of this article.
1. Base Metal or Parent Metal: Base Metal or Parent Metal is one of the most
important factors to be considered while selecting an electrode. We need to take into
consideration three following parameters;
a. Base metal mechanical properties: The mechanical properties especially the
tensile strength of the electrode and that of the base metal should be similar
or as close as possible. In case of wide differences in tensile strength between the
welding electrode and the base metal, there will always be chances of cracking and
other welding discontinuities. Hence to prevent cracking and other welding
discontinuities we should always choose an electrode having minimum tensile
strength equivalent to the parent metal being welded.
b. Base metal chemical properties: The chemical properties shall also be checked
before choosing an electrode. The chemical composition of the electrode should
match the chemical composition of the base metal, especially the carbon
percentage. However, practically it’s not possible to match every parameter of an
electrode with the base metal. Hence we need to choose an electrode having
chemical properties as close as possible with the parent metal.
c. Base metal thickness: Base metal thickness is very important while choosing an
electrode. For thinner materials, an electrode with soft arc and less penetrating
power can give good results but for thicker material we need and electrode with

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digging arc for deep penetration, maximum ductility, and low hydrogen for defect-
free welding.
We should always keep in mind that the electrode size (diameter) should not be more
than the thickness of the parent metal.
2. Welding Position: The second factor is the welding position. Each electrode is
meant for welding at some particular position. Hence we need to choose electrode
as per the position of our job. The welding position is specified in the electrode name
itself i.e the second last digit gives the position for example: in the E7018 electrode,
the second last digit i.e. 1 give the position for which the electrode can be used. A
general summary of the welding position for electrodes are given below (Table 1);
Table 1

Welding electrode position table for selection of an electrode

3. Power Supply: Some electrodes can be used with alternating Power (AC) supply,
some can be used with direct current power (DC) supply and Some electrodes work
well with both AC as well as DC. Hence, depending upon the power output of the
welding machine we can choose the electrode. For example, if the machine is
capable of giving only AC output, then we will not be able to use the electrodes which
are not meant for AC. However, if the welding machine is capable of both AC as well
as DC output then we can choose from a broader range of electrodes.
When using Direct Current (DC) power supply, if the electrode is connected with the
positive terminal of the machine then it is known as Direct current electrode
positive (DCEP) or reverse polarity and, if the electrode is connected with the
negative terminal of the machine then it is known as Direct current electrode negative
(DCEN) or straight polarity. DCEP is the preferred polarity for most of the Shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) operations. However please refer to Table-2 for the
correct polarity in which welding electrodes can be used.
The last two digits of the electrode name denotes the polarity as well as the flux of
the electrode. Please see the table given below (Table 2) for a summary of
electrodes and the polarity in which they can be used.
Table 2

[Link]
Table for the polarity of arc welding electrodes, to be considered while choosing an
electrode
4. Joint Preparation: The fourth factor to be considered while selecting an electrode
is the joint preparation or groove configuration. It there is a tight fit-up or unbevelled
root face then an electrode with a digging arc can be used, which can provide deeper
penetration. Electrodes such as E6010 or E6011 can be used for this purpose. If
there is sufficient root gap and beveled root face, then we can use electrodes which
can give shallow to moderate penetration such as E6013 or E7018.
Depending upon the operating characteristics, Grouping of SMAW electrodes can
be done in the following ways;
• Fast-Freeze electrodes
• Fast-Fill electrodes
• Fill-Freeze electrodes
• Low Hydrogen electrodes
Fast-Freeze electrodes (EXX10/EXX11) are those which can solidify quickly and
are capable of giving forceful arc which helps in deep penetration and slag
formation is quite low. Whereas The Fast-Fill
electrodes (EXX22/EXX24/EXX24/EXX27/EXX28) can be melted very quickly with
a high deposition rate and travel speed is also very high. However, these electrodes
produce heavy slag.
The third type of electrodes i.e. Fill-Freeze electrodes (EXX12/EXX13/EXX14) is a
compromise between the fast-freeze electrodes and fast-fill electrodes, hence the
Fill-Freeze electrodes possess characteristics in-between the Fast-fill and the Fast
freeze electrodes. These electrodes are having medium penetration and medium
deposition rate hence very useful for Thin/Sheet metal welding.
The fourth type of electrodes is Low Hydrogen Electrodes (EXX15/EXX16/EXX18).
Some Low Hydrogen Electrodes are having characteristics similar to fast-fill and
some are having similar to Fill-Freeze. But they have been grouped separately

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because of their Low Hydrogen properties. These electrodes produce excellent
welding with high ductility and good notch toughness.
In case of a low diameter pipe, back-chipping and welding from the other side (ID
side) can,t be done due to inaccessibility, hence a deeper penetration is always
required. Hence we can select Fast-Freeze electrodes like E6010 for that case. To
weld Sheet Metal or material with very low thickness, we can choose Fill-Freeze
electrodes like E6013, because of it’s medium penetration characteristics. Hence
Selection of electrodes can be done in this way too.
5. Welding Quality/Weld finish: The required quality and the weld finishing is also
an important factor to be considered before selecting an electrode. Electrodes can
be chosen depending upon the final finishing requirement for example Flat weld
bead, concave weld bead, or convex weld bead. The quality of the weld must suit
the service requirements of the job. For example, to weld cryogenic vessel parts that
are supposed to work at very extreme temperature and pressure with high impact
loading or parts that are subjected to a corrosive atmosphere, we need a low
hydrogen electrode such as E7018, which can produce very sound welding with
higher ductility. So the chances of getting any weld defect during operation will be
minimized. Table 3 gives a summary of the features of welding electrodes, which you
may find useful while selecting an electrode for a particular job.
Table 3

[Link]
[Link]
6. Welding Cost: Finally, the cost of the electrode should be considered according
to your project requirement. We cannot choose a costly electrode for a low budget
project. Similarly, for critical jobs where quality needs to be given utmost care a low
hydrogen electrode with higher ductility such as E7018 can be considered to meet
the quality requirements.
Hence, While selecting the welding electrodes the above factors can be considered
to get the required result.
TIG Welding (GTAW) Electrodes
In GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) also known as TIG welding (Tungsten Inert
Gas welding), a non consumable electrode (made up of Tungsten) is used. Tungsten
is preferred due to high its high melting point (approximately 3,4100C) and high
hardness. Either pure tungsten is used as electrode or it can be alloyed with other
elements. These electrodes come in a variety of sizes and lengths. These electrodes
are color coded to distinguish it from others. The color appears at the tip of the
electrode. Different types of TIG welding electrodes are as follows;
Pure Tungsten (Color Code: Green)
Thoriated (Color Code: Red)
Ceriated (Color Code: Orange)
Lanthanated (Color Code: Gold)
Zirconiated (Color Code: Brown)
Rare Earth (Color Code: Gray)

Pure Tungsten:
• Color Code – Green
• AWS Classification – EWP
• 99.50 % Tungsten
• Ideal for AC welding
• Excellent arc stability
• Less expensive
Thoriated:

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 • Color Code: Red
• AWS Classification – EWTh-2
• Tungsten (97.30% min.) + Thorium (1.70% to 2.20%)
• Also known as 2 percent thorium
• Preferred for longevity and ease of use
• Can be used with both AC as well as DC
• Expensive and radioactive material
Ceriated:
• Color Code: Orange
• AWS Classification – EWCe-2
• Tungsten (97.30% min.) + Cerium (1.80% to 2.20%)
• Also known as 2 percent ceriated
• Preferably used with DC welding
Lanthanated:
• Color Code: Gold
• AWS Classification – EWLa-1.5
• Tungsten (97.80% min.) + Lanthanum (1.30% to 1.70%)
• Also known as 1.5 percent lanthanated
• Arc initiation excellent and very stable
• General purpose can be used for carbon steel and stainless steel
• Can be used with both AC and DC
Zirconiated:
• Color Code: Brown
• AWS Classification – EWZr-1
• Tungsten (99.10% min.) + Zirconium (0.15% to 0.40%)
• Also known as 2 percent Zirconiated
• Suitable for AC welding
Rare Earth:
• Color Code: Gray
• AWS Classification – EWG
• Contains additives of rare-earth oxides (% unspecified)
• Polarity depends upon the percentage of the rare earth oxides
• Wide range of applications

GMAW (MIG Welding) electrode specification

GMAW (MIG welding) electrodes are designated by some letters and numbers such
as ER70S-6, ER90S-6 and E308L etc. I will explain the meaning of these symbols:
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FOR CARBON STEEL OR MILD STEEL (SUCH AS ER70S-6 OR ER70S-3)

Where,
ER – Designates electrode or filler rod
XX – Designates the minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld metal
S – Stands for solid wire
Y – Designates the chemical composition of the additives such as deoxidizing
agent or cleansing agent used on the electrode, it may affect the polarity setting
also.
FOR EXAMPLE:
ER70S-6
Where,
ER – Designates a welding electrode or filler wire
70 – Designates the minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld metal shall be
70 Ksi or 70,000 Psi
S – Stands for solid wire
6 – Reflects the amount of oxidizing agent and cleansing agent on the electrode. In
particular the number 6 means that more deoxidizers have been added to the wire,
which is helpful when welding on dirty or rusty steel.
FOR STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless steel electrodes are designated in a slight different way. Some of the
commonly used stainless steel electrodes are ER308L and ER309L etc. Meaning of
these symbols is explained below;
ER308L
Where;
ER – Stands for electrode or filler wire

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308 – Designates the grade of stainless steel of the electrode or filler wire
L – Designates that it is a low carbon electrode

FOR ALUMINIUM
For Aluminum, electrodes are designated as ER4043, ER5350 etc. These electrodes
are designated in a different way. For example;
ER4043
Where,
ER – Stands for electrode or filler wire
4 – Designates series of Aluminum of which the electrode is made from. In this case
it’s a 4000 series Aluminum
043 – Reflects the amount of silicone added to the electrode

SHIELDING GAS:
GMAW requires a shielding gas, to protect the weld pool from atmospheric
contamination. Following gases are used as shielding gas;
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Helium
(NOTE: Whenever Carbon dioxide is used as shielding gas in Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW). The term MAG (Metal Actve Gas) welding is used, because Carbon
dioxide is an active gas. Whereas, other shielding gases such as Argon and Helium
are inert in nature. Hence, whenever theses gases are used as shielding gas, the
term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding is used.)
These gases are used alone or a combination of gases can also be used. Commonly
used combinations of inert gases are;
75% Argon + 25% Carbon Dioxide (most popular combination)
98% Argon + 2% Carbon Dioxide
Argon helps in achieving cleaner weld whereas, Carbon dioxide helps in getting a
deeper penetration. Carbon dioxide can be used alone also and it is effective while
welding thinner metals.
Relationship between filler wire diameter, current range and wire feed speed:

[Link]
In MIG/MAG welding, Voltage, Current and wire feed speed must be controlled for
sound welding
The Voltage controls the weld profile. Whereas, the Current controls the heat input,
size of weld and the depth of penetration.
The following table (Table – 1) gives the current range and the filler wire feed speed,
based on the filler wire diameter. This table is just a guide and the ranges may vary
depending upon the shielding gas and parent metal.
Table – 1

Wire feed
Diameter Current speed
[Link]. (mm) Range (A) (m/min)

1 0.6 40 – 100 2–5

2 0.8 40 – 150 3–6

3 1.0 100 – 280 3 – 12

4 1.2 120 – 350 4 – 18

Welding electrodes – Understanding the SMAW electrode symbols

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) electrodes are designated by “E” followed by
four (or five) digits for example: E7018, E6013 or E10018. I will explain the meaning
of these symbols:
IF THE ELECTRODE HAS “E” FOLLOWED BY FOUR DIGITS (FOR EX. E7018)

E – Stands for electrode

XX – First two digits designates the minimum tensile strength in Ksi (XX * 1000 Psi)
X – Second last digit designates position for which the electrode can be used
1 – Flat, Vertical, Overhead and horizontal (All
Position) 2 – Horizontal-Fillet & Flat
3 – Flat, Horizontal,
Overhead and Vertical-downwards XX – Last two

[Link]
digits together shows two things
Polarity in which electrode can be used
Flux composition
IF THE ELECTRODE HAS “E” FOLLOWED BY FIVE DIGITS (FOR EX. E10018)

E – Stands for electrode

XXX – First three digits designates the minimum tensile strength in Ksi (XX* 1000
Psi) X – Second last digit is for position, in
which the electrode can be used
1 – Flat, Vertical, Overhead and horizontal (All Position)
2 – Horizontal-Fillet & Flat
3 – Flat, Horizontal, Overhead and Vertical-downwards
XX – Last two digits together shows two things
Polarity in which electrode can be used
Flux composition
Flux Composition details (Last two digits of the electrodes)
10 – High Cellulose Sodium
11 – High Cellulose Potassium
12 – High Titania Sodium
13 – High Titania Potassium
14 – Iron powder, Titania
15 – Low-Hydrogen Sodium
16 – Low-Hydrogen Potassium
18 – Low-hydrogen potassium, iron powder
19 – Iron oxide Titania Potassium
20 – High Iron Oxide
22 – High Iron Oxide
24 – Iron power, Titania
27 – High Iron Oxide, Iron powder
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28 – Low-Hydrogen Potassium, Iron powder
48 – Low-Hydrogen Potassium, Iron powder
For example, E7018 means;

The following image shows shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) electrodes;

SOME OPTIONAL INFORMATION MAY ALSO BE GIVEN SUCH AS:

EXXXX-1
1 designates that it will meet improved toughness OR ductility
EXXXX-H4R
“H4” designates that it will meet 4ml average diffusible hydrogen content with 100
grams of weld deposit
“R” identifies electrodes passing the absorbed moisture test
SOME OF THE MOST POPULAR ELECTRODES AND THEIR MEANING ARE
GIVEN BELOW:
E6010 = High cellulose sodium flux. DCEP for flat, vertical, overhead, and horizontal
positions
E6011 = High cellulose potassium flux. AC or DCEP for flat, vertical, overhead, and
horizontal positions
E6012 = High titania sodium flux. AC or DCEN for flat, vertical, overhead, and
horizontal positions.
E6013 = High titania potassium flux. AC, DCEP, or DCEN for flat, vertical, overhead,
and horizontal positions.

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E7018 = low-hydrogen potassium, iron powder flux. AC or DCEP for flat, vertical,
overhead, and horizontal positions.
Abbreviations: AC – Alternating Current
DCEP – Direct current electrode positive (Reverse Polarity)
DCEN – Direct current electrode Negative (Straight Polarity)
Typical current (Amperage) ranges for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
electrodes are given below (Table 1);
Table 1

Note: Typical current (Amperage) ranges for carbon steel electrodes used in
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) electrodes can be found in table A4 of ASME
Section IIC (SFA 5.1/SFA 5.1M).

[Link]
This article is about different welding test positions used in Plate Welding, Pipe
Welding & Stud Welding.
Plate Welding Test Positions
In plate welding, we have four different positions namely;
• Flat position (1G or 1F)
• Horizontal Position (2G or 2F)
• Vertical Position (3G or 3F)
• Overhead Position (4G or 4F)
Note: 1. G Designates groove welding (V-groove, J-groove, U-groove etc.)
2. F Designates fillet welds (“T” – Joint, Lap Joint etc.)
FLAT WELDING POSITION (1G OR 1F)

In flat welding the welders head remains above the test coupon.
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION (2G OR 2F)

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In horizontal weld position, movement of electrode shall be in horizontal plane. We
have two different welding techniques in horizontal welding, these are;
• Rightward technique
• Leftward Technique
VERTICAL WELDING POSITION (3G OR 3F)

In vertical weld position, movement of electrode shall be in vertical plane. We have

two different welding methods in vertical welding, these are;
• Uphill
• Downhill
OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION (4G OR 4F)

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Overhead position is one of the most difficult positions because welder has to work
against the gravity. In overhead welding, the test coupon (or workpiece) remains
above the head of the welder.
Pipe Welding Test Positions
In pipe grove welding, we have four positions;
• 1G (Rotated)
• 2G
• 5G
• 6G (Inclined at 450)

In pipe fillet welding, we have five positions;

• 1F (Rotated)
• 2F
• 2FR (Rotated)
• 4F
• 5F

[Link]
[Link]
Stud Welding Test Positions
In stud welds, we have three positions, namely;
• 1S
• 2S
• 4S

The 1S position is more or less like flat position, welders head will be above the weld
joint.
2S position is similar to horizontal position, welder will move the electrode in
horizontal plane.
4S position is similar to overhead position, welder’s head will be below the welding
joint.

Introduction:
Aluminum is found on the earth in its oxidized form known as Bauxite. Bauxite is
refined to produce Alumina (Aluminium Oxide – Al2O3). Approximately 40% – 60%
Alumina i.e. Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) can be extracted from Bauxite.
The Hall-Héroult electrolysis process (invented in 1886) further processes Alumina
(Aluminum Oxide-Al2O3) to separate it from oxygen. This process made possible
the production of Aluminium on a large scale and significantly reduced the production
cost too.
Some of the very important properties of Aluminum that makes it a very lucrative
metal are;
• It is highly resistant to corrosion
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 • It is non-toxic
• Possesses good electrical and thermal conductivity
• It is nonmagnetic.
• Retains good ductility at sub-zero temperatures

Aluminum and aluminum alloys are very suitable for critical applications such as;
• Space, aircraft, and marine industries
• Vessels and storage tanks
• Automotive industries
• Structural applications and many such consumer products.
[NOTE: ‘Aluminum’ and ‘Aluminium’ are essentially the same. The word ‘Aluminium’
is very popular in Non-American English.]

Melting point of Aluminium:

The melting point of pure Aluminum is 660°C (1220°F). However, the melting point
of the Aluminum alloys varies from 480°C to 660°C (900°F to 1220°F), depending
on the alloying element.
Density of Aluminium:
The density of aluminum is;
• 2.7 g/cm³ (2,710 kg/m³)
• 168.56 lbs/ft³ (0.0975 lbs/in³)

Major alloying elements (with Aluminium):

Major alloying elements are copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, and Zinc, etc.
Aluminum alloys are identified by a 4 digit number. The first digit represents the major
alloying element, please see the table below;

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As explained above, the first digit represents the major alloying elements. However,
the last three digits represent the following;
For 1XXX series (Pure Aluminum group):
• The second digit indicates a consecutive modification of an original alloy
• The last two digits indicate the minimum percentage of Aluminium
For alloys in the 2XXX – 9XXX series (Aluminum with major alloying elements):
• The second digit indicates a consecutive modification of an original alloy
• The last two digits have no significance, it only shows that this particular
series of metal belongs to the Aluminium alloy group.
1XXX Series:
This series is often regarded as the pure aluminum group. These alloys have the
following characteristics;
The aluminum content shall be more than 99.0% in this group of alloys
The ultimate tensile strength for this group of alloys is between 69 MPa to 186 MPa
(10 ksi to 27 ksi)
They have superior corrosion resistance and hence suitable for specialized chemical
tanks and pipings

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Good electrical conductivity hence suitable for bus bar applications
Comparatively poor mechanical properties hence not suitable for structural
applications
These alloys are not heat treatable
They have a very narrow melting range but are weldable
Can be welded with a matching filler metal (1XXX series) or with the filler alloys of
4XXX
Most common alloys in this group are the following;
• 1060 (99.60% minimum aluminum) – Used in chemical process equipment,
tanks, and piping.
• 1100 (99.00% minimum aluminum) – Used in architectural and decorative
applications, furniture, deep drawn parts, etc.
• 1350 (99.50% minimum aluminum) – Used in electrical conductor wire, bus,
and cable
2XXX Series:
The major Alloying element in this group of materials is copper along with aluminum,
also called as Aluminium-Copper (Al-Cu) group.
The amount of copper varies from 0.7% to 6.8%. These alloys have the following
characteristics;
Possesses high strength over a wide range of temperatures hence suitable for
aerospace and aircraft applications
Some of the alloys in the 2XXX series are not considered weldable by arc welding
processes because of their susceptibility to hot cracking and stress-corrosion
cracking; however, other alloys in this series can be welded by arc processes.
These alloys are heat treatable
Can be welded with a matching filler metal (High strength filler of 2XXX series) or
with the filler alloys of 4XXX series, which contain silicon (Si) or silicon and copper.
Most common alloys in this group are the following;
2014 – Used in structures, structural and hydraulic fittings, hardware, and heavy-
duty forgings for aircraft or automotive uses.
2017 – Usage similar to 2014 and screw machine parts.
2024 – Used in structural, aircraft sheet construction, truck wheel and used for
cladding for good corrosion resistance
2036 – Used in the automotive body sheet.

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2090 – Used in Structural work, high strength, and damage tolerant aerospace
applications.
2218 – Used in pistons, engine cylinders, forging alloy and parts which require good
strength and hardness at a higher temperature.
2219 – Used in structural work, aerospace tanks
3XXX Series:
The major Alloying element in this group of materials is manganese along with
aluminum, also called as aluminium-manganese (Al-Mn) alloys group.
The amount of manganese ranges from 0.05% to 1.8%. These alloys have the
following characteristics;
The ultimate tensile strength for this group of alloys is between 110 MPa to 283 MPa
(16 ksi to 41 ksi).
These alloys are not heat treatable
Moderate strength, good corrosion resistance, excellent formability, suitable for use
at elevated temperatures hence used for manufacturing of heat exchangers.
Due to moderate, not suitable for structural applications
Can be welded with filler alloys from the 1XXX, 4XXX, and 5XXX series, depending
on their chemical compositions
Most common alloys in this group are the following;
3003 – Used in Process and food handling equipment, chemical, and petroleum
drums and tanks, and general-purpose applications where slightly higher strength
than 1100 is required.
3004 – Used in sheet metal which requires higher strength than 3003.
4XXX Series:
The major Alloying element in this group of materials is silicon along with aluminum,
also called as aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys group.
The amount of silicon varies from 0.6% to 21.5%. These alloys have the following
characteristics;
The ultimate tensile strength for this group of alloys is between 172 MPa to 379 MPa
(25 ksi to 55 ksi)
This series of alloys are mainly used as filler metals for both fusion welding and
brazing

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5XXX Series:
The major Alloying element in this group of materials is magnesium along with
aluminum, also called as aluminum-magnesium (Al-Mg) alloys group.
The amount of magnesium varies from 0.2% to 6.2%. These alloys have the following
characteristics.
The ultimate tensile strength for this group of alloys is between 124 MPa to 352 MPa
(18 ksi to 51 ksi)
They have the highest strength among the not heat treatable alloys
This series of alloys have good weldability
These alloys are used in a wide variety of structural applications, such as
components of ships, vehicles, bridges and pressure vessels, etc.
Most common alloys in this group are the following;
5005 – Used in the electrical conductor and architectural applications
5050 – Similar to 3003 and 5005 but stronger. Good finishing qualities
5052, 5652 – Used in Sheet metal applications that require higher strength than
5050. Good corrosion resistance, Storage tanks, boats, appliances.
5083 – Used in cryogenics structures, unfired pressure vessels, marine components,
tanks, railroad cars, drilling rigs.
5086 – Used in marine components, tanks, tankers, truck frames.
5154, 5254 – Used in unfired pressure vessels and tankers
5454 – Used in structural applications and tanks for sustained high-temperature
service
5456 – Used in structures, tanks, unfired pressure vessels, marine components
6XXX Series:
Major Alloying element in this group of materials is magnesium and silicone along
with aluminum, also called as Aluminium-Magnesium-silicon (Al-Mg-Si) alloys group.
The amount of magnesium and silicone is around 1.0%. These alloys have the
following characteristics.
These alloys are heat treatable
The ultimate tensile strength for this group of alloys is between 124 MPa to 400 MPa
(18 ksi to 58 ksi).
These alloys can be welded with filler metals from the 4XXX and 5XXX series
Most common alloys in this group are the following;

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6009 – Used in the automotive body sheet
6010 – Used in the automotive body sheet
6013 – Used in general structural applications, it has improved strength over 6061
6061 – Used in structural work, architectural, automobile, railway, and marine
applications, pipe, and pipe fittings. This alloy possesses good strength, corrosion
resistance, good formability, and good weldability
6063 – Used in Pipe, railings, hardware, and architectural applications
6070 – Used in structural applications and piping
6101 – Used for electrical conductors
6262 – Used for Screw machine products and fittings
6351 – Usage similar to 6061
6951 – Used in brazing sheet core alloy
7XXX Series:
The major Alloying element in this group of materials is zinc along with aluminum,
also known as Aluminum-zinc (Al-Zn) alloys group.
The amount of zinc varies from 0.8% to 12.0%. These alloys have the following
characteristics;
These alloys are among the highest-strength aluminum alloys and very suitable for
high-performance applications, such as aircraft and aerospace components.
The common base metals in this series are 7003 and 7005 and can be welded with
the 5XXX series filler metal.
Most common alloys in this group are the following;
7004 – Used in truck trailer and railcar extruded shapes
7005 – Used in truck trailer and railcar extruded shapes
7039 – used in Armor plate
7075 – used in High-strength aircraft and other applications; cladding gives good
corrosion resistance
7079 – used in massive parts for aircraft and allied construction
7178 – Used for Aircraft construction, strength slightly higher

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Welding is a process of permanently joining two parts by the application of heat and
(or) pressure. Filler metal may be added to the joint depending on the welding
process and the type of joint.

The American Welding Society (AWS) has recognized more than 50 different types
of welding processes, some of them are very popular among the industries such
as Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding, Gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) also known as MIG/MAG welding process, Gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) or TIG Welding, Submerged arc welding (SAW) and Flux-cored arc welding
(FCAW), etc. Whereas, some are very specific and limited to a few industries such
as Ultrasonic welding (USW) and Diffusion welding (DFW), etc.
Welding processes are broadly divided into two types;
1. Pressure Welding Process
2. Fusion Welding Process
In the pressure welding process, joining is done by the application of external
pressure or force at the area of contact, which causes more or less plastic
deformation of both contact surfaces. The facing surfaces are heated to some extent
in order to permit or facilitate permanent bonding.
Usually, the heat used during the pressure welding process is much less than the
melting point of the base metal. Generally, the additional filler metal is not required
during these types of welding techniques. Resistance welding and Diffusion welding
are examples of the pressure welding process.
Whereas, In the Fusion welding process, joining is done by melting the base metals
in the area of contact. No external pressure or force is required during fusion welding
processes and very often filler metal is also used. The arc welding process is one of
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the most popular welding processes, which belongs to the family of the fusion
welding process. Commonly used fusion welding processes are;

1. Arc Welding
• SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding or Stick Welding)
• GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding or MIG welding)
• GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or TIG Welding)
• SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
• FCAW (Flux Cored ARC Welding)
• PAW (Plasma Arc Welding)
• Carbon Arc Welding
• Stud Welding
2. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
3. Electron beam welding
4. Laser beam welding
5. Thermit Welding
6. Electroslag Welding
Some of the pressure welding processes are:
1. Resistance Welding
• Spot Welding
• Seam Welding
• Projection Welding
• Flash Welding
• Upset Welding
• Percussion Welding
2. Diffusion welding (DFW)
3. Friction welding (FRW)
4. Ultrasonic welding (USW)

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5. Cold Pressure Welding
6. Forge welding
7. Explosion welding (EXW)

This is how the welding processes are classified. To read more about these welding
processes please click on the below links;
• SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding or Stick Welding)
• GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding or MIG welding)
• GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or TIG Welding)
• SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
• FCAW (Flux Cored ARC Welding)
• PAW (Plasma Arc Welding)
1. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process in which the heat required for
welding is generated by a constricted arc between a non-consumable electrode and
the workpiece.
Plasma Arc Welding is essentially an extension of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW). Like GTAW, a non-consumable electrode is used in Plasma Arc Welding
(PAW). However, a different technique is used to deliver the heat for welding in
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW).
The welding torch used in Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) contains two nozzles an inner
nozzle for orifice gas and an outer nozzle for shielding gas (See Figure 1).
Figure 1

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The inner nozzle contains orifice gas which surrounds the electrode. The orifice gas
is a neutral gas that gets converted into a plasma state (the fourth state of matter)
when an arc is ignited in the chamber. The arc heats the orifice gas to a temperature
at which the electrons present in the atoms of orifice gas leave their orbit, due to
which, the orifice gas becomes ionized. The ionized gases come out from the orifice
of the nozzle as a “plasma jet stream”. Plasma is a good conductor of electricity.
Plasma emanates from the nozzle of the orifice at a temperature of about 16,700°C
(30,000°F), creating a narrow, constricted arc pattern that provides excellent
directional control and produces a very favorable depth-to-width weld profile.
The outer nozzle contains shielding gas like Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
The shielding gas covers the area of arc plasma impingement on the workpiece to
avoid contamination of the weld. Shielding gas may be the same as the orifice gas
or it may be different from orifice gas.
Some important terms used in Plasma Arc Welding:
Electrode Setback: The distance between the tip of the electrode and the face of the
constricting nozzle is known as electrode setback (see Figure 1).
Torch Standoff Distance: The distance between the outer face of the constricting
nozzle and the workpiece is known as the torch standoff distance (see Figure 1).
Plenum or Plenum Chamber: The space between the inside wall of the constricting
nozzle and the electrode is known as the plenum or plenum chamber (see Figure 1).
Equipment:
Plasma arc welding can be performed in manual, mechanized, or robotic operations.
However, for manual plasma arc welding following items are used:
• A Power Source
• A Welding Torch
• A Plasma Control Console,
• Gases (Orifice and Shielding gas)
• Torch coolant
Other accessories such as remote control for current, gas flow timers and an on-off
switch
Power Source: The power source used for plasma arc welding is similar to that used
for TIG welding (GTAW). Both GTAW as well as PAW processes use constant-
current power sources and a high-frequency source for arc starting.
Welding Torch: A Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) torch has the following features:
It holds the electrode and allows current to pass through the electrode
Inner nozzle for the supply of orifice gas or plasma gas

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Outer nozzle for the supply of shielding gas
Plasma Control Console: The crucial control systems of plasma arc welding are
encompassed in a plasma console also known as plasma control console or console.
The console is generally integrated with the primary power source, but it can also be
available as a separate stand-alone unit. A typical plasma control console includes
controls for the following;
• Plasma gas flow
• shielding gas flow
• the pilot arc current
Gases (Orifice gas/Shielding gas): Selection of gases for plasma arc welding
depends on the following criteria;
• welding position
• joint configuration
• Base metal
Shielding gas is often the same as the orifice gas for many plasma arc welding
applications. However, some advantages can be observed when a different gas is
used for certain applications.
Orifice Gas: The orifice gas should be inert with respect to the electrode to avoid the
rapid deterioration of the electrode. To enhance the electrode life 99.99% pure orifice
gas must be used. Flow rates for orifice gases are generally between 0.1 liters per
minute (L/min) to 5 L/min. The most commonly used orifice gases are;
• Argon
• Argon – Hydrogen Mixture
Shielding Gas: Generally inert gases are used as shielding gas. However, an active
gas can also be used for shielding if it is not considered to adversely affect weld
properties. Following gases are used for shielding the weld pool;
• Argon
• Argon – Hydrogen mixture
• Argon-helium mixture
• Carbon Dioxide
Flow rates for shielding gases are usually in the range of 5 L/min to 15 L/min for low-
current applications. For high-current welding, flow rates of 15 L/min to 32 L/min are
used.
Coolant System: Plasma Arc Welding requires a cooling system. A cooling system
should consist of a coolant reservoir, radiator, pump, flow sensor, and control
switches. Corrosion-resistant materials are used for the construction of the liquid-
contacting surfaces.

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Electrodes: Like GTAW, tungsten electrodes are used in Plasma Arc Welding
(PAW). Tungsten electrodes with small additions of thorium, lanthanum, or cerium
can be used for PAW with straight polarity (DCEN). Pure tungsten and zirconiated
electrodes are seldom used in plasma arc welding because the electrode tip
geometry cannot be maintained. To learn more about tungsten electrodes,
Filler Metal: The filler metal is added externally (if required). In the case of manual
welding, filler metal in form of rods is used. Whereas, filler metal in wire form is used
for mechanized or robotic welding. Filler metal specification is the same as that used
in gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). To learn more about tungsten electrodes,
ARC MODES:
Two types of arc modes are used in plasma arc welding, these are;
• Transferred Arc Mode
• Non-Transferred Arc Mode.
In transferred arc mode, the electrode is connected to one terminal of the power
source (Generally with Negative polarity) and the workpiece is connected with the
other terminal (Positive terminal). Hence the workpiece becomes a part of the
electrical circuit (the nozzle remains intact), and heat is obtained from the anode spot
on the workpiece and the plasma jet.
In the non-transferred arc mode, the electrode is connected to one terminal of the
power source (generally with negative polarity) and the nozzle is connected with the
other terminal (positive terminal). Hence, the arc is established and maintained
between the electrode and the constricting orifice. The workpiece remains out of the
electrical arc circuit. non-transferred arc mode is suitable for cutting and joining
nonconductive materials.
Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):
• The constricted opening yields high heat concentration in a smaller area
• It gives deeper penetration and produces a sound weld
• Less current input as compared to another welding process
• The distance between torch and workpiece (standoff distance) does not affect
the arc formation
• Can achieve faster travel speeds
• Less heat-affected zone (HAZ) if compared to GTAW (Gas tungsten arc
welding)
• It is more stable and does not gets deflected from the base metal
Limitations of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):
• PAW equipment are relatively costly, hence start-up costs are high
• The safety concern is high due to harmful radiations
• PAW is a very noisy process

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 • A highly skilled operator is required
(OFW) Oxy-Fuel Welding (Gas Welding/Oxy-Acetylene Welding)
Oxy-fuel welding (OFW) is also known as Gas welding or Oxy-fuel gas welding. The
term ‘Oxy-fuel’ is used to denote a combination of Oxygen and a Fuel gas, means it’s
a process in which Oxygen and a fuel (combustible gas) both are required. Most
commonly used fuel gas is Acetylene and thus the name Oxy-Acetylene welding
(OAW) is also used for this process, when Acetylene is used as a fuel gas. Apart
from Oxy-Acetylene welding, other common variants of Oxyfuel gas welding are
• Air Acetylene welding (AAW)
• Oxy Hydrogen welding (OHW)
• Pressure gas welding (PGW)
The required heat for welding is generated by a flame caused by the chemical
reaction between oxygen and the fuel gas (Acetylene). Fuel gas and Oxygen are
combined in a mixing chamber, provided in the welding torch itself. Additional filler
metal can be used with this process. A flux may be used to protect the molten weld
pool. Flux deoxidizes and cleanses the weld metal. The flux melts, solidifies, and
forms a slag on the weld metal. A typical Oxy-Acetylene welding (OAW) setup
contains the following basic items (Figure – 1):
• Oxygen Cylinder
• Acetylene cylinder
• Hose pipes
• Gas torch
• Filler Metal (Optional)
• Flux (Optional)
• Safety valves (Flashback arrestor/Non returning valve or Check valve)

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Three different types of flames can be obtained (Figure – 2), depending upon the
ratio of Oxygen and Acetylene, these flames are known as;
• Neutral flame
• Reducing flame
• Oxidizing flame

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Neutral Flame: When oxygen and Acetylene are mixed in equal proportions, Neutral
flame is obtained. This type of flame is characterized by a short inner cone and a
longer outer cone.
In neutral flame combustion takes place in two stages, Primary combustion takes
place at the inner core, when the Oxygen (O2) and Acetylene (C2H2) meets. The
heat produced by this reaction accounts for two thirds of the total heat generated.
Following chemical reaction takes place at this stage:
2O2 + 2C2H2 – 4CO + 2H2
Secondary combustion takes place at the outer envelope. In secondary combustion
CO and H2, obtained from primary combustion reacts with surrounding air (O2) and
forms CO2 and H2O. One third of total heat is generated during this combustion.
Chemical formula for this reaction is as follows:

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4CO + 2O2 – 4CO2
2H2 + O2 – 2H20
CO and H2 present in the Outer envelope consume the additional oxygen coming
from surrounding and hence the molten weld pool remains protected and Oxidation
doesn’t take place. This is why outer envelope is also called as the protection
envelop. Neutral flame is used to weld most of the metals.
Reducing Flame: In Reducing flame, excess acetylene is used. Due to excess
amount, the combustion of acetylene remains incomplete. This flame is
characterized by a greenish Acetylene feather between the inert cone and the outer
envelope. This excess Acetylene makes this flame reducing in nature and it’s
suitable for welding aluminium alloys because aluminium oxidizes easily. It is also
good for welding high-carbon steels (also called carburizing flame in this case)
because excess oxygen can oxidize carbon and form CO gas porosity in the weld
metal.
Oxidizing Flame: When excess amount of Oxygen is used then this type of flame is
occurred. Due to the presence of unconsumed oxygen, the flame becomes oxidizing.
This type of flame is characterized by a short white inner cone. This flame is suitable
for welding brass, because copper oxide covers the weld pool and thus prevents zinc
from evaporating from the weld pool.
Safety Valves: In Oxyfuel welding, chances of reverse flow of flame or gas into
supply line (or even into the cylinder) is very high which may cause a flashback, fire,
or explosion in any part of the apparatus. To prevent such reverse flow of flame a
flashback arrestor and Reverse-flow check valves should be located at the torch
inlet. An additional check valve may be used at the regulator outlet.
The purpose of a check valve is to help prevent the reverse flow of gases into the
hose, regulator, or cylinder. A flashback arrestor at the torch inlet offers additional
protection to the welder and the hosepipe.
ADVANTAGES OF OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING:
• Equipment is cheaper than other welding processes, easy to learn and use
• It’s very portable and can be transported anywhere very easily
• Since no electricity is required, hence can be used at locations where power
sources are not available.
• The equipment is very versatile and can also be used for metal cutting,
preheating, postheating and surfacing.
• The welder can control the heat input, temperature, weld bead size and shape
very efficiently.
• Very useful for maintenance related work

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DISADVANTAGES OF OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING:
• Slow welding if compared to other arc welding processes, hence less
productive
• Not good for reactive metals and thick metals
• Large heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Due to the presence of combustible gas (Acetylene or Hydrogen), lots of Safety
precautions needed because these gases are highly flammable and can
explode if catches fire.
(SAW) Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is an arc welding process in which arc is generated
between a bare electrode and the workpiece. The arc and the molten weld pool are
submerged in a blanket of granular fusible flux on the workpiece. Flux covers the arc
and prevents fumes, sparks, spatter, and intense ultra violet radiation from escaping,
which makes this process very different from other arc welding processes.
Submerged arc welding is typically used to weld flat position, however horizontal
position welding can also be achieved by using proper tooling and fixtures. This
process is highly suitable for automated operation. It is used extensively in pressure
vessel fabrication, pipe manufacturing, ship and barge building, railroad car
fabrication and the fabrication of structural members where long welds are required.
Fundamentals of SAW:
Initially, the bare electrode (filler wire) is inserted into a heap of flux that covers the
joint to be welded. Then an arc is initiated and a wire feeding mechanism begins to
feed the electrode (filler wire) in the direction of the joint at a predefined rate. The
feeder can be moved manually or the entire system can be automated. In automated
welding, the workpiece moves under a stationary wire feeder or the welding head is
moved over the stationary workpiece. Additional flux is continuously fed around the
electrodes and gets evenly distributed over the weld joint.
The heat generated during welding, melts some of the flux. These liquid flux floats
over the molten metal and completely shields the molten weld pool from the
atmosphere.
Following factors should be considered before choosing submerged arc welding
process for a particular application:
• Chemical composition and mechanical properties required of the final weld
deposit,
• Frequency or volume of welding to be performed
• Accessibility of the joint and the position in which the weld is to be made
• Thickness of base metal and alloy to be welded,
• Length of the joint to be welded
• Cost and profitability of the project
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(Figure – 1 illustrates the basic submerged arc welding process)

The basic components of a SAW processes are:

• Power source
• Welding head
• Flux delivery system (Flux hopper)
• Electrode
• Flux
Power Source: The power source for a Submerged arc welding process is of great
significance and should be able to produce high current at high duty cycle. Both
alternating current power sources as well as direct current power sources can be
used to supply power for this welding process.
Welding Head: A typical welding head consists of the following:
The gun assembly and contact tip
Wire feed motor and feed-roll assembly
Accessories for mounting and positioning the head
Flux delivery system (Flux hopper): The flux is stored in a hopper and keeps on
feeding sufficient amount of flux on the joint. A nozzle is usually mounted on the
welding head for the delivery of flux to the weld joint.
Flux: Role of flux is very important in this process, because of the following three
reasons:

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Stability of arc depends on the flux
Mechanical and chemical properties of the deposited weld metal can be controlled
by the flux
The control and handling of the flux impacts the soundness of weld joint
The flux becomes conductive, flow of current takes place between the electrode and
the work, During molten state. Flux consists of Silica, Lime, Manganese
Oxide, Calcium fluoride and other compounds.
Electrode: Bare solid wire or strip is commonly used as electrode of submerged arc
welding. However composite metal cored electrodes (similar to flux cored arc
welding electrodes) can also be used. Following base metals can be welded with
submerged arc welding process:
• Carbon steels
• Low-alloy steels
• Stainless steels
• Nickel-based alloys
• Chromium-molybdenum steels
Advantages of SAW:
• Excellent weld quality and high productivity
• high deposition rates
• controllable penetration (deep or shallow)
• adaptability to automated operation
• Most of the flux can be reused
• Very less fumes
Limitations of SAW:
• Can be used in only flat and horizontal positions
• Requires post weld slag removal
• Limited to materials that are long and straight or are rotated pipe
• Residuals from the flux possess a great risk to health and safety
(FCAW) Flux Cored Arc Welding
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is a welding process that uses the heat produced by
an arc generated between a continuous tubular filler metal (electrode) and the work
piece. The filler metal is hollow with flux at the core. Flux present at the core of the
filler metal shields the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
Flux Cored Arc Welding are mainly of two types:
• Self-Shielded (FCAW – S)
• Gas Shielded (FCAW – G)

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In case of FCAW – S, flux present at the core of the filler metal, acts as shielding
agent and protects the molten weld pool. Whereas, in FCAW – G, shielding gas is
also used along with the flux (in the filler metal) hence FCAW – G is a dual shielded
welding (Primary shielding – Flux, Secondary shielding – gas), which adds greater
flexibility to the process.
FCAW process is very much similar to GMAW, Both the welding processes use a
continuous feeding filler metal (electrode). Basic difference between the two welding
processes is the composition of their filler metal. A solid wire is used as a filler metal
(electrode) in GMAW. Whereas, a tubular or hollow filler metal with flux at the centre
is used in FCAW (Figure 1). Second difference is the shielding gas, GMAW requires
a shielding gas to protect the molten weld pool. Whereas, in FCAW shielding gas is
optional due to the presence of primary shielding by flux at the core of the filler metal
(electrode). Power source used for FCAW and GMAW is same.

Flux cored arc welding is capable of producing high quality weld at a high deposition
rate. It’s a semiautomatic process and can be automated too. FCAW is a very
efficient welding process and high-integrity welds can be achieved with less effort
and lower cost, that’s why industries are preferring this welding process.
The Equipment needed for FCAW set up are (Figure 2):
• Power Source
• Filler metal feeding Mechanism
• Welding Gun
• Shielding Gas
• Welding cables / leads and gas hoses

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Power Source: The power source used for FCAW is Direct Current (DC) constant
voltage type, similar to power sources for GMAW. There should be a voltage
regulator, capable of adjusting the volts at an increment of one volts or less.
Filler metal Feeding Mechanism: Feeding mechanism supply the filler metal at a
constant speed (pre-set) to the welding gun from filler wire spool. Feeding
mechanism should be such that filler metal doesn’t get damaged or distorted during
rolling.
Welding Gun: Welding gun facilitates and controls the filler metal as well as provides
smooth passage for the shielding gas. Electrode is controlled by a switch, which is
mounted on the welding gun. Welding guns are either Gas (or air) cooled and water
cooled.
Welding cables / leads and gas hoses: Welding cables are used to connect the
welding gun with power source and work piece with the power source. Shielding gas
is supplied through a hose pipe.
Advantages of FCAW:
• High deposition rate and higher productivity is one of the main advantage of
the FCAW
• Suitable for all positions
• Can be used for a variety of materials
• Consistent welding with lesser defect
• Yields high quality weld with less effort and lower cost.

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 • Provides excellent penetration (especially for thick materials)
• Excellent weld appearance
• Less distortion compared to SMAW
Limitations of FCAW:
• FCAW process is limited to ferrous metals and Nickel based alloy welding.
• Produces a slag cover on the weld metal which must be removed
• Equipment is costlier and complex compared to SMAW
• Produces more smoke and fumes than GMAW and SAW
• Higher filler metal cost than solid wire used in GMAW
TIG Welding or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
(TIG Welding). It is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode
made up of Tungsten (or an alloy of tungsten).
In TIG welding, the arc is generated between the tungsten electrode and the
workpiece to produce the necessary heat required for the welding. Shielding gas is
also required, in TIG welding, for the protection of the molten weld pool from
atmospheric contamination. Inert gases such as Argon or Helium can be used as
shielding gas. Additional filler metal may be added in this process.
The tungsten (or tungsten alloy) electrode is held in a torch. Shielding gas is fed
through the torch to provide an inert atmosphere that protects the electrode and the
molten weld pool. An electric current flows from the tip of the electrode to the
workpiece through conductive ionized shielding gas and the arc is
generated. Additional filler metal may also be added to the molten weld pool to fill
the joint. The TIG welding process is illustrated in the following figure:

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Welding current:
TIG welding can be used with direct current (DC) as well as alternating current (AC),
Choice of the current largely depends upon the metal to be welded. Direct current
with electrode negative (DCEN) also known as “straight polarity” is commonly used
in GTAW since it facilitates deeper penetration and fast welding speed. Direct current
with electrode positive (DCEP) also known as “reverse polarity” is avoided in GTAW
because it causes overheating of electrodes.
Components of GTAW:
The basic components of the TIG Welding process are:
1. Power source
2. Electrode
3. Welding Torch
4. Shielding Gas

1. Power Source: A constant current power source is the most common and
appropriate power source for the TIG welding process. A transformer-rectifier power
source is used to supply the required power.
2. Electrode: Either pure tungsten or tungsten alloys are used as GTAW
electrodes. The reason for using tungsten as an electrode is its high melting point
(34100C or 61700F). In TIG welding, the electrode acts as an electrical terminal and
generates the required heat for melting the base metal, unlike the other conventional
welding process such as SMAW/GMAW the electrode doesn’t get consumed during
the welding. Additional filler metal is fed if required.
The TIG welding electrodes come in a variety of sizes and lengths. Classification of
tungsten electrodes is done based on chemical composition. These electrodes are
color-coded to distinguish them from others. The color appears at the tip of the
electrode. Different types of TIG welding electrodes are as follows;
• Pure Tungsten (Color Code: Green)
• Thoriated (Color Code: Red)
• Ceriated (Color Code: Orange)
• Lanthanated (Color Code: Gold)
• Zirconiated (Color Code: Brown)
• Rare Earth (Color Code: Gray)
3. Welding Torch: The GTAW welding torch holds the tungsten electrode and
provides the means to convey shielding gas to the molten weld pool through a
nozzle. A clamping device called the collet is provided in the torch for holding the
tungsten electrode. Collets are generally made up of copper alloys. Nozzles are

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provided onto the head of the torch to provide direction for the shielding gas flow.
Nozzles are generally made up of ceramic materials.
4. Shielding Gas: Shielding gas is supplied through the nozzle of the torch to prevent
the atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool. Inert gases such as Argon
or Helium or a combination of both can be used as shielding gas.
Argon provides a smoother and quieter arc with reduced penetration, apart from this,
the cost of argon is less as compared to Helium. Due to its reduced penetration
Argon is used for the joining of thinner metals. On the other hand, Helium provides
higher heat penetration hence useful for thicker materials and materials with high
heat conductivity such as Aluminium and Copper.
Advantages of TIG Welding:
1. TIG welding produces high-quality weld, most suitable for industries requiring
precision weldings such as aerospace industries and nuclear industries.
2. No flux is required due to the presence of shielding gas.
3. Produces spatter-free joints.
4. Welding can be made in all positions.
5. Dissimilar metals may also be welded with this process.
6. TIG welding process can easily be automated.
7. Excellent root pass weld penetration can be obtained with TIG welding.
Limitations of TIG Welding:
1. Lower deposition rate as compared to other consumable arc welding processes.
2. Slightly more skilled welders required as compared to Shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) or gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
3. Very low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base metals.
4. TIG welding is quite expensive than other conventional welding processes such
as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).
5. Shielding of the molten weld pool is quite difficult during windy and drafty
environments.
MIG Welding – Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
MIG welding or Metal Inert Gas Welding is also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW). In MIG welding process, consumable electrode is used in the form of filler
wire and a shielding gas such as Argon, Helium, Carbon dioxide or a mixture of these
gases are used. These gases shield the molten weld pool from atmospheric
contamination. The shielding gas is allowed to flow through the weld gun. The
electrode or filler metal of MIG welding (which comes in wire form) is fed

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continuously, at a fixed rate, by a feeding mechanism. The filler wire gets consumed
during the process and thereby provides the required filler metal. This process is
illustrated in the below Figure (Figure 1).
Whenever Carbon dioxide is used as a shielding gas in Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW). The term MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding is used because Carbon dioxide
is an active gas. Whereas, other shielding gases such as Argon and Helium are inert
in nature. Hence, whenever these gases are used as shielding gas, the term MIG
(Metal Inert Gas) welding is used
Selection of shielding gas should be done with lots of care. A mixture of CO2 and
Argon is considered a good combination. 75% Argon + 25% CO2 (very popularly
known as “75/25” or “C25”) works as the best “all-purpose” shielding gas for carbon
steel. It results in the least amount of spatter and proper weld bead.
100% carbon dioxide yields deeper penetration, but extra caution is needed since it
may increase the amount of spatters.
The equipment needed for GMAW set up are (Figure 1):
• Power Source
• Filler metal feeding Mechanism
• Welding Gun
• Shielding Gas
• Welding cables or leads and gas hose pipes
Figure – 1

In MIG welding, Voltage, Current, and wire feed speed must be controlled for
producing sound welding.
Voltage controls the weld profile. Whereas, Current controls the heat input, size of
weld, and depth of penetration.

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The following table (Table – 1) gives the relationship between the current range and
the filler wire feed speed, based on the filler wire diameter. This table is just a guide
and the ranges may vary depending upon the shielding gas and parent metal.
Table – 1
Mig welding wire speed and Current chart:

Wire
Current feed
Diameter Range speed
[Link]. (mm) (A) (m/min)

40 –
1 0.6 100 2–5

40 –
2 0.8 150 3–6

100 –
3 1.0 280 3 – 12

120 –
4 1.2 350 4 – 18

The following figure (figure – 2) shows a GMAW welding gun:

Figure – 2

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Advantages of GMAW (MIG Welding)
• GMAW can be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys
• No restriction of limited electrode length as we face in shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW).
• Due to the gas shielding, no additional flux is required for the protection of the
molten pool
• It can be used to weld in all positions.
• Higher deposition rates than shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Due to the continuous electrode feeding mechanism, we can achieve higher
welding speeds and higher filler metal deposition rates than shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW)
• Due to the continuous electrode (wire feed) feed, longer welds can be
deposited without intermediate stops and starts;
• Very less post-weld cleaning is required due to the absence of any heavy slag;
• Comparatively easy to learn and less skilled welders can also do the MIG
welding.
• This process can be easily automated
Limitations of GMAW (MIG Welding)
• The GMAW equipment is more complex, costlier, and less portable than that
for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Due to the absence of flux covering, chances of faster cooling rates exists
which may affect badly
• Shielding of the molten weld pool is quite difficult during windy and drafty
environments. High chances of porosity in the weld metal during windy
environments.
• MIG welding requires moderate cleaning of joints before welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is also known as Manual Metal Arc Welding
(MMAW) or stick welding. It is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable
electrode (covered with flux). The electrode is connected with one terminal of the
power source and the work is connected with the other terminal of the power source
with the help of welding cables or leads.
The basic components of SMAW (Figure – 1) are the following;
• Power Source (Figure – 2)
• Electrode Holder (Figure – 3)
• Electrodes (Figure – 4)
• Cables/Lead

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Please see the below schematic diagram (Figure – 1) of SMAW for a better
understanding.
(Figure – 1)

In SMAW, an electric arc is used to produce the necessary heat to melt the base
metal, this arc is generated by striking the electrode with the workpiece. Soon after
the generation of arc, the electrode is withdrawn from the workpiece but it remains
in close contact with the workpiece. The gases present between the gap (i.e the gap
between electrode and workpiece) get ionized and a smooth flow of electrons takes
place hence, despite the gap between the electrode and the workpiece the circuit
remains closed (or energized), and hence arc doesn’t get extinguished.
A power source for SMAW welding is shown in figure – 2.
(Figure – 2)

The output of the power source can be either AC (alternating current) or DC (Direct
current). In AC the polarity of the terminals keeps on changing (almost 100 times in

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a second) but in DC one terminal always acts as a Positive terminal and the other
acts as a negative terminal.
If the electrode is connected with the positive terminal and the workpiece with the
negative terminal then it is known as DCEP (i.e. direct current electrode positive or
Reverse Polarity). Whereas if the electrode is connected with the negative terminal
and the workpiece with positive, then it is known as direct current electrode negative
(ie. DCEN or Straight Polarity).
In DCEP, the electricity flows into the tip of the electrode and concentrates about
two-thirds of the heat, which gives good penetration. Hence it is usually used on
thicker steels.
In DCEN, the electricity flows out of the rod, concentrating about one-third of the heat
on the electrode. Hence the penetration is less, this a very good choice for thinner
steels.
An electrode holder is shown in figure – 3.
(Figure – 3)

The electrodes of Shielded metal arc welding are always covered with flux, Purpose
of flux is as follows;
During welding, the flux material decomposes and produces fumes. These fumes
shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere. In the absence of those fumes,
molten weld pool will be exposed to the atmosphere and may react with oxygen
present in the environment and thus oxidation may take place, which is very
dangerous and may lead to failure. (i.e prevents oxidation of molten weld pool).
The density of flux material is less than the weld material hence the flux comes
upwards and floats on the weld pool and thus protects the weld pool. During the
solidification of the molten weld pool, flux also solidifies and forms a thin layer on the

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surface of the weld called slag. This thin layer of slag helps in the slow cooling of
weld material. In the absence of this thin layer of slag, rapid cooling of the molten
weld pool will occur, which is very dangerous because rapid cooling results in
microstructural changes of weld metal (martensite formation).
Flux also helps in the initiation of arc. Especially when welding is done in AC
(Alternating Current), polarity keeps on changing at a constant rate, i.e. it attains a
positive value then a negative value and it happens within a fraction of a second.
Polarity changes more than 100 times in a second. While going from positive to
negative it attains a value ‘0′ and whenever it goes to zero, the arc has to be re-
initiated and the flux plays its role. It happens very fast (i.e. within a fraction of
seconds) hence we can not see this with our eyes.
SMAW electrodes are shown in figure – 4.
(Figure – 4)

The typical current (Amperage) range for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
electrodes is given below (Table 1);
Table 1

Advantages of SMAW:
• This process is suitable for most of the commercially available metals and
alloys.

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 • The equipment is comparatively inexpensive and portable.
• Equipment is relatively simple.
• This process can be used in all welding positions.
• This welding process is flexible and can be applied to a variety of joint
configurations and positions.
• No need for separate gas shielding.
• Less sensitive to wind and drafts if compared to gas shielded arc welding
processes.
• It can be used in areas where access is limited (electrodes can be bent and
even a mirror can be used in tight spaces).
Disadvantages of SMAW:
• Low deposition rate than GMAW and FCAW
• More skilled welding operators are required than many other welding
processors.
• Not suitable for reactive metals such as Titanium, Zirconium, Tantalum, and
Niobium.
• Not suitable for metals with low melting temperature such as Lead, Tin, and
Zinc and their alloys.
• This process cannot be automated.
• More slag due to flux shielded electrode.
• Repeated changing of consumed electrodes with a new one makes this
process quite slow if compared to GMAW.

Welding symbols are a set of information conveyed by the design department to the
welding Engineer and the welding operator. It contains all the necessary information
viz. welding position, dimensions and geometry of the weld, details of groove/fillet,
welding process, etc.
A basic weld symbol consists of three parts namely;
• Arrow Line
• Reference Line
• Tail
These are shown in the diagram given below

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Arrow Line: Arrow indicates the position of the joint. The arrow points to one side of
the joint. This is called the ARROW SIDE and the side other than the arrow side is
called the OTHER SIDE.
The arrow side and other side is shown in the diagram given below;

Reference Line: Most of the Details about the weld are given on the reference line
such as the shape of the groove or the fillet, Geometry, and dimensions of the weld,
etc. In the ISO system, a weld on the arrow side is indicated by placing the weld
symbol above the solid reference line and a weld on the other side is shown below
a dashed line, as shown in the figure given below;

Whereas in the AWS system the weld symbol for a weld is placed below the
reference line and for a weld on the other side is shown above the line as shown in
the figure given below; (NOTE: Dashed line is not used in AWS system).

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In the ISO system symbols on the solid line always refer to the arrow side of the joint
and symbols on the dashed line indicate a weld on the other side. The dashed line
can be drawn either above or below the solid line but as per standard practice, the
dashed line is placed below the solid reference line.
To bring more clarity about the arrow side and the other side in a fillet joint, please
see the diagram given below;

NOTE: If the weld is made on both sides, as in a double fillet weld (or double
groove), the dashed line can be omitted since the weld symbol is placed on both
sides of the reference line or lines. Please see the diagram given below;

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Tail: The third important part of a welding symbol is tail, Tail is used to designate
additional information viz. Reference code and (or) welding process to be used. The
tail may be omitted if not required.
ELEMENTARY SYMBOLS
In addition to the basic parts of a welding symbol i.e. Arrow line, Reference line, and
the tail certain elementary symbols are provided on the reference line. The
elementary symbols may be complemented by Supplementary symbols,
Dimensions, and Complementary information.
The elementary symbols are given below;

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