Mechanics of Materials

Eleventh Edition

Chapter 4
Axial Load

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Learning Objectives (Section 4.2-4.5)
4.2 Determine the elastic deformation of axially loaded
member
4.3 Apply the principle of superposition for total effect of
different loading cases
4.4 Deal with compatibility conditions
4.5 Use ‘force method’ of analysis.

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In-Class Activities
1. Check homework, if any
2. Reading Quiz
3. Applications
4. Elastic deformation in axially loaded member
5. Principle of superposition
6. Compatibility conditions
7. ‘Force method’ of analysis
8. Concept Quiz

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Reading Quiz (1 of 6)
1. The stress distributions at different cross sections are
different. However, at locations far enough away from the
support and the applied load, the stress distribution
becomes uniform. This is due to
a. Principle of superposition
b. Inelastic property
c. Poisson’s effect
d. Saint Venant’s Principle

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Reading Quiz (2 of 6)

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Reading Quiz (3 of 6)
2. The principle of superposition is valid provided that
1. The loading is linearly related to the stress or
displacement
2. The loading does not significantly change the original
geometry of the member
3. The Poisson’s ratio v  0.45
4. Young’s Modulus is small
a. a, b and c
b. a, b and d
c. a and b only
d. All
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Applications (1 of 2)

Most concrete columns are reinforced with steel rods; and

these two materials work together in supporting the applied
load. Are both subjected to axial stress?
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Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded
Member
• Provided these quantities do not exceed the proportional limit, we can
relate them using Hooke’s Law, i.e.
P (x) ε=
d  = E
= and
A(x) dx
Figure 4.4

P (x)  d 
= E 
A(x)  dx 

P ( x ) dx
d =
A(x)E

L
P ( x ) dx
 =
0
A(x)E
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Example 1 (1 of 2)
The assembly shown in Figure 4.7a consists of an
aluminum tube AB having a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 .
A steel rod having a diameter of 10 m m is attached to a rigid
illi eter

collar and passes through the tube. If a tensile load of 80 kN

is applied to the rod, determine the displacement of the end
C of the rod. Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.

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Example 1 (2 of 2)
Solutions
• Find the displacement of end C with respect to end B.

C / B =
PL
=   (
+80 103  ( 0.6 ) )
= +0.003056 m →
AE  ( 0.005 ) 200 10 

9
 ( )
• Displacement of end B with respect to the fixed end A,

B =
PL
=

 −80 10 3
( )
 ( 0.4 )
= −0.001143 = 0.001143 m →
 (
AE  400 10  70 10 
-6
 ) 9
 ( )
• Since both displacements
are to the right,
C = C + C / B = 0.0042 m = 4.20 mm →

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Example 2 (1 of 3)
A member is made from a material that has a specific weight
and modulus of elasticity E. If it is in the form of a cone
having the dimensions shown in Figure 4.9a, determine how
far its end is displaced due to gravity when it is suspended in
the vertical position.

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Example 2 (2 of 3)
Solutions
• Radius x of the cone as a function of y is determined by
proportion,
Figure 4.8
x ro ro
= ; x= y
y L L

• The volume of a cone having a base of

radius x and height y is

  ro2
V= yx 2 = y3
3 3L2

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Example 2 (3 of 3)
• Since W =  V, the internal force at the section becomes
 r02
+   Fy = 0; P ( y ) = y3
3L2

• The area of the cross section is also a function of position

y,
 r02
A(y ) =  x = 2
y2
L2
• Between the limits of y =0 and L yields

 =
L
P ( y ) dy
=
L
(
  ro2 3L2 ) dy =
 L2
(Ans)
0
A(y )E 0   ro2 L2
 ( ) E 6E

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Principle of Superposition
• It can be used to simply problems having complicated
loadings. This is done by dividing the loading into
components, then algebraically adding the results.
• It is applicable provided the material obeys Hooke’s Law
and the deformation is small.
• If P = P1 + P2 and d  d1  d2, then the deflection at
location x is sum of two cases, δ x = δ x1 + δ x2
Figure 4.9

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Compatibility Conditions
• When the force equilibrium condition alone cannot
determine the solution, the structural member is called
statically indeterminate.
• In this case, compatibility conditions at the constraint
locations shall be used to obtain the solution. For
example, the stresses and elongations in the 3 steel wires
are different, but their displacement at the common joint A
must be the same.

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Example 3 (1 of 3)
The bolt is made of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy and is tightened so it
compresses a cylindrical tube made of Am 1004-T61 magnesium alloy.
The tube has an outer radius of 10 m m , and both the inner radius of the
illi eter

tube and the radius of the bolt are 5 m m . The washers at the top and
illi eter

bottom of the tube are considered to be rigid and have a negligible

thickness. Initially the nut is hand-tightened slightly; then, using a wrench,
the nut is further tightened one-half turn. If the bolt has 20 threads per
inch, determine the stress in the bolt.

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Example 3 (2 of 3)
Solutions
• Equilibrium requires
+   Fy = 0; Fb − Ft = 0 (1)

• When the nut is tightened

on the bolt, the tube will
shorten.

( + )  t = 0.5 −  b

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Example 3 (3 of 3)
• Taking the 2 modulus of elasticity,
Ft ( 60 ) Fb ( 60 )
= 0.5 −
 102 − 52   45 (103 )   52  75 (103 ) 
5Ft = 125 (1125 ) − 9Fb (2)
• Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously,
we get
Fb = Ft = 31556 = 31.56 kN
• The stresses in the bolt and tube are
therefore
Fb 31556
σb = = = 401.8 N / mm2 = 401.8 MPa (Ans)
Ab  (5)
Ft 31556
σs = = = 133.9 N / mm 2
= 133.9 MPa (Ans)
(
At  102 − 52 )
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Force Method of Analysis
• It is also possible to solve statically indeterminate problem
by writing the compatibility equation using the
superposition of the forces acting on the free body
diagram.

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Example 4 (1 of 3)
The A-36 steel rod shown in Figure 4.17a has a diameter of
10 m m . It is fixed to the wall at A, and before it is loaded
illi eter

there is a gap between the wall at B’ and the rod of 0.2 m m . illi eter

Determine the reactions at A and Neglect the size of the

collar at C. Take Est = 200GPa.

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Example 4 (2 of 3)
Solutions
• Using the principle of superposition,
( ⎯⎯→ )
+
0.0002 =  P −  B (1)
• From Equation 4-2,
( )
20 103  ( 0.4 )
P =
PLAC
=   = 0.5093 10 −3
( )
AE  ( 0.005 ) 200 109 
2
( )
FB (1.2 )
B =
FB LAB
= = 76.3944 10 −9
FB ( )
AE  ( 0.005 ) 200 10 
2 9
( )
• Substituting into Equation 1, we get
( )
0.0002 = 0.5093 10 −3 − 76.3944 10 −9 FB ( )
( )
FB = 4.05 103 = 4.05 kN (Ans)

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Example 4 (3 of 3)
• From the free-body diagram,
( + → )  Fx = 0
−FA + 20 − 4.05 = 0

FA = 16.0 kN (Ans)

Figure 4.16

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Concept Quiz (1 of 4)
1. The assembly consists of two posts made from material 1
having modulus of elasticity of E1 and a cross-sectional
area Α1 and a material 2 having modulus of elasticity
E2 and cross-sectional area Α 2 . If a central load P is
applied to the rigid cap, determine the force in each post.
The support is also rigid.

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Concept Quiz (2 of 4)
E1A1
Let r =
E2 A2

 r 
A. P1 =   P C. P1 = rP
 2r +1 
 1  P2 = ( 2r − 1) P
P2 =   P
 2r +1 

 1 
B. P1 =   P D. P1 = r ( r +1) P
 2r +1 
P2 = ( r +1) P
 r 
P2 =   P
 2r +1 
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Learning Objectives (Section 4.6-4.9)
4.6 Deal with thermal stress problems
4.7 Deal with stress concentration problems
4.8 Deal with inelastic deformation problems
4.9 Deal with residual stress problems

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In-Class Activities (2 of 2)
1. Check homework, if any
2. Reading Quiz
3. Applications
4. Thermal Stress
5. Stress Concentration
6. Inelastic deformation
7. Residual Stress
8. Concept Quiz

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Reading Quiz (4 of 6)
1. The units of linear coefficient of thermal expansion are

a. per °C
b. per °F
c. per °K (Kelvin)
d. all of them

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Reading Quiz (5 of 6)
2. Stress concentrations become important in design if

a. the material is brittle

b. the material is ductile but subjected to fatigue loading
c. the material is subjected to fatigue loadings to dynamic
loading
d. All of them

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Reading Quiz (6 of 6)
3. The principle of superposition is applicable to

a. inelastic axial deformation

b. residual stress evaluation
c. large deformation
d. None of the above

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Applications (2 of 2)
Thermal Stress Stress Concentration Inelastic Axial
Deformation

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Thermal Stress
• Ordinarily, the expansion or contraction T is linearly related
to the temperature increase or decrease T that occurs.
T = −TL
 = linear coefficient of thermal expansion, property of the
material
T = algebraic change in temperature of the member

T = original length of the member

 T = algebraic change in length of the member

• If the change in temperature varies throughout the length of the

member, i.e. T = T ( x ) , or if  varies along the length, then

T =  Tdx
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Example 5 (1 of 3)
The rigid bar is fixed to the top of the three posts made of A-
36 steel and 2014-T6 aluminum. The posts each have a
length of 250 m m when no load is applied to the bar, and
illi eter

the temperature is T1 = 20°C. Determine the force

supported by each post if the bar is subjected to a uniform
distributed load of 150 kN/m and the temperature is raised
to T2 = 20°C.

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Example 5 (2 of 3)
Solutions
• From the free-body diagram we have
+   Fy = 0; (
2Fst + Fal − 90 103 = 0) (1)
• The top of each post is displaced
by an equal amount and hence,
( + )  st =  al (2)

• Final position of the top of each post is equal to its

displacement caused by the temperature increase and
internal axial compressive force.
( + )  st = − ( st )T + ( st )F

( + )  al = − ( al )T + ( al )F
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Example 5 (3 of 3)
• Applying Equation 2 gives
− ( st )T + ( st )F = − ( st ) + ( al )F

• With reference from the material

properties, we have
Fst ( 0.25 )
( )
− 12 10 −6  ( 80 − 20 )( 0.25 ) + = − ( )
23 10 −6  ( 80 − 20 )( 0.25 )
( )
 ( 0.02 ) 200 109 
2  

Fal ( 0.25 )
+
 ( 0.03 ) 73.1(109 ) 
2

Fst = 1.216 Fal − 165.9 103 ( ) (3)

• Solving Equations 1 and 3 simultaneously yields
Fst = −16.4 kN and Fal = 123 kN (Ans)
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Stress Concentration (1 of 2)
• The stress concentration factor K is a ratio of the
maximum stress to the average stress acting at the
smallest cross section; i.e.
σ max
Figure 4.20 K= Figure 4.21
σ avg

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Stress Concentration (2 of 2)
• K is independent of the material properties
• K depends only on the specimen’s geometry and the type
of discontinuity
Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24

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Inelastic Axial Deformation
• When a material is stressed beyond the elastic range, it
starts to yield and thereby causes permanent deformation.
Among various inelastic behavior, the common cases
exhibit elastoplastic or elastic-perfectly-plastic
behavior.
Figure 4.25a Figure 4.25b

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Example 6 (1 of 3)
The bar in Figure 4.29a is made of steel that is assumed to
be elastic perfectly plastic, with  Y = 250 MPa. Determine (a)
the maximum value of the applied load P that can be applied
without causing the steel to yield and (b) the maximum value
of P that the bar can support. Sketch the stress distribution
at the critical section for each case.

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Example 6 (2 of 3)
Solutions
a. Finding the stress concentration factor,
r 4 w 40
= = 0.125 = = 1.25
h ( 40 − 8 ) h ( 40 − 8 )

Using the table and geometry ratios, we get K = 1.7. We

have
σ max = Kσ avg ;

P 
σY = K  Y 
 A
 
( )
250 106 = 1.75 
(
PY
)( )

 0.002 0.032 
PY = 9.14 kN (Ans)
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Example 6 (3 of 3)
b. As P is increased to the plastic load it gradually changes
the stress distribution from the elastic state to the plastic
state.
Pp
Y =
A
Pp
(
250 10 6
) = ( 0.002)( 0.032 )
Pp = 16.0 kN (Ans)

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Residual Stress
• After an axially loaded member is stressed beyond yield stress, it will
create residual stress in the member when the loads are removed.
• Consider the stress history of a prismatic member made from an
elastoplastic material.
• Path OA: Member is loaded to reach yield stress σY
• Path AC: Member deforms plastically
• Path CD: Unloading but permanent strain 0 remains
Figure 4.27

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Example 7 (1 of 4)
The rod shown in Figure 4.30a has a radius of 5 mm and is
made of an elastic perfectly plastic material for which
σ Y = 420 MPa and E = 70GPa, Figure 4.30c. If a force of

P = 60 kN is applied to the rod and then removed, determine

the residual stress in the rod.

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Example 7 (2 of 4)
Solutions
• An elastic analysis will produce FA = 45kN and FB = 15kN.
This results in a stress of
45
 AC = = 573 MPa (compression)   Y = 420 MPa
 ( 0.005 )
2

15
 CB = = 191 MPa (tension)
 ( 0.005 )
2

• The maximum possible force developed in AC is

( FA )Y ( )
=  Y A = 420 103  ( 0.005 )  = 33.0 kN

2


• From the equilibrium of the rod,
FB = 60 − 33 = 27.0 kN

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Example 7 (3 of 4)
• The stress in each segment of the rod is therefore
 AC =  Y = 420 MPa (compression)
27
 CB = = 344 MPa (tension)  420 MPa (OK)
 ( 0.005 )
2

• Since CB responds elastically,

Figure 4.29
C =
FB LCB
=
( 27 )( 0.3 )
= 0.001474 m
AE  ( 0.005 )2 70 106 
  ( )
C 0.001474
 CB = = = +0.004913
LCB 0.3

C 0.001474
 AC = =− = −0.01474
LAC 0.1

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Example 7 (4 of 4)
• Here the yield strain is

Y =
σY 420 10
=
6
( )
= 0.006
E 70 10 9
( )
• The residual stress in each member is

( AC )r = −420 + 573 = 153 MPa (Ans)

( CB )r = 344 + 191 = 153 MPa (Ans)

• This residual stress is the same for both segments, which

is to be expected.

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Concept Quiz (3 of 4)
1. The value of stress concentration factor depends on the
geometry. Which one of the following is true?
a. Ka > Kb > Kc
b. Ka > Kb > Kd
c. A and B
d. None of the above

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Concept Quiz (4 of 4)
2. The greatest load that the bar can sustain is
a. σ1.A full
b. σ Y .A full
c. σ Y .A full
d. σ Y .A a−a

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