Environmental Science and Engineering

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MODULE 1

Introduction to Environment

Definition—scope and importance of Environmental Studies—Renewable and Non-

renewable Resources. Concept of an ecosystem: Structure and function of an
ecosystem—Producers—consumers and decomposers—Energy flow in the ecosystem—
Ecological succession—Food chains and ecological pyramids—and Biodiversity

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental science is the study of nature and the facts about environment. Environment
can be defined as "all the social, economical, physical and chemical factors that surrounds
man" or "all abiotic and biotic components around man-all living and non-living things
surround man".

CONCEPTS
According to ancient man the environment was the Panchaboodhas (i.e.) air, water, land,
sky and energy. The human were disciples of nature. They were able to protect themselves
from harmful one and protect the others. But according to modern man the environment is
only air land and water. Exploitation of various earth resources to satisfy the increasing
needs of human population has resulted in 1) depletion of various resources of earth 2)
pollution. Principles of environmental education:

 Examine the major environmental issues.

 Discover the root cause.
 Develop problem solving skills.
 Promote co-operation in solving problems.
 Emphasis active participation in prevention and solution to problems
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
 Studying the interrelationship between the components of environment.
 Carrying out impact analysis and Environmental Audit
 Preventing pollution from existing and new industries
 Stopping the use of biological and nuclear weapons

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 Managing unpredictable disasters etc.

Public Awareness
Environmental Pollution or problems cannot be solved by mere laws. Public participation is
an important aspect which serves the environmental Protection.
 Public awareness of environmental issue is at infant stage.
 30-40% of public of developing country are aware of environmental. Problems but
they do not bother about it.
 Ignorance and incomplete knowledge haveled to misconceptions.
 Development and improvement in std. of living has led to serious environmental
disasters.
 Debates on environmental Issues are treated as anti-developmental.
Application
 Environmental science is essentially the application of scientific methods and
principles to the study of environmental issues, so it has probably been around in
some forms as long as science itself.
 Environmental science is often confused with other fields of related interest,
especially ecology, environmental studies, environmental education, and
environmental engineering.
 Environmental science is not constrained with any one discipline, and it is a
comprehensive field.
Risk And Hazards In The Environment
Environmental risk due to various environmental hazards is an important topic for
environmental engineers to recognize and understand in order to protect human society and
ecosystems from harms or damages at local, regional or global scales. For example, to deal
with contaminated soil and ground water at a brown field, risk and exposure assessment
help engineers choose an optimal solution to either treat the hazard (e.g., to remove the
contaminants from the soil and water) or reduce the exposure (e.g., to cover up the land
with a barrier). A hazard is a threat to life, health, property, or ecosystems, i.e., it involves
something that could potentially be harmful. Therefore, when a dormant hazard comes to
fruition, it will cause physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the

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environment, and result in an incident, accident, emergency event, or disaster. Hazards

may be classified into:
 Chemical hazards – Combustion of Fossil fuels, industrial effluence, pesticides
heavy metals.
 Physical hazards – Radioactive and UV radiations, Global warming, Chlorofluro
carbons, Noise etc.
 Biological hazards – Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are important for living beings. There are many ways of classifying
natural resources. The most general category is the amount of resources available for
human consumption. There are two types of energy resources: renewable and non-
renewable energy resources.

What is a Renewable Resource?

Renewable resources are those that cannot be depleted. They are always available and
thus could be reused. The various types of Renewable resources are given below:
Renewable Resources: Examples
Sun - The energy obtained from sunlight is solar energy. The sun is the ultimate natural
resource for all living beings on the earth. Plants utilize solar energy and make their own
food through photosynthesis.

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 Wind - It is an important renewable resource required for the survival of living

organisms. Air is important to carry out photosynthesis (the process by which green
plants turn carbon dioxide and water into food using energy from sunlight) and
respiration (the inhaling of oxygen and the exhaling of carbon dioxide) in plants and
animals, respectively. The energy that is obtained from wind is termed as wind
energy.

Water - Water is required for survival. Humans use water for a variety of reasons, including
drinking, washing, cooking, and cultivating crops. Hydro energy is generated by water
flowing into a river or water held in a dam. Hydro energy is power that is generated from
moving water such as rivers.

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Converting hydro energy into electrical energy is a simple way to utilize it. Electrical energy
is a specific form of energy that is the result of an electric charge. Electrical energy is a
specific form of energy that is the result of an electric charge.

Soil- Soil is a valuable resource as it is the layer in which plants grow. Living beings require
food to live. Plants produce most of the food that is required by living organisms.
Biogas- Biogas is a form of fuel that is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, and other gases produced by the breakdown of animal and plant wastes
such as animal dung in the presence of water with the help of microorganisms. It is
commonly used as a fuel for gas stoves, particularly in rural regions.
What is a Non-renewable Resource?
Natural resources that are limited in quantity are referred to as non-renewable resources.
These resources cannot be supplied or regenerated in a short duration of time. These
resources cannot be reused. The various types of non-renewable resources are as follows.
Non-renewable Resources: Examples
Fossil Fuels- Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources. This means that they will
ultimately be finished, which is why energy prices are rising. Fossil fuels consist of coal,
natural gas and petroleum.
Coal- Coal is used as a fuel, to generate electricity, and in factories and steam engines.
Natural gas- Natural gas, often known as compressed natural gas, is an excellent
alternative to petrol and diesel. It burns quickly and generates a large amount of heat. It's
an excellent source of hydrogen.

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Petroleum- Mineral oil or crude oil are other names for petroleum. Petrol, diesel, cooking
gas, and kerosene are all made from this liquid mineral. It can be found deep within the
earth.
Nuclear energy- This energy source involves use of radioactive material that is found in
nature. Uranium is primarily used to make nuclear reactor fuel rods. Heat is generated when
neutrons(neutral particles present in the atom) hit with the fuel rods. This converts water to
steam, which is used to move turbines. As a result, it generates electricity.

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Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

1. These are natural resources that either

1. Can be replaced by natural processes in a
cannot be replaced or may take
short duration of time or can be recycled.
millions of years to be replaced by natural
processes like coal and oil.

2. It can be reused or recycled and used

2. It cannot be reused or recycled.
multiple times.

3. Some of the examples are: wind

3. Some of the examples are: petrol, coal,
energy, solar power, hydroelectricity,
Natural gas, nuclear energy, fossil fuels.
geothermal.

4. Huge harm done to the environment

4. There is no harm to the environment by
because of the harmful emissions.
using renewable resources.

ECOSYSTEM
Living organisms cannot be isolated from their non-living environment because the later
provides materials and energy for the survival of the farmer. An ecosystem is therefore
defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms and their non-
living environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system.

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Ecosystem
Characteristics of Ecosystem
 Ecosystem is an open system which receives input in the form of solar energy and
matter and results in synthesis of organic food.
 At the same time each component of ecosystem gives out energy as well as waste
matter, referred to as output. Therefore, a regular input of energy is necessary for
maintenance of life upon earth.
 Ecosystem maintains a relatively stable state of equilibrium amongst its various
components by homeostasis. It fluctuates within certain limits and can be controlled
via number of controls as carrying capacity, recycling of wastes, self regulation and
feedback system.
CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the flows of energy
and materials between abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
The structure of an ecosystem is the description of the organisms and physical features of
environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in the ecosystem. From the
structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic components: Abiotic
Components: Abiotic components of an ecosystem include basic inorganic elements and
compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates, and a variety of
organic compounds. Biotic Components: The biotic components include all living organisms
present in the environmental system which can be further classified into the following three
types. 1. Producers (Autotrophic components) 2. Consumers 3. Decomposers
Functions of all ecosystems are based on the following operations.
1. Reception of radiant energy of sun and manufacture of organic materials from
inorganic ones by producers.
2. Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed
materials.
3. Conversion of dead bodies of producers and consumers by decomposers into
nutrients which are suitable for reutilization by producers.
Function of organisms in an ecosystem
1. Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae.

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2. Consumer (heterotrophy): eat other organisms.

3. Decomposer: eat dead organic matter; bacteria and fungi

Structure and Functional Operations of an Ecosystem

Classes of Consumers
1. Herbivore – primary consumer – eats plants
2. Carnivores – secondary – meat eaters; eat herbivores.
3. Tertiary – feed on carnivores
4. Omnivores – eat plants/animals.
Functions of Ecosystem
Ecosystem representing the highest level of ecological integration is capable of energy
transformation, accumulation, and circulation. Ecologically, it emphasizes on obligatory
relationships, interdependence, and casual relations. The four important functional aspects
of ecosystem can be discussed as: (i) productivity, (ii) decomposition (iii) energy flow and
(iv) nutrient cycling.

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PRODUCTIVITY
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production, i.e., the amount of organic
matter or biomass accumulated per unit area in any unit time. It is measured as weight
(g/m2/yr) or energy (kcal/m2/yr). Productivity is of following types:
Primary Productivity
The amount of energy accumulated in green plants as biomass or organic matter per unit
area over a time period through the process of photosynthesis is known as primary
productivity. It is of two sub types: GPP and NPP

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

 It is the amount of organic matter synthesized by producers per unit time and per
unit area.
 It is equal to rate of increase in body weight of producers plus loss suffered through
respiration, grazing and damages.
 It depends upon photosynthetic efficiency of producers, availability of solar energy as
well as inorganic nutrients.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
 It is the amount of organic matter stored by producers per unit time and per unit
area.
 It is equal to organic matter synthesized by photosynthesis minus utilization in
respiration and other losses.
 It depends upon gross primary productivity as well as amount of consumption of
photosynthates.
 NPP is equal to GPP – R, where R is energy used in respiration.
Secondary Productivity

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 The rate of resynthesis of organic matter by the consumers is known as secondary

productivity.
 It depends upon the loss while transferring energy containing organic matter from
the previous trophic level plus the consumption due to respiration and predation.
 It is small and decreases with rise of trophic level.
 It is due to synthesis of organic matter from organic matter.
Decomposition
 It is physical and chemical breakdown of complex organic remains with the help of
organisms called decomposers.
 In terrestrial ecosystem, upper layer of soil is the main site of decomposition.
Organic remains (dead plant parts, animal remains and excretions) are also called
detritus. It is of two types: above ground detritus (leaf litter, dried plant parts, remains
of animals, their droppings, and excretions) and below ground detritus (mainly dead
roots, also underground dead animals).
 Decomposition completely disposes off the whole detritus. It helps in recycling of
biogeochemicals and creating space for newer generations of organisms.
ENERGY FLOW
1. Ecosystems require a constant input of energy as every component of an ecosystem
is regularly dissipating energy.
2. Flow of energy is governed by two laws of thermodynamics.
 First law, energy can be transferred as well as transformed but is neither created nor
destroyed.
 Second law, every activity involving energy transformation is accompanied by
dissipation of energy.
3. The source of energy in all ecosystems, except deep hydrothermal ecosystem is
solar energy.
4. Energy does not remain trapped permanently in any organism. It is either passed on
to the higher trophic level or becomes available.
5. The source of energy in all ecosystems, except deep hydrothermal ecosystem is
solar energy.

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6. Energy does not remain trapped permanently in any organism. It is either passed on
to the higher trophic level or becomes available to detrivores and decomposers after
the organism dies. Normally, herbivores feed on producers.
7. Part of the food energy is wasted in digestion and assimilation. Some of the
assimilated food is broken down to release energy for performing body activities. A
very small portion becomes part of the body of herbivore. Herbivores are eaten by
primary carnivores, the latter by secondary carnivores and so on. At every step a lot
of energy is wasted

Energy ―flows‖ through the ecosystem in the form of carbon-carbon bonds. When
respiration occurs, the carbon-carbon bonds are broken, and the carbon is combined with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This process releases the energy, which is either used by
the organism (to move its muscles, digest food, excrete wastes, think, etc.) or the energy
may be lost as heat. The dotted arrows represent the movement of this energy. All energy
comes from the sun, and the ultimate fate of all energy in ecosystems is to be lost as heat.
Energy does not recycle. The other components shown in the diagram are the inorganic
nutrients. They are inorganic because they do not contain carbon-carbon bonds. These
inorganic nutrients include the phosphorous in our teeth, bones, and cellular membranes;
the nitrogen in our amino acids (the building blocks of protein); and the iron in our blood.
The movement of the inorganic nutrients is represented by the open arrows. Note that the
autotrophs obtain these inorganic nutrients from the inorganic nutrient pool, which is usually
the soil or water surrounding the plants or algae. These inorganic nutrients are passed from

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organism to organism as one organism is consumed by another. Ultimately, all organisms

die and become detritus, food for the decomposers. At this stage, the rest of the energy is
extracted (and lost as heat) and the inorganic nutrients are returned to the soil or water to
be taken up again. The inorganic nutrients are recycled, but the energy is not recycled.

Energy and Nutrient Flow through Ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop
over a period of time. Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other
species under a very specific set of environmental conditions. If these conditions change,
then the existing species will be replaced by a new set of species which are better adapted
to the new conditions. Ecological succession may also occur when the conditions of an
environment suddenly and drastically change. A forest fire, windstorm, and human activities
like agriculture etc. greatly alter the conditions of an environment. The following are the
three proposed hypotheses pertaining to the mechanism of replacement.

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Ecological succession
Facilitation Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that the invasion of later species depends on the conditions created
by earlier colonists. Earlier species modify the environment so as to increase the
competitive ability of species which are then able to displace them. Succession thus
proceeds because of the effects of species on their environment.
Tolerance Hypothesis
This suggests that later successional species tolerate lower levels of resources than earlier
occupants and can invade and replace them by reducing resource levels below those
tolerated by earlier occupants. Succession proceeds despite the resistance of earlier
colonists.
Inhibition Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that all species resist invasion of competitors and are displaced only
by death or by damage from factors other than competition. Succession proceeds towards
dominance by longer-lived species.
FOOD CHAIN
 A food chain is the path of food from a given final consumer back to a producer.
 The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms
(herbivores to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is
known as a Food chain. Producers utilise the radiant energy of sun which is
transformed to chemical form, ATP during photosynthesis.
Characters of Food Chain
 A food chain is generally straight. The number of trophic levels is 3-6.
 There is progressive reduction in available biomass, energy and number of
individuals with the rise in trophic level.

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 A food chain consists of series of populations which are related by eating and being
eaten.
 A major part of energy made available at each trophic level is lost as heat. In each
trophic level a lot of biomass is consumed in liberating energy.
 Food chains are sustained by producers and decomposers. Some organisms like
humans operate at more than one trophic level.

Food Web
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS (ELTONIAN PYRAMIDS)
 An ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of an ecological parameter, like
biomass, energy or number of individuals present in various trophic levels of a food
chain with producers forming the base and top carnivores the tip. Each trophic level
represents a functional level. Therefore, it includes all the members of all the species
operating at that level.

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The Ecological Pyramid in a lake

Types of Pyramids
Based on the shape of pyramid
 Inverted: Narrow base, gradually becoming broader towards the tip.
 Spindle shaped: Narrow both at base and tip, with broader part in the middle.
 Upright: With larger base and gradually tapering towards tip
Based on ecological parameters
 Pyramid of Numbers: Shows number of individual organisms at each level.
 Pyramid of Biomass: Shows the total dry weight and other suitable measure of total
amount of living matter.
 Pyramid of Energy: Shows rate of energy flow and productivity at successive trophic
level.
BIODIVERSITY
The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity
or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all
sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological
complexes of which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‗Biological diversity‘ or ‗biodiversity‘
as that part of nature which includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a

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species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in
space i.e. local, regional, country wise and global, and various types of ecosystems- both
terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.

Types of Biodiversity:
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature‘s variety in the biosphere. This variety
can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.
Genetic diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes.
Tremendous amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic
variability is responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw
material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is
made use to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.
Species diversity: The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a
region constitutes its species diversity. This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystem and
in agricultural ecosystem. Some areas are richer in species than others. For example,
natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than monoculture
plantations developed by the forest department for timber products. A natural forest
ecosystem provides large number of non-timber forest products that local people depend on
such as fruits, fuel, wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and medicines. Timber plantations do not
provide the large variety of goods that are essential for local consumption. Modern intensive
agro ecosystem have a relatively lower density of crops than traditional agro pastoral
farming systems, where multiple crops were planted.
Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‗hotspots‘ of diversity and the countries
with highest species richness or have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of

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diversity are referred to as ‗megadiversity nations. India is among the world‘s 15 nations
that are exceptionally rich in species diversity. The earth‘s biodiversity is distributed in
specific ecological regions. There are over a thousand major eco-regions in the world. Of
these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas. These areas
are referred to as the Global 200. It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which
comprise 20% of global plant life, probably occur in only 25 ‗hot spots‘ in the world. These
hotspots harbor many rare and endangered species. Two criteria help in defining hotspots
namely rich endemism and the degree of threat. To qualify as hotspots an area must
contain at least 0.5 per cent or 1500 of the world‘s 3, 00,000 plants species as endemics
(Myers et al., 2000).
Ecosystem diversity: There are a large variety of different ecosystem on earth, each
having their own complement of distinctive inter linked species based on differences in the
habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region or a
political entity such as a country, a state or a taluk. Distinctive ecosystems include
landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc as well as aquatic ecosystems
like rivers, lakes and seas. Each region also has man-modified areas such as farmland or
grazing pastures. It refers to the variation in the structure and functions of the ecosystem. It
describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological processes that sustain
energy flow, flood webs and the recycling of nutrients. It has focus on various biotic
interactions and the role and functions of keystone species (species determining the ability
of large number of other species to persist in the community).

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