PHYSICS PROJECT
Kathmandu Model Secondary School
Bagbazaar, Kathmandu
SENSORS AND ITS TYPES
[Link] Kharel (Roll no ‘49’)
[Link] Poudyal (Roll no ‘43’ )
[Link] Sapkota (Roll no ‘36’)
[Link] Dawadi (Roll no ‘20’)
ABSTRACT
This project deals with the study of the general concept of sensor and it’s types which
involves various information about sensors. It gives the basic concept to people who are
curious to know about this topic. This report also talks about the working mechanism of
various sensors. As this report also shows the application of sensors which greatly helps
to know about the uses of it in various sectors. Overall, this report covers almost portions
of sensors.
DECLARATION
We solemnly affirm that we have completed the project report presented herein under the
guide provided to us and that it has not been previously submitted for any other examination.
All sources of information utilized in this report have been duly acknowledged through
proper referencing to the respective authors or institutions.
Signature:
Stream- Science
Section- M ‘13’
Date :
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
I have supervised the project work report entitled ‘SENSORS & ITS TYPES’ which
was submitted by the students in group from Kathmandu Model College. The report
follows the procedure and format requirements set by the Department of Physics and
is being submitted as partial fulfillment of the internal evaluation requirements for
grade XI. Therefore, I recommend this report for evaluation.
Signature...........
Name of Subject Teacher:
Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor, Mr. Suman Gahire for his
invaluable guidance, encouragement, and support throughout the entire process of conducting
this project report. His expertise and mentorship have been instrumental in shaping the
direction and quality of this report. We would also like to thank our colleagues at the
Department of Physics, Kathmandu Model Secondary School for their insightful feedback
and stimulating discussions that have enriched our understanding of the project topic.
We are grateful to our friends and families for their unwavering support and encouragement,
and for always believing in us. Their love, understanding, and motivation have been a driving
force behind our perseverance and completion of this thesis. Their financial assistance has
been crucial in facilitating data collection, analysis, and dissemination of the findings. Finally,
we would like to express our heartfelt appreciation to all the participants who generously
shared their time and insights, without whom this research would not have been possible.
Their contributions have been invaluable in advancing our understanding of the research
topic. In conclusion, we are deeply grateful to all those who have contributed to the
completion of this report, and we acknowledge their efforts with sincere appreciation.
Thank you!
INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR
The sensor is a device that receives different kinds of signal i.e. physical,
chemical or biological signal and converts them into an electric signal such as
current or voltage. In other words, a sensor is a translator that converts a
nonelectrical value to an electrical value. In most cases, the signal is electrical
but can also be optical. Many sensors are simple resistive devices. For example,
a photocell is a variable resistor, which produces a resistance, proportional to
the amount of light it senses. There are many sensors commonly used in various
applications. All these sensors are categorized as per their physical properties
like temperature, resistance, pressure, heat flow, etc.
TYPES OF SENSORS
In this project, we discuss briefly on pressure sensor, light sensor
and temperature sensor .
i. Pressure Sensor:
A pressure sensor is a device that senses and measures pressure. In this
case, pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted over an area.
Pressure sensors allow for more specialized maintenance strategies, such
as predictive maintenance. These devices collect real-time data on the
conditions of equipment. Based on the available information, the sensors
can predict and prepare for failure patterns.
By installing pressure sensors to certain tanks and other pressurized
assets, the sensors can alert maintenance teams when the pressure falls
outside of a specified level. This allows the teams to address the issue
immediately. A typical example of a pressure sensor in maintenance is
transducer that picks up a signal when pressure is applied to it.
Mechanism of Pressure Sensor
The strain gauge is one of the most important tools of the electrical measurement technique
applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name indicates, they are used
for the measurement of strain. As a technical term "strain" consists of tensile and compressive
strain, distinguished by a positive or negative sign. Thus, strain gauges can be used to pick up
expansion as well as contraction.
When pressure is applied, it produces a deflection of the diaphragm that gives a
mechanical load to the gauge element. This introduces strain to the gauges and experiences a
deformation before returning to its original state. The conversion of pressure into an electrical
signal is done by the physical deformation of strain gauges which are glued into the
diaphragm of the pressure transducer. The strain will produce an electrical resistance change
proportional to the pressure. Pressure sensor is used to test vehicles, ship hulls, dams, oil
drilling platforms, etc. In civil engineering strain gauges are installed on structural
components in a bridge or building to measure stress and compare them to logical models and
stress calculations, used like an electronically changeable pressure switch.
ii. Light Sensor:
Light Sensor or photo sensor is a photoelectric device that converts light
energy (whether visible or infra-red light) into an electrical signal. It generates an output
signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy. This energy exists in a
very narrow range of frequencies of light, and which ranges from infra-red to visible then up
to UV light spectrum. There are different kinds of light sensors such as photoresistors,
photodiodes, photovoltaic cells, phototubes, photomultiplier tubes, phototransistors, charge
coupled devices (CCDs) etc.
MECHANISM OF LIGHT SENSOR
The light dependent resistor (LDR) and fixed resistor form a potential divider as shown in
above figure. The voltage output can be changed by variations in the value of the LDR.
Sensor is placed at the top (R1) if we want a large Vout when the sensor has a small resistance.
Sensor is placed at the bottom (R2) if you want a large Vout when the sensor has a large
resistance. A variable resistor may be used in place of the fixed resistor R. It will help to
adjust the output voltage Vout for a given resistance of the sensor. A variable resistor can be
used to set the exact brightness level which makes a chip change state.
Light sensors are used in cell phones and tablets. Most portable personal electronics
now have ambient light sensors used to adjust brightness. They are also used in controlling
automatic lights in automobiles and street lamps.
Intensity of light v/s Resistance Graph
iii. Temperature Sensor:
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures the temperature of its environment
and converts the input data into electronic data to record, monitor or signal temperature
changes. For example, thermistor, thermocouple, resistive temperature detector, etc. There are
basically two types of sensors, contact temperature sensor and non-contact temperature
sensor. In contact temperature sensor, there is physical contact with the object being sensed
and to monitor the change in temperature , conduction is used. In a non-contact temperature
sensor, we use convection and radiation properties to measure the changes in temperature.
MECHANISM OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermocouples and thermistors are among the contact temperature sensors. A thermocouple
is comprised of two conductors, each made of a different type of metal, that are joined at an
end to form a junction. When the junction is exposed to heat, a voltage is generated that
directly corresponds to the temperature input. This happens because of the phenomena called
the thermoelectric effect.
Thermocouples are generally inexpensive, as their design and materials are simple. In
thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature increases. Thermistors are more precise than
thermocouples (capable of measuring with 0.05-1.5 degrees Celsius), and they are made of
ceramics or polymers. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are basically the metal
counterpart of thermistors, and they are the most precise and expensive type of temperature
sensors.
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive semiconductor device. Its resistance changes
rapidly with change in temperature. That is, it has large temperature coefficient of resistance
and is used as temperature sensor. Such sensor is relatively low-priced, adjustable and easy to
use. Thermistors are made from oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt and copper or semiconductors
like silicon, germanium. They are available in different shapes, such as beads, discs and
cylindrical rods. Thermistors are used in digital thermometers. When connected in a circuit,
the voltage across thermistor can be read and processed by a computer. Hence, they are used
in automatic temperature control system. They are also used in remote temperature seeing,
voltage stabilization and protection of motor windings, in automobiles, medical devices,
computers, cooking appliances and other types of machinery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
● Dr. Harihar Poudyal, Dr. Manoj Kumar Thapa, Dr.
Arjun Kumar Gautam, Dr. Bhesha Raj Adhikari ,
Parashu Ram Poudel, 2081 B.S. (Revised edition),
Principle of Physics, Ayam Publication
● Dr. Nagendra Bdr. Aryal, Laxmi Pd. Chalise, Uttam
Raj Bhusal, Suman Gahire,2081 B.S .(Revised
edition) Integrated Physics, C. Publication
● [Link]
● [Link]