Chapter 3: Atomic Structure By Ahmer Sarosh Page 1 of 13

ATOMIC MODELS
The concept of the atomic model developed over time, as our understanding of atomic
structure improved through experimental observations and theoretical advances.
Several important models of the atom had been proposed throughout history, each
contributing to the understanding of atomic behavior and properties. The most
important atomic models are:
i. Dalton's Model
ii. Rutherford Model
iii. Bohar Atomic Theory
iv. Quantum Mechanical Model
Importance of Atomic Model:
 An atomic model helps us to understand the structure of an atom.
 An atomic model is a tool for understanding the structure and behavior of atoms
and their interaction in chemical reactions.
 An atomic model is not a physical model, but represents a conceptual
imagination which helps to explain experimental observations of atomic
behavior.
 The atomic model gives us a simplified representation of complex reality.
As research and technology progress, scientists continue to improve our knowledge
about atomic models.
DALTON'S ATOMIC MODEL
In 1803, the British chemist John Dalton presented a scientific theory on the existence
and nature of matter. This theory is called Dalton's Atomic Theory.
Main postulates of his theory are as follows:
1. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of a particular element are identical. They have same mass and same
volume.
3. During chemical reaction atoms combine or separate or re-arrange. They
combine in simple ratios.
4. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
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Importance of Dalton Atomic Model:
 Dalton was able to explain quantitative results that scientists of his time had
obtained in their experiments.
 He explained the laws of chemical combinations.
 His brilliant work became the main stimulus for the rapid progress of the
chemistry during nineteenth century.
However, series of experiments that were performed in 1850's and beginning of
twentieth century, clearly demonstrated that atom is divisible and consists of
subatomic particles i.e. electrons, protons and neutrons.

Rutherford's Experiment
In 1911 Rutherford performed an experiment in
order to know the arrangement of electrons and
protons in atoms.
Rutherford bombarded a very thin gold foil about
4 x10-5 cm thickness with alpha-particles (figure).
He used alpha-particles obtained from the
disintegration of Polonium.

Observations:
 Most of these particles passed straight through the foil.
 Only few particles were slightly deflected.
 But one in 1 million (1/million) was deflected through an angle greater than 90°
from their straight paths.
 Rutherford performed a series of experiments using thin foils of different
elements. He observed similar results from these experiments.
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Conclusions
1. Since majority of the α-particles passed through the foil un-deflected, most of
the space occupied by an atom must be empty.

2. The deflection of a few α-particles through angles greater than 90° shows that
these particles are deflected by electrostatic repulsion between the positively
charged α-particles and the positively charged part of atom.

3. Massive α-particles are not deflected by electrons.

RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL

On the basis of conclusions drawn from these experiments, Rutherford proposed a new
atomic model:
1. He proposed a planetary model (similar to the solar system) for an atom. An
atom is a neutral particle.
2. The mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small dense positively charged
region. He named this region as nucleus.
3. The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circles. These circles are
called orbits.
4. The centrifugal force due to the revolution of electrons balances the electrostatic
force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons.
Defects in Rutherford's Atomic Model
 Classical physics suggests that electron being charged particle will emit energy
continuously while revolving around the nucleus.
 Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller until it
would fall into the nucleus. This would collapse the atomic structure.
 If revolving electron emits energy continuously it should form a continuous
spectrum.
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BOHAR ATOMIC THEORY
In1913 Neil Bohr, proposed a model for an atom that was consistent with Rutherford's
Atomic Model. But it also explains the observed line spectrum of the Hydrogen atom.
Main postulates of Bohar Atomic Theory are as follows:
1. The electron in atom revolves around the nucleus in one of the circular orbits.
Each orbit has a fixed energy. So each orbit is also called energy level.
2. The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. The farther the electron is from the nucleus, the more energy it has.
3. The electron revolves only in those orbits for which the angular momentum of
the electron is an integral multiple of h/2k where h is Plank's constant (its value
is 6.626 x 10-34 J.s).
4. Light (photon) is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher energy orbit and
emitted when an electron falls into a lower energy orbit. Electron present in a
particular orbit does not radiate energy.
5. The energy of the light (photon) emitted is exactly equal to the difference
between the energies of the orbits.
E=E2-E1

Where delta E is the energy difference between any two orbits with energies E1 and
E2.
Bohr Model does not depict the three dimensional aspect of an atom.
Quantum Mechanical Model
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This is the current model used by modern science to describe the structure of the atom.

 It incorporates the principles of quantum mechanics and treats electrons as

wave-particle entities. (Particle-Wave Dual Behavior)

 Instead of exact orbits, it defines probability regions, called orbitals, where

electrons are likely to be found. (Heisenberg uncertainty principle)

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

This principle states that it is impossible to determine the exact location and future
trajectory (path) of an electron, simultaneously (at the same time).
As a result, plotting the electron orbit around the nucleus is extremely difficult.
Explanation: When we observe the position of single electron of Hydrogen atom at a
given moment. Shortly after we repeat this process, the electron moves to another
position, means that from its original location to the next location that is completely
unknown.
Continuous repetition of this process allows the gradual construction of a three-
dimensional map representing the likely locations where the electron is expected to
exist around the nucleolus. We cannot know for sure where an electron is and where it
goes next. This makes it impossible to draw the orbit of the electron around the
nucleus.
Example: In hydrogen, the electron has the potential to exist anywhere in the
spherical region surrounding the nucleus most the time (say 95%) the electron will be
in a relatively simple region of space close to the nucleus, called an orbit

Particle-Wave Dual Behavior

Broglie, in 1924 proposed duel nature of electrons He suggested that sub-atomic
particles like electrons, can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behaviour.

His idea opened the door for new possibilities in understanding behavior of sub-
atomic particles. This concept made a significant contribution to the development of
quantum mechanics.
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In 1927, Davisson and Germer, experimentally confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis
that electron has wave like behaviour. This discovery laid the foundation for the
Modern Quantum Mechanics.

The Structure Atom

The nucleus of an atom is in the center. It contains protons and neutrons. Protons and
neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons in
shells.
Three Fundamental Subatomic Particles:
Proton: Relative charge: +1, Relative mass= 1 amu or 1.6726 x 10-27 kg
Neutron: Relative charge: 0, Relative mass: 1 amu or 1.6749x 10-27 kg
Electron: Relative charge: -1, Relative mass: 1 /1836 amu or 9.11 x 10" kg
Relationships Between Subatomic Particles
 Subatomic Particles play crucial roles in determining the properties and
behaviour of atoms and molecules.
 Neutrons and protons are held together in the nucleus by Strong Nuclear Force.
This force exists between neutron-neutron, proton-proton, and neutron-proton
 Protons and neutrons have roughly the same mass, around 1 amu. This mass
contribute significantly to the total mass of the atom. Electrons have much less
mass, so their contribution to the total mass of an atom is usually negligible.
 The interaction between the negatively charged electrons and positively charged
protons holds the atoms together.
Strong Nuclear Force: The force that binds protons and neutrons together in a
nucleus is called Strong Nuclear Force.
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and
neutrons are neutral. The positively charged protons must repel each other and the
nucleus must break apart. No electro static or magnetic force is present within the
nucleus (core), but atoms are stable.
The attractive force that hold nucleus together is known as Strong Nuclear
Force. This force is stronger than electrostatic or magnetic forces. This force exists
between neutrons-neutrons, protons-protons, and neutrons-protons.
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Atomic Mass Unit (amu):

One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth (1/12)
the mass of one C-12 atom.

By international agreement in 1961, light isotope of carbon (C-12) has been

chosen as a standard. This isotope of carbon(C-12) has been assigned a mass exactly
12 atomic mass unit (amu). The mass of atoms of all other elements are compared to
the mass C-12.
mp = mass of a proton
(1.007277 amu)
Since mass of one C-12 atom =12 amu mn = mass of a neutron
(1.008665 amu)
1 amu = mass of one C-12 atom/ 12 =12 amu/12 =1 amu

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):

The mass of an atom of any element relative to the mass of an atom of C-12 is called
its relative atomic mass.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) of an element = (∑ isotope mass X %isotope abundance) /100

Ar = (∑ isotope atomic mass X % isotope abundance) /100

Ar= (%age mass of an atom /100) X 12

%age mass of Hydrogen atom as compared to C-12 atom =1.008/12.011X 100

=8.40%

%age mass of Nitrogen atom as compared to C-12 atom =14.0067/12.011X 100

=116.615%

Ar= (%age mass of an atom as compared to C-12 atom/12.011)x100

Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is the release of energy/ radiation from the decay of the nuclei of some
unstable of atoms and isotopes.
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In atoms of stable elements the nuclear forces is balanced. But in some
elements, the nuclear forces are not naturally balanced. The nucleus of these atoms
decay by emitting radiations and becomes another atom or isotope. This process is
called radioactive decay.

This process (radioactive decay) continues until the forces in the nuclear core
are balanced. In radioactive decay, when an atom emits a neutron, it changes to
another isotope of that atom but when it emits a proton, it becomes another atom. For
example:

1. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. It is naturally present in the

atmosphere. The radioactive C-14 undergoes radioactive decay and transforms
into Nitrogen-14.

2. Uranium-238 is a radioactive isotope of uranium. It decays over time and finely

transforms into stable Lead-206 atom.

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of an element whose nuclei have the same Atomic Number (Z) but
different Mass Number (A).

This is because an atoms of an element can differ in the number of neutrons. Isotopes
affect molecular mass of a substance, can change physical properties but do not
change chemical properties. Isotopes are chemically alike and differ in their physical
properties.

Q.11 State importance and uses of isotopes in various fields of life.

Stable and radioactive isotopes have many applications in science and medicines.
Some of the are as follows:

1. Radioactive iodine -131 is used as a tracer in diagnosing thyroid problem.

2. Iodine-123 is used to image the brain.
3. Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) is called heavy water and used in nuclear reactors.
4. Na-24 is used to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions
obstructions in the circulatory system.
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5. Cobalt-60 is used to irradiate cancer cells in the hope of killing shrinking the
tumors.
6. Carbon-14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photo-synthesis, Radioactive
isotopes are used to determine the molecular structure e.g sulphur-35 has been
used in the structure determination of thio-sulphate, S2O3 ion.
7. Radioactive isotopes are also used to study the mechanism of chemical
reactions.
8. Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soils, archaeological objects, and
mummies e.g. Carbon Dating
9. The U-235 isotope is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.

Isotopes of Hydrogen

Hydrogen has three isotopes.

Hydrogen 1 (Protium) has no neutron. H

Hydrogen -2 (Deuterium) has 1 neutron H

Hydrogen -3 (Tritium) has 2 neutrons. H

Hydrogen (Protium) is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas. It is insoluble in
water highly inflammable gas.

Naturally occurring hydrogen contains 99.99% Protium, 0.0015% Deuterium. Tritium

is radioactive and is rare. Tritium is not found in naturally occurring hydrogen because
its nucleus is highly unstable.

Heavy Water: Water that contains hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms in place of

hydrogen-1 (Protium) is called heavy water. This used in nuclear reactors

Comparison of ordinary water and heavy water.

Property Ordinary water Heavy Water
o
Melting Point 0.000 C 3.81oC
Boiling Point 100oC 101.2oC
Density at 25°C 0.99701 g/cm3 1.1044 g/cm³

Isotopes of Carbon
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Carbon has three isotopes i.e. :

Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons C (98.892 %)

Carbon-13 has 7 neutrons C (1.11 %)
Carbon-14 has 8 neutrons C (0.009 %)
Almost all the carbon is carbon-12 C. Different forms of carbon are black or grayish
black solids except diamond. They are odorless and tasteless. They have high melting
and boiling points and are insoluble in water
Carbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14
dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by
using the properties of Carbon-14.

Carbon atoms circulate between the oceans, and living organism at a rate very much
faster than they decay. As a result the concentration of C-14 in all living things, keep
on increasing. After death organisms no longer pick up C-14.

By comparing the activity of a sample of skull or jaw bones, with the activity of living
tissues, we can estimate how long it has been since the organism died. This process is
called dating.

Method / Technique

During its life, a plant or animal is in equilibrium with its surroundings by exchanging
carbon either with the atmosphere or through its diet. It will, therefore, have the same
proportion of 14 C as the atmosphere, or in the case of marine animals or plants, with
the ocean. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire 14C, but the 14C within its biological
material at that time will continue to decay, and so the ratio of 14C to 12C in its remains
will gradually decrease. Because 14C decays at a known rate, the proportion of
radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample
stopped exchanging carbon – the older the sample, the less 14C will be left.

Isotopes of Chlorine (CL)

Chlorine is a grayish yellow gas with sharp pungent irritating smell. It is fairly soluble
in water. There are two natural isotopes of chlorine, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
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Isotope Neutron Protons Natural Abundance
s
Cl-35 18 17 75.77 %
Cl-37 20 17 24.23 %.

Uranium Isotopes
Uranium has three isotopes with mass number 234, 235 and 238 respectively.

U, U, U
The U-235 isotope is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs, whereas the U-235
isotope lacks the properties necessary for these applications. U-234 is rare in nature.

Isotope Neutrons Protons Natural Abundance

U-234 0.006%,
U-235 0.72%,
U-238 99.27%

When uranium-238 decays into Thorium-234, it emits alpha particle.

U Th + He

Apha Particle (α-particle): An alpha particle is doubly positively charged helium

nucleus.

Ion

An atom that carries a positive or negative electric charge as a result of having lost or
gained one or more electrons is called ion.

Atoms have equal number of protons and electrons so atoms are electrically neutral.
When an atom loses one or more electrons, the number of protons becomes greater
than electrons, as a result atom acquires positive charge.

When an atom gains one or more electrons, the number of electrons becomes greater
than protons, so it acquires negative charge.

Cations: Cations are positively charged ions that form when an atom loses one or
more electrons.
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Cations are usually formed from metal atoms that tend to lose electrons to achieve a
stable electron configuration similar to a noble gas.

Anions: Anions are negatively charged ions that form when an atom gains one or
more electrons.

The process usually occurs when an atom has a relatively high electron affinity,
meaning that it can easily attract and capture more electrons to achieve a stable
electron configuration similar to a noble gas.

Electronic Configuration: The arrangement of electrons in sub-shells is called

electronic configuration.

Shells : According to Bohr's atomic theory, the electron in an atom revolves around
the nucleus ín one of the circular paths called shells or orbits. Each shell has a fixed
energy, so each shell is also called energy level.

Representation of Shell

Each shell is described by n value. n can have values 1,2,3....

When,

n=1, it is K shell

n=2, it is L shell

n=3, it is M shell etc.

As the value of n increases the distance of electron from the nucleus and energy of the
shell also increases.

Sub-Shells: A shell or energy level is sub divided into sub-shells or sub-energy levels.

Representation of Sub Shells

n value of a shell is placed before the symbol for a sub-shell. For example:

n=1, for K shell. It has only one sub-shell, i.e. 1s.

For L shell n =2, L shell has two sub-shells, i.e. 2s and 2p.

For M shell n =3 So M shell has 3 sub-shells, i.e. 3s, 3p and 3d.

While N shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f sub-shells.

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S sub-shell can accommodate maximum 2 electrons.
P Sub-shell can accommodate maximum 6 electrons.
d sub-shell can accommodate maximum 10 electrons.
f sub-shell can accommodate maximum 14 electrons.
The increasing order of energy of the sub-shells belonging to different shells is given
below.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p< 4s< 3d ...

Aufbau Principle: (off ba ho) Electrons fill the lowest energy sub-shell that is
available first.

This means electron will fill first 1s, then 2s, then 2p and so on. We can fill the
electrons present in various elements by using Auf Bau Principle.