PDIS 204 Advance safety Management & Engineering Technics

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PDIS 204

Advance safety Management

&
Engineering Technics

Mahesh Pandit
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 PDIS 204 Advance safety Management & Engineering Technics

NILAY PATEL CHAPTER – 1 PLANT SITING

Q: Discuss briefly about the general principal of plant lay out

(5) June’19
Appropriate site selection through careful planning and loss
control studies at the initial stages of a project formulation shall
go a long way in ensuring the construction and installation of
any hazardous industry that pave the way for smooth and safe
operation, maintenance, material handling followed by an
efficient marketing distribution and networking. Important
consideration with respect to a site selection could be as
 Type size and magnitude of installation
 Land availability and its cost
 Raw material, labour and infrastructure availability
 Operational and maintenance convenience
 Hazards to employees, transporters and service providers
 Hazards to nearby community
 Access to market (marketing and distribution)
 Solid and liquid Waste disposal responsibilities (hazardous
waste management– Place for waste disposal)
 Waste water treatment & effluent discharge / disposal
 Surrounding population density and distance from the
public
 Distance from highways, railways and transport facilities
(transportation facility and logistics)
 Material handling
 Adequate distance, separating plants, utilities, hazardous
material storage, loading / unloading, warehouse, supply
chains, furnaces etc.

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 Suitability of climate, environment and factors related to

ecology, geology, meteorology, micro & macro biology
 Internal and external security availability
 Emergency preparedness and response plan including
quick, easy and convenient accessibility to public transport
system, hospital etc.
 Suitability for industrial use and located away from
residential and other public
 Occupied areas (shops, educational institutions,
commercial establishment etc.)
Q: a medium scale pesticide industry plant is proposed to be set
up at an industrial estate. What all elements should be covered
in siting this plant? Give reasons in against each. (10) Dec’17.
Or Criteria while choosing location for hazardous industries.

Availability of electricity or other prime movers and other

utilities such as water, steam etc including emergency
requirements
 Government policy advantages like subsidies, incentives
and zoning (SEZ) if prescribed.
 Sufficient spacing must be available to develop green belt
zone as per Environmental guidelines
 Internal access, working and movement space for men,
material, machines, tools, maintenance facilities
 Convenient and quick access to the provisions like
firewater, pump house, hydrant, monitors, portable
extinguishers, emergency squads, occupational health
centre etc
 Other Certain specific and significant elements for site
selection and approval as

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Location - Plant producing or using highly explosives,

inflammable or toxic substances in bulk should be located away
from dense population
Climate - Study of prevailing wind, Rain, hurricane,
Earthquake, cyclone, flood, tornado, temperature etc is useful in
deciding location of offices and air intakes, storage, drainage &
waste disposal, direction of exhausted smoke, fumes, dust, gases
etc. with respect to the surrounding locality.
Terian - Natural structure like hills, mountain, sea or riverside,
type of soil, mine, underground source etc. may be useful for
special purpose.
Nature of site - It should be large enough for safe layout, with
sufficient space for all buildings, road, parking and storing areas,
effluent treatment plants and future expansions.
Accessibility - Rail, road, river, sea, and airport facilities should
be ensured
Environment - Air impurities, source of ignition, noise &
vibration from neighboring industry, transports vehicles, running
trains, and low flying aircrafts should be considered.
Shipping & receving- Shipping and receiving should mesh with
the overall flow of materials within the organization or facility.
They should also aid the efficient flow of materials from and out
of the production areas.
Roadways within the site - Hauling by heavy duty trucks or
other handling equipments require at least 15 metre width for
two way traffic, with ample radii at curves / intersections etc.
Location of building & structures - To minimize the risk of
fires and explosions store both raw material & finished
goods away form process buildings / machinery / equipments.

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Layout of equipment - A detailed flow sheet is a useful guide

for laying out facilities especially those using dangerous and
harmful materials and complicated processes.
NILAY PATEL
General consideration - Adequate water supply for drinking,
process and fire-fighting, drainage of rain water, fire water etc
and water / air / land pollution should be considered.

Q: Metrological aspects while selecting industry (5) June’19

While selecting a site, prevailing climatic conditions in the

location and consequential impacts if any must be given due
consideration.
 It should not have any effect on industrial processes
otherwise more control measures may be required
 The factors for consideration include
 High or low temperatures
 More moisture / humidity
 High or low wind velocity and general flow direction
 Heavy / long / intermittent / frequent raining
 Cloudy atmosphere
 Frequent change in weather conditions
 Effects of nearby seashore
 Effects of hills and jungles
 Effect of long duration of sun rays Etc. have considerable
effect on raw materials, products and processes
 Gas leakages from industry, their concentration and
damage distances vary depending on weather conditions
 Global warming and greenhouse effect should be decreased
by preventing emission of CO2 and O3 depleting
substances.
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Environmental guidelines

 Rule no. 5 covered under Environmental Protection Act

(EPA), 1986 provide following siting criteria with
respect to the location of industries in different areas.
 Standard for quality of environment laid down for an
area.
 The maximum allowable limits of concentration of
various environment pollutants (including noise) for an
area.
 The likely emission of discharge of environmental
pollutants from industry, process or operation proposed
to be prohibited or restricted.
 The topographic and climatic features of an area
 The biological diversity of the area which, in the opinion
of the central Government, needs to be [Link]
 Environmentally compatible land use
 Net adverse environmental impact likely to be caused by
an industry, process or operation proposed to be
prohibited or restricted
 Proximity to a legal protected area (viz. Ancient
Monument & Archaeological sites & remains Act, 1958
or a Sanctuary, National park, game reserve or closed
area notified etc.)
 Proximity to human settlement
 Any other factor as may be considered by the Central
Government to be relevant to protection of the
Environment in an area.

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Following conditions are also to be fulfilled

 The State Director of Industries confirms that the site of the
project has been approved from environmental angle by the
competent State Authority.
 The entrepreneur commits both to the State Government
and Central Government that he will install the appropriate
equipment, implement and the prescribed measures for the
prevention and control of pollution.
 The concerned State Pollution Control Board has certified
that the proposal meets with the environmental
requirements and that the equipment installed or proposed
to be installed are adequate and appropriate to the
requirement.
Siting criteria
 In a selected site, the following factors must be recognised
 No forest land shall be converted into non-forest activity
for the sustenance of the industry.
 No prime agricultural land shall be converted into industrial
site within the acquired site the industry must locate itself
at the lowest location to remain obscured from general
sight land acquired shall be sufficiently large to provide
space for appropriate treatment of waste still left for
treatment after maximum possible reuse and recycle.
 Reclaimed (treated) wastewater shall be used to raise green
belt and to create water body aesthetics, recreation and if
possible, for aquaculture.
 The green belt shall be 500 meter wide around the battery
limit of the industry
 The green belt between two adjoining large scale industries
shall be one kilometer
 Green belt should also be provided within factory premises
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 Enough space should be provided for storage of solid waste

so that these could be available for possible reuse.
 Layout and form of the industry, that may come up in the
area must conform to the landscape of the area without
affecting the scenic features of that place.
 Associated township of the industry must be created at a
space having physiographic barrier between industry and
the township.
 Each industry is required to maintain three ambient air
quality monitoring stations within 120 degree angle
between stations.

Q: Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

As per ―Environmental protection Act, 1986‖ promulgated

through parliament legislation and governed by the ministry of
Environment & Forests & Wild life, Government of India it is
mandatory on all hazardous chemical units to conduct an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) through a competent
independent agency and submit a report prior to the execution of
a project for new installation or expansion / addition / alteration
of an existing facility.
Objective
 EIA is basically concerned with identifying & assessing the
environmental consequences of development projects,
plans, programs & policies in an attempt to ensure that the
best alternative for development is selected. Identifying and
assessing the environmental impacts of development are
complex tasks because of the diversity of impact which
may be caused by human interference with environmental
& social systems.
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 Identification & assessment of these impact require

collection / manipulation oflarge amounts of data & most
importantly communicating the final results to the decision
makers and members of public many of whom are unlikely
to be ―experts‖ in Environmental sciences.
Purpose
The purpose to the EIA is to identify and evaluate the
potential impacts (beneficial and adverse) of developing
projects on the environmental system It is a useful aid for
decision making based on understanding of the
environmental implications including social, cultural and
aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with the
analysis of the project costs and benefits.
This exercise should be undertaken early enough in the
planning stage of projects for selection of environmentally
comparable sites, process technologies and such other
environmental safe guards.
Steps towards EIA
 Impact identification, Prediction, Measurement, Evaluation
and / or Interpretation
 Identification of monitoring requirements & Mitigation
measures communication of Impact information to users
such as Decision Makers & Members of Public During the
above process ‗new‘ alternatives are generated which
achieve the desired objectives at less cost to the
environment
☺

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Important information to be furnished to facilitate an EIA

Report preparation
 A detailed description of the process activity inclusive of
information & technical data adequate to permit a careful
assessment of Environmental Impact discussion on the
probable impact on the environment including any impact
on ecological systems and any direct and indirect
consequences that may result from the proposed action any
adverse environmental impact that cannot be controlled or
avoided alternatives to the proposed action that might avoid
some or all the adverse environmental effects, including an
analysis of the costs and environmental impacts of these
alternatives an assessment of the cumulative, long term
effect of the proposed action, including its relationship to
short term use of the environment v/s the environment‘s
long term productivity any irreversible or irretrievable
commitment of the resources that might occur from the
action or that would curtail beneficial use of the
environment a final impact statement must include a
discussion of the problems and objectives raised by other
federal, state and local agencies, private organizations and
individuals during the draft statement review process

Q: Environmental statement (5) June ‘19

[14. Submission of environmental [statement] - Every person

carrying on an industry, operation or process requiring consent
under Section 25 of the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or under section 21 of the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981) or
both or authorization under the Hazardous Wastes (Management
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and Handling) Rules, 1989 issued under the Environment

(Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) shall submit an
environmental 2 for the financial year ending the 31st March in
Form V to the concerned State Pollution Control Board on or
before the 2 day of September every year, beginning
1993.] AY PATEL

Q:Definition , inventory, preparation and submission of

report to competent authority.
Schedule 1, 2 and 3 of Manufacture, Storage and Impact of
Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 (and also u/r 68J of the
Gujarat Factories Rules) prescribe criteria for toxic, flammable
and explosive chemicals, list out the hazardous chemicals and
give their threshold quantity for application of certain rule.
These storage quantities and processes listed in schedule 4 are
now legal criteria to identify the plant to be under MAH unit.
Threshold quantities (in tons) Chemical Quantity Chemical
Quantity

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Hazardous chemicals as per MSIHCR classification

Schedule- I Part I
Toxic substnaces
Substances showing the following values of acute toxicity &
having physical & chemical properties capable of entailing
MAH
NILAY
Oral Dermal Inhalatio
Toxicity n
[LD – 50 [LD – 50
(mg/kg)] (mg/kg)] [LC -50
(mg/lit)]
Extremely toxic <50 <40 <0.5
Highly toxic >5 to <50 >40 to 200 >0.5 to 2
Toxic >50 to 200 >200 to 1000 >2 to 10
Flammable gases
Gases which 20* C and normal pressure
 Ignitable when in a mixture of 13% or less by volume with
air
 Have a flammable range with air of at least 12% point
regardless of the LFL
Extremely Flammable Liquids
Chemicals which have flash point lower than or equal to 23* C
and initial boiling point less than 35* C
Very Highly Flammable Liquids
Chemicals which have flash point lower than or equal to 23* C
and initial boiling point higher than 35* C
Highly Flammable Liquids
Chemicals which have flash points lower than or equal to 60* C
but higher than 23* C
Flammable Liquids
Chemicals which have flash point higher than 600C but lower
than 900 C
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Explosives
 Explosives means a solid or liquid pyrotechnic substance or
mixture of substances or an article.
 Which is in itself capable of chemical reaction of producing
a gas at such a temperature and pressure at such a speed so
as to cause damage to surroundings.
 Which is designed to produce as effect by heat, light sound,
gas or smoke or a combination of all those as a result of
non-detonative self sustaining exothermic chemical
reaction.

Part II
Of this schedule lists around 700 chemicals which posses any
one or combination of two or more of the hazardous
characteristics as mentioned above ILAY PATEL
This list has undergone review and amendments over a period of
twenty years that have elapsed since this inception of the Rules
in 1989 and more and more chemicals have been added and still
upward revision is expected in days to come

Q: Preparation and submission of report to authority

Statutory information required in a safety report is given in
schedule 8, Rule 10(1) of MSIHC Rules 1989.
Before 90 days of any modification (having material effect) an
updated safety report shall be submitted to the authority
As per GFR no 68J (9) an occupier shall not undertake any
industrial activity to which this sub rule applies, unless he has
prepared safety report on that industrial activity containing
information specified in schedule 8 and has sent a copy to the
Directorate of Industrial Safety & Health (DISH).

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In case new industrial activity which an occupier commences, or

by virtue of clauses (2)(a)(ii) of sub rule no. (5) is deemed to
commence, within 6 months after coming into force of these
rules, it shall be sufficient compliance.
In the case of an existing industrial activity, until five years from
the date of commencement these rules, it shall be a sufficient
compliance to clause (1) of this sub rule, if the occupier sends
the information to the DISH on or before 3 months from the date
of commencement of the rules.
Report should be well documented by the auditors, audit
certificate should be singed (with date) by the lead auditor and
enclosed with the audit report and it should be sent to the auditee
or client as soon as possible. If it cannot be sent within agreed
time limit, reasons of delay should be communicated.
The auditee should send acknowledge receipt of audit report to
the auditors and client and final report of compliance when it is
over.
The auditee will collect the reports of compliance, will verify
and arrange in chronological order against each point of
recommendation auditee should retain the audit report along
with its compliance report and should show them to the
authorities on demand Information to be furnished in Safety
Report
1. Name and address of the person furnishing the information
2. Description of the industrial activity
2.1. Site
2.2. Construction design
2.3. Protection zones (explosion protection, separation
distances etc.)
2.4. Plant accessibility details

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2.5. Maximum number of persons who could be available

at any point oftime especially at the specific hazard
location
3. Description of process activity
3.1. Technical purpose
3.2. Basic principles of the process technology
3.3. Process safety related data covering all stages of
operation
3.4. Safety relevant utility services
4. Description of hazardous chemicals
4.1. Chemicals (quantity, data or physical / chemical
properties, flash point, flammable limits, toxicological
information, threshold limit values etc.)
4.2. The transformation stage of the material into unsafe
conditions during any abnormalities
4.3. The degree of purity of hazardous chemicals
5. Information on preliminary hazard analysis such as
5.1. Nature of accidents
5.2. System elements of probable event scenarios that may
lead to a majoraccident
5.3. Hazards
5.4. Safety – relevant components
6. Description of safety – relevant units among others
6.1. Special design criteria
6.2. Controls / alarms
6.3. Pressure relief systems
6.4. Quick relief facilities
6.5. Dump / collection tanks
6.6. Fire water sprinklers
6.7. Other fire protection arrangements

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7. Information on hazard assessment like

7.1. Identification
7.2. Accident causation factors
7.3. Specific hazard assessment based on frequency /
severity
7.4. Safety systems
7.5. Known accident history
8. Description of information on organizational system for
safety
8.1. Maintenance / inspection schedules
8.2. Guidelines for employee training
8.3. Delegation of safety responsibility with reference to
plant safety
8.4. Compliance level of safety procedures
9. Information on assessment of the consequences of major
accident
9.1. Probable release of hazardous chemical energy
9.2. Probable dispersion pattern of releases (range and area,
health effect, property damage, environmental impact etc.)
10. Information on mitigation of major accidents
10.1. Fire brigade
10.2. Alarms & communications
10.3. Emergency preparedness & response plan (indication
the organizational set up to tackle emergency situations
including listing of probable accident scenarios)
10.4. Co-ordination system with local administrative
authorities or District level emergency control officials
inclusive of the off-site plans
10.5. Notification methodology regarding the nature and
scope of the hazardin the event of an accident

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10.6. Information regarding the availability of antidotes

that could be administered at the time of any major toxic
release.
NILAY PATEL
Q: Separation distance and its relevance statutory
requirements
Separation distances (safety distance to be maintained)
suggested by the government guidelines are as explained.
In siting industries, care should be taken to minimise the adverse
impact of the industries on the immediate neighbourhood as well
as distant places. Some of the natural life sustaining systems and
some specific land uses are sensitive to industrial impacts
because of the nature and extent of fragility. With a view to
protecting such industrial sites, the following distances from the
areas shall be maintained.
 Ecologically and / or otherwise sensitive areas; at least 25
km; depending on the geo-climatic conditions
 Coastal areas : at least ½ km from high tide line
 Fold plane of the riverine systems : at least ½ km from the
flood plain or modified flood plain affected by dam in the
upstream or by flood control system
 Transport / communication system : at least ½ km from
highway and railway
 Major settlements (3,00,000 population) : distance from
settlements is difficult to maintain because of urban sprawl.
(at the time of siting of an industry if any major
settlement‘s notified limit is within 50 km, the spatial
direction of growth of the settlement for at least a decade
must be assessed and the industry shall be sited at least 25
km from the projected growth boundary of the settlement)

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 Separation distances are either between two units or a

single unit and a source of ignition. It is normally between
the adjacent edges of the units and not from the centre to
centre.
o Factors to determine separation are
o Explosion effect
o Radiant heat form a burning material
o Ignition of a vapour escape
o Heavy concentration of a toxic gas.
Categorization of developments
In deciding the separation required form a works, it can be
helpful to categorize the proposed development. This will enable
individual development decision to be made within the
framework of a consistent approach Categories of development
can take account of a number of relevant factors in deciding on
whether to permit development e.g. Amount of time individuals
spent in the development.
Ease of implementing an emergency plan Vulnerability of
occupants of the development One broad categorization which
has been widely used is based on three general categories
 Category A: Residential, including houses, hotels, flats etc
 Category B: Industrial, including factories (unless they
have high-density employment), warehouse
 Category C: special including schools, hospitals, old
people‘s home etc
The separation distances could be considered as Within the
separation distances – no category C development
Within about 2/3rd of the distance – no category A development
No restriction of Category B development
LAY PATEL

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CHAPTER – 2 BULK STORAGES

Bulk storage –general consideration
NILAY
Administrative factors
 Fencing
 Restricted and authorized entry
 Training
 Appraisal
 Inspection & testing
Q: NFPA – National fire Protection association (5)June’19,
M’18
NFPA is an internationally recognized body and their standards,
codes and manuals are followed by not only by American
Government and industries but also by other countries in the
world.
The NFPA is the clearinghouse for information on the subject of
Fire prevention, Protection & Fire fighting. It is non-profit
technical and educational organization with a membership
network of around 68,000 companies and individuals.
The technical standards issued as a result of NFPA committee
work are widely accepted by federal, state and municipal
governments as the basis of legislation and used as a guideline
of good practices.
More than 50 serve as OSHA regulations. More than 300 codes
and standards are currently issued by NFPA which are
constantly reviewed and updated
The code indicates
 Relative risk to health
 Flammability
 Instability
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 Possible specific hazards (symbol)

The first three aspects are assigned a value in range 0-4, the
higher the value the higher the risk.

 Representative subject include

 Air conditioning and Ventilation system
 Brigades
 Flammable Chemicals data
 Industrial Fire Loss Prevention
 Life safety code handbook
 National electric code handbook
 Portable fire extinguishers
 Powered industrial trucks
 Prevention of dust explosion in industries
 Protection of records
 Safeguarding building construction operations
 Sprinkler system
 Organization and training private fire brigades
 Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases
 Truck fire protection
Other publications of interest to safety professionals concern
hazardous materials, fire safety to health care facilities, and
public fire safety.
In addition the fire protection handbook is an authoritative
encyclopaedia of fire loss control

Q: Write short note on: OISD – (Oil Industry Safety

Directorate) May’13
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It is an institute set up by the ministry of Petroleum,

Government of India to serve the Oil / natural gas exploration &
refinery units
It is an autonomous body entrusted with task of formulation,
issue & reviews various standards on Safety applicable to the
above mentioned industrial units
Those standards are applicable throughout the country. Even the
department of explosives are now-a-days quoting relevant OISD
standards and stipulating the requirements of enforcement of the
same as part of prior approval & license requirements for
factories falling under the purview of Petroleum Act / Rules and
Explosives Act / Static & Mobile Pressure Vessel (unfired)
Rules (SMPVR)
Design of storage layout
 Separation distances from population
 Separation distances from plant
 Isolated storage
 Restricted entry
 Entry and exit of transporting vehicle
 Protective means — fire, explosion, light, lightning
arrester, drainage
 Transfer distance from the user end

There are different types of design of storage sheds. Some are

open from all sides, some are partially open and some are closed
Considerations are
Floors
Depending upon the load and type of operations, the
conditions of the floor such as
 Cleanliness
 Absorptive qualities
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 Marking
 Colour
 Non-sparking of static disseminating properties
 Durability will give great effect on material handling
Floor used for stacking should be of sound
construction, well maintained, levelled and facilitating
drainage
 Floor slope on one side or at centre for not allowing any
liquid to accumulate shed should be adequately ventilated
as per vapour requirement fire detectors at proper locations,
surrounding open space for easy movement sufficient head
room for fire-fighting, proper stacking, sufficient lighting,
proper ventilation etc
 Sufficient room height and proper roof design according to
ventilators
 Alarm system in case of fire and leakages
 Proper locking system for explosives, poisonous chemicals,
radioactive etc.
 Floor slope should be connected with the drain and
collection pit
 Sufficient doors and emergency exits to be provided
 Sufficient lamps and tubes for sufficient illumination
 Suitable space for truck parking during loading / unloading
activities
 Gangways must be at least 60 cm wide
 Different sections with necessary partition for incompatible
chemicals and for liquid, solid and gases
 As far as possible fire proof materials of construction and
electrical fittings to be used

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Flammable liquids
 Detached location should be preferred
 Best location – open under non combustible weather
canopies
 Where detached location is not possible, fire resistant walls
(a room cut off from rest space), fire and pressure resisting
construction is advisable
 Slopping floor with adequate lining
 Shall be well ventilated
 Automatic sprinkler protection must be applied
 Where pressure is needed adequate hose line with reducing
valves should be provided
 Steam line if heating is necessary
 Emergency showers and eye washers
 Earthing and bonding
 Suitable fire extinguishers availability at strategic locations
 Various detectors with alarm system
 Adequate bund wall should be built around tanks
 Separation distance for incompatible chemicals to be
maintained
 Adequate space for free access around tanks
Flammable gases
 Gases are generally contained in cylinders in compressed,
liquefied or dissolved state
 Cylinders are protected from sunlight, damage or
deterioration and heat (soproper roofing and room if

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required to be provided)Safe cradle on platform with guard

rails should be provided for lifting
 Storage rooms should be dry, cool and adequately
ventilated
 Adequate illumination and lighting should be available
 Non compatible cylinders should be stored separately using
proper partition
 Various gas detectors and fire detectors with alarming
system is of first importance
 Auto sprinkler and other auto fire extinguishing system is
preferable
 Adequate fire extinguisher at particular places / distances
Purpose
 Dyke walls are required to restrict the spread of the leaking
material
 To safely contain material (leaking) within its periphery
and restrict the surface area of leaking material
 To reduce its evaporation (of leaked material)
 For ease of fire -fighting or other emergency control
activity
Q: What is the requirement of Dyke?
The contained material can be safely disposed off or if it is
burning, it can be extinguished easily by reaching up to dyke
wall
Design & safety
 Dyke walls are preferably permanent strong concrete
structure
 Wall height should be less than 2 meter to facilitate
evaporation & escape of vapors from split material and
ease for carrying fire fighting

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 The intermediate bund walls between a group of tanks or

single unit shall not exceed 0.5 meter
 Intermediate dyke serves as safeguard against mixing of
incompatible products in case of spillage etc.
 The distance between tank periphery and dyke shall not be
less than 1 meter
 Dyke wall should be safe, sound & leak proof
 Its floor should have slope
 Volume of dyke should be slightly more than the biggest
tank inside
 Steps should be provided to go inside
 Acid proof lining should be provided
 Where possibility of explosion is there, impact or blast wall
should be provided.
 It should have appropriate isolation valve to segregate the
flow of rain water accumulation to open sewers and oily
material form tank to effluent treatment or other salvage /
disposal facility
 The dyke drainage system must ensure that water discharge
is controlled by valve or suitable pump situated outside the
bund pit area Do not store any combustible material or any
other material inside the dyke area
Major types of storages
 Attached storage and isolated storage
 Fenced storage and Open storage
 Dyked storage and Undyked storage
 Flameproof storage and Non-flameproof storage
 Mounded storage and semi-mounded storage
 Cryogenic storage

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Q: Various types of storage or types and safe layout of

storages
Y PATEL
Isolated storage
―isolated storage‘‘ means storage where no other manufacturing
process other than storage, loading / unloading / pipe line
transfer by pumping of hazardous chemical is carried out and
that storage involves at least the quantity of that chemical set out
in Schedule 2, but does not include storage associated with an
installation specified in Schedule 4 on the same site;
SCHEDULE - 2
[See rule 2(c) (ii), 4(l)(b), 4(2) (1) and 6(1) (b)]
Isolated storage at installations other then covered by
schedule 4

The threshold quantities set out below relate to each installation

or group of installations belonging to the same occupier here the
distance between installations is not sufficient to avoid, in
foreseeable circumstances, any aggravation of major accident
hazards. These threshold quantities apply in any case to each
group of installations belonging to the same occupier where the
distance between the installations is less than 500 meters.
 For the purpose of determining the threshold quantity of
hazardous chemical at an isolated storage, account shall
also be taken of any hazardous chemical which is:-
o The hold up in that part of any pipeline under the
control of the occupier having control of the site

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which is within 500 meters of that site and connected

to it;
o at any other site under the control of the same occupier
any part of the boundary of which is within 500 meters
of the said site; and
o in any vehicle, vessel, aircraft or hovercraft, under the
control of the same occupier which is used for storage
purpose either at the site or within 500 meters of it;
o But no account shall be taken of any hazardous
chemical which is in a vehicle, vessel, aircraft or a
hovercraft used for transporting it.
Q: Explain mound storage and cryogenic storage (5) May’18
Mounded storage
A storage vessel which may site above ground or partly buried
and which is completely covered by a mound of earth or similar
inert material.
Mounded vessels should be covered by a suitable material which
is inert, noncorrosive, free from particles of abrasive materials
likely to damage the vessel coating and carefully consolidated to
give a minimum cover of 500 mm.
The mound should protect the vessel from the effects of thermal
radiation and should be sufficiently robust to remain in place in
the event of jet flame impingement.
NILAY PATEL
Mounded vessels should be placed on a firm foundation and
installed so as to prevent movement or floatation.
The surface of vessels should be suitably prepared and treated to
protect them from corrosion. Methods of protection may include
surface coatings and cathodic protection.
Mounded vessels should normally be fitted with a manhole or
not less than 560 mm internal diameter to allow access for
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inspection. Where a manhole is not provided, inspection ports

may be needed and it may be necessary to excavate the vessel to
thoroughly inspect it.
Vessel fittings and connections may be mounted o the manhole
cover or attached directly to the vessel. If this later, method is
used, excavation may be necessary for inspection.

 Mounded storage
 Semi-Mounded storage
 surface diameter
Cryogenic storage

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A storage below —40 °C is referred as cryogenic to rage.

Extreme stresses should be considered for design of such vessel.
It is so low temperature and hence likely to cause vacuum inside
the vessel and likely to cause implosion by the external
environmental pressure. Vacuum breakers or relief systems
should be provided on such vessel.

Q: Write safe design criteria including layout of LPG and

requirement for OISD for LPG storage. (6 ) June 19, 18, 17

After chlorine and Ammonia, the third chemical of major

industrial use is LPG. It is stored as liquid and transmitted by
high pressure pipeline for industrial and domestic uses. Fire and
explosion is the main hazard associated with it.
Properties
Expansion ratio: liquid LPG when exposed to normal
atmospheric condition rapidly evaporates expanding 270 times
its own volume of vapours
TLV: 1000 ppm
LPG is colourless & odourless; therefore, methyl mercaptant is
added to facilitate defect presence of LPG by its foul smell.
LPG is heavier than air & hence tends to settle at ground level
LPG tank is also called as Bullet
LPG tanks can be sited above or underground (mounded)
 Bullet — for pressure in the range of 7 to 10 kg/cm2
 Sphere For high pressure storage above 15 kg/cm2
 Fully Mounded — Inserting from all the sides of the tank
 Semi-mounded — Inserting is partly
Storage consideration/safety aspects

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LPG storage installation located above ground should be located

in the open air and in well ventilated position as per the
separation distances covered under the ―static & mobile pressure
vessel rules‖ and OISD guidelines
 Underground or mounded vessels should be located such
that the manhole and pressure relief valves are in a well
ventilated position
 Vessels should not be mounted one above the other
 The ground beneath should be concreted or compacted and
made free from pits, depression, drains and culverts
 In case refrigerated vessel is used the system must be
adequately designed to maintain specific temperature
 The shell and manhole nozzle shall be insulated with an
approved type of insulation material
 With increase in temperature, there is an increase in
pressure of LPG; hence enough vapour space should be left
in both bullets & in cylinder (the vessel shall not be liquid
full)Should be kept away from source of heat of ignition
For cryogenic vessel
 MOC of inner vessel shall be suitable for the service
temperature and compatible to specific cryogenic liquid
 The outer vessel shall have required structural strength and
capable of supporting the inner vessel together.
 The inner supports between the inner vessel and outer
vessel shall be of non-flammable material and capable of
supporting of inner vessel and the support shall be able to
withstand expansion or contractionwith the operating
temperature range.
 The air in the annular space between the inner and outer
vesselshould be evacuated and the space shall be filled with
the suitable insulation material
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o No vessel shall be filled with permanent gas in excess

of its design pressure
o Every tank / vessel shall be painted externally to
prevent corrosion with a light / heat reflecting surface
(shining like silvery grey, white etc.)
o Each vessel shall have metal plate permanently fixed
on it showing
 Manufacturer‘s name
 Identification number
 The standard or code of designs and constructions
 Official stamp of the inspector
 Design pressure in kg/cm2
 Date(s) of first hydraulic test and subsequent tests
 Water capacity in litres
 Gas capacity filled with the liquefiable gas
 Name of chemical symbol of the gas in service
 Each vessel shall be provided with each of the following
fittings
 Pressure relief valves (2 nos.) connected to vapour phase
 Safety valves
 Drains
 Contents gauge or level indicator
 Pressure gauge connected to vapour phase
 Temperature gauges
 Shut off emergency and emergency valves
 Liquid level gauging deviceNILAY
 Cylindrical dished end, leg mounted tanks
 Dyked (deep pit)
 Refrigerated
 Insulated
 Safety valve
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 Emergency spare tank

 Caustic scrubbing system
 Magnetic Ll, TI, PI
 Dew point —40 C for air transfers

Q: short note on chlorine storage

Properties
Greenish yellow gas, liquid or rhombic crystal
Melting point: 101°C, boiling point: -34.5°C, densi ty: 1.47 at
0°C
TLV: 0.5 ppm, STEL: 3 ppm
It is heavier than air and hence tends to settle down
It evaporates expanding 450 times its own volume
In addition to toxicity, it poses fire hazard when react with
turpentine, ether, ammonia gas, hydrogen, powdered metal, wax,
rubber, alcohol and many materials.
Being a compressed gas, all installations and tank vehicles used
for storage and transport of liquid and gaseous chlorine have to
be approved and licensed under the Static and Mobile Pressure
Vessel (unfired) Rule, 1981 For bulk storage it is also called as
Bullets and for Tonne storage for transportation it is called
tonner

Storage consideration/safety aspects (for both)

 Storage area should be cool, dry, well ventilated, clean and
protected from external heat source
 It should be remote from elevators, gangways or ventilating
systems
 Ventilation should be sufficient to prevent accumulation of
vapour pockets

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 As far as possible, the building for the storage of chlorine

should be entirely of non-combustible construction and
separate from other buildings
 In case storage is not in separate building it should be
ground floor with at least two exits opening outside and
separate from other parts of the building by fire resistant
walls and floors
 Online breathing apparatus & SCBA set must be facilitated
in the area for emergencies
 Adequate service point connected to waste-air system is
necessary for taking maintenance during leak

Tank layout of chlorine

NILAY PATEL
 Emergency kit must be handy and in proper working
condition located at strategic points
 Chlorine detectors should be installed at strategic points
with alarming system
 Fire hydrant should be made available around the storage
area
Bulk storage
 Appropriate minimum safety distances as stipulated in the
above mentioned rules have to be maintained
 The tank has to be installed entirely above the ground
 The bulk storage tanks must be installed near waste-air
system
 At least two safety valves should be connected to the
waste-air system
 Pressure indicator with alarm should be available in the
control room
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 If continuous supply is required, it is essential at least two

tanks
 Distance between adjacent storage tanks shall be adequate
 All tanks shall be installed in a bund wall with sufficient
floor slope
 Area should be planned to provide facilities for good
housekeeping
 For vessel operating at low temperature lagging is required
 Chlorine leak detector must be provided at various points in
storage area
 As an emergency measure, a perforated pipe, connected to
blower suction around storage tanks should be provided
 It must be capable of handling 12 bar pressure and temp -
35°C to +45°C
 The storage tank capacity must be significantly greater that
the capacity of full load of liquid chlorine
 The vessel supports should be designed in accordance with
the design codeto permit thermal expansion or contraction
over the design temperature range
 Branch dimensions should be limited to minimum required,
particularly for liquid line
 Manhole access should be provided on the top of the tank
Following connections are permitted to the tank
 Liquid inlet
 Liquid outlet
 Vent lines & compressed gas lines
 Relief system
 Instrumentation and pressure gauges (fail safe
instrumentation recommended)

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 The number of connections should be minimum &

arrangements should be made simple
 A back up isolation valves should be provided
NY PATEL
Tonner/ container storage
 Should be stored on a cement floor sloping towards a pit
capable of collecting all the liquids in the cylinders
 Area should not be wet and muddy for tonner storage
 Chlorine tonners should be stored separately from
explosives, acids, anhydrous ammonia, ether, alcohol,
finely divided materials or any other non-compatible
material
 Enough space should be provided between tonners so that
all are accessible during emergency
 Shed should be covered in order to keep it away from hot
sun or any other source of heat
 Provision of storing containers on their sides on rails a few
inches above the floor to be made. They should not be
stacked or racked more than one high.
o Atmospheric pressure storage: Refrigerated, Canned
type (tank in tank), insulated
o Ambient Temperature storage: Bullet
o Pressure Storage: Sphere (leg supported, cladded, ring
cladded)
o PI, Magnetic LI, TI
o Safety valves
Tank layout for ammonia
Properties
Colourless gas, pungent smell, irritant
Melting point: -77.7°C, boiling point: -33.35°C

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LEL: 16%, UEL: 25%, TLV: 25 ppm, STEL:35 ppm

Density: 0.771 g/l at 0°C
Fire hazard low, Explosion hazard moderate when exposed to
flame, when heated emits toxic fumes
To fight fire stop flow of gas
Storage conditions
Three methods of storages are currently used; the choice
depends upon quality to be stored. Storage at ambient
temperature and equivalent pressure n cylindrical vessel.
This method is used when relatively small quantities are
involved as practical manufacture and transport consideration
limit the size of vessel Storage under pressure n spherical vessel
& constructed on site to hold several thousand tonnes of
ammonia. Most vessels are in range of 500 to 3000 tonnes.
Refrigeration equipment may be used to lower the temperature
of Ammonia & in such cases the vessel operates at a lower
temperature than ambient temperature. Thus a type of storage is
often referred to as ‗semi pressure’ or ‘semi-refrigerant’ Storage
at atmospheric pressure. Ammonia may be stored at atmospheric
pressure by reducing temperature to (-33°C). In this condition
cylindrical flat bottomed tank is used. A slight positive pressure
is maintained to simplify the operation of refrigeration system.
This method of storage is considered economical when
quantities in excess 5000 tons are involved. Many tanks ranges
20000 – 35000
Now-a-days double walled storage tanks are used for storage of
Ammonia t ensure safety if one wall is damaged
Storage consideration/safety aspects (for both)
 Designing of layout of area with due considerations of
adequate natural or mechanical ventilation

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 Use of properly selected material for construction of plant

and equipment for handling of ammonia
 Avoid contact of ammonia with certain other chemicals,
including mercury, chlorine, iodine, bromine, calcium,
silver oxide and hypochlorite
Indoor
 Storage should be cool, dry, well ventilated and protected
from external heat sources
 The building protected with automatic sprinklers, vapour
tight electrical equipment, good natural ventilation, good
floor drainage and adequate exposition venting
Ourdoor
 Each storage area should be protected at least by one
standard fire hydrant
 Area should be barricaded off from unauthorized entry
 Vents of storage tanks must lead to a safe location (e.g.
scrubber etc.)
 Tanks must be located at least 15 meter away from
buildings
 Should be away from flammable material storages
 Dyke of adequate capacity with slopping floor
 Fire proof electrical fittings and equipments shall be
provided
 Sound foundation
 Safe guarding against direct sunlight
 Auto shut off valves for emergencies
 Storage tanks must be designed for 15.5 bars absolute and
temp. -10°C
 Suitable provisions to restrict water, ice or snow to enter
and blocking vents.
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 Detectors and alarm systems during leakages is of prime

requirement
 Gauge of glass should be provided with excess flow check
valves
 Each storage tank shall be equipped with two relief valve to
safe location
 Install remote control valve at the bottom of ammonia
storage tank
 Non-refrigerant ammonia shall be stored in gas tight
containers
 Storage tank construction should be of integrity and double
wall type known as ‗can in tank‘ type
 A flare stack should be provided to burn ammonia vapour
in case safety valve fails to release ammonia pressure
 In event of power failure, diesel generator shall be available
to run the compressor
 Arrangement of personal water drench facilities should be
made with immediate access for affected personnel

Q: Tank layout for ethylene oxide

Properties
Colourless gas
Melting point: -113°C, Boiling point: 10.7°C, Flash point: -
17.8°C
LEL: 3%, UEL: 100%
Density: 0.8711 at 20°C
TLV: 1 ppm
LD50(rat): 330 mg/kg, LC50(rat): 1462 ppm for 4 hours

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It is toxic, flammable and explosive Fire and explosion hazard

when exposed to heat or flame, vaporise rapidly at ambient
temperature, can cause cold burns and it is soluble in water

Storage consideration/safety aspects

 Storage tank should be separated at least 15 mt from plants
and buildings Collusion of vehicles should be prevented by
fencing and barricade
 Ethylene Oxide is very volatile and should be stored under
pressure with adequate cooling
 Whenever possible refrigerated storage held preferably at
temperatures below boiling point of ethylene is
recommended
 Piping should be of ―all steel‖ welded construction with
flanged or welded joints
 Flange joints should be minimum and there must be
provision for nitrogen purging of EO containing lines
 Whenever there is any risk of exposure to heat, pipe lines
should be lagged
 Ethylene oxide in liquid form which might polymerize and
choke pipe lines, pipe runs should be fitted drain valves
 Valves should be of all steel construction, ball valves being
used for shut-off operation and globe valves for control
valves
 Spillage should be directed to a remote catch pit by an
impermeable and sloppy floor
 Material of construction – stainless steel or MS aluminised
from interior
 Insulation – mineral wool covered by galvanised or SS
cladding
 All storage must be provided with continuous ventilation.
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 Pits, depressions and basements must be avoided

 Storage tanks for EO should be protected from electrical
storms and static by grounding of the equipment
 Storage tanks should be maintained under inert atmosphere
during all transfer as well as stationary conditions
 Gaskets should be Teflon coated
 Double safety valve (at least one must be locked open) with
2 meter discharge outlet pipe, flame arrestor on outlet and
nitrogen purging connections are required
 In emergency, for starting water spray system or circulate
chilled water thorough limpet coils or use of fire hydrant
system should be provided
 Iron and steel centrifugal pumps with mechanical seal is
normally
 satisfactory; provision should be made such that pump do
not run dry or overheat (if pump temperature margin
increases 3°C , pump should be stopped)
 Keep away from heat, flame and ignition source (separation
distance should be maintained)
 Provision for backflow of chemicals in EO vessel should be
made
 Storage tanks for ethylene oxide service should be of
dedicated type unless thoroughly cleaned and purged
before utilizing for other service
 Before a tank is placed in EO service, it must be cleaned,
flushed with water and dried, and if possible cleaning may
be done by citric acid
 Ethylene oxide reacts exothermically with such compounds
as Alcohols, ammonia, and organic mineral acids
 Temperature gauges with high and low temperature alarm
is necessary
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 Level gauges are float differential pressure type, torque

type or magnetic float type. Compound pressure and
vacuum gauge is preferable
NILAY PATEL
Q: write short note on Oleum storage. May’18

Properties
It is fuming heavy, yellow liquid (sulphuric acid) as H2SO4 +
80% SO3
Mostly it comes in two categories: Oleum 23% and Oleum 65%
When heated to decompose, it emits highly toxic fumes of SO2
(TLV-2 ppm and STEL-5 ppm)
It reacts with water or steam to produce heat and toxic &
corrosive fumes TLV – 1 ppm
It is highly irritant to skin, eyes and mucous membrane and via
oral and inhalation routes
It can cause dangerous fire hazard by chemical reaction with
reducing agents and carbohydrates
It can cause explosion by chemical reaction with acetic acid,
acetic anhydride, acetonitrile, acrolein, acrylic acid, aniline and
many other chemicals
Storage consideration/safety aspects
 Dyke with slopped ground floor is required to contain
storage tank
 The sloop should end in a sump having drain valve facility
approachable from outside
 The drain should discharge into an acid resistant
neutralization sump of adequate sixe
 Acid proof lining in dyke is necessary
 Storage should be located in the open or well ventilated
area or sheds
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 Natural ventilation is sufficient

 All tanks should be placed squarely on sound foundation
and raised off the ground by at least two layers of acid
resistant bricks
 Each tank must be provided with a vent of sufficient
capacity
 Tank vent is to be connected with a sulphuric acid tank or
scrubber with strong H2SO4 to prevent discharge of
fuming SO3
 Vent line of oleum of more than 45% concentration needs
steam tracing to prevent freezing of SO3
 A roof is required to protect form rain water
 Nearby safety shower and eye washer is of most
importance
 To contain spillage ample quantity of sand or slaked lime
or sodium carbonate should be kept aside
 Electrical wiring should be made of acid resistant insulation
and encased in rigid metal or PVC conduits
 For inspection purpose, the tank top must be accessible by
an independent metallic ladder / stair case without the need
for a person directly stepping onthe tank roof which is
vulnerable to corrosion / damage and consequentfailure
 No water or wood dust spray system on leaking oleum
should be provided
 Self breathing apparatus and acid proof hand gloves,
aprons, and gum boots must be made available in storage
area
 Level indicator and identification of content should be
provided

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 Remote control isolation valve at the bottom outlet or no

bottom outlet and submersible pump on the top outlet are
desirable
 The flanges on the acid pipe lines should be so covered that
any leakage may not cause spray of acid, if flanges are
above working and moving surfaces, catch pots with
adequate drain pipes may be provided to avoid dripping of
acid on body parts
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CHAPTER – 3 PLANT INSPECTION

Q: What is NDT? Enlist various NDT’s you know (5) ’18 or

Non -destructive test and its limitation (5) 2019
– 3PLANT INSPECTION
Rule 61 of GFR says that if external, internal or hydro test is not
possible, NDT in service test shall be carried out for metal
thickness and other defects.
By visual inspection, external or internal, it is impossible to see
under surface or inner defects, cracks, porosity, thickness
reduction etc. Hydraulic test can check the overall integrity
(soundness) of the vessel but cannot show the above defects.
The NDT has no clearly defined boundaries. The technique,
range from ordinary microscopic examination with white light to
complex procedure of Neutron radiography.
A way of finding the weakest part by hydraulic bursting, or test
piece cutting is a destructive test.
Therefore non-destructive tests are developed to test equipments
such as Pressure vessel
Significance
NDT can detect
 Inherent metal defects like porosity, shrinkage, non-
metallic inclusions
 Processing defects like residual stress, cracks caused by
grinding of casting and forging, spruing
 In-service defects like corrosion, erosion, change in section
etc.

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Limitations
 They can measure thickness, cracks, flaws, porosity,
discontinuities, soundness etc but,
 It cannot measure overall integrity of the material against
permissible pressure as a proof test From the measured
thickness permissible pressure can be calculated
 Overall integrity of a vessel can be tested by pressure
(hydraulic) test only
Major methods of NDT used in industries
 Radiography
 Ultrasonic
 Magnetic particle method
 Eddy – current or Electromagnetic method
 Dye (liquid) penetration test
 Stain measurement
 Radiography is a process of detecting discontinuities
(defects) in test object by passing ionising (short
wavelength) radiation through them and recording
transmitted pattern on X-ray or Gamma-ray film.

Q: Explain-radiography or safety in X-ray activity in

industry.(5) Dec’17

Principal
Principle of radiography involves adsorption of X –rays of X –
rays in a test piece
Method
A simple radiography consist of Radiation source, test object
and X-ray film between pair of lead screens enclosed in light
proof cassette

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IS 2478, 2595 and 2598 should be referred for Code of practice

and Safety for radiographic testing. IS 2825, section III, part
8.7 explains radiographic examination No radiographic
examination is required where the thickness of butt weld is less
than 6 mm where thickness may be up to 12 mm but outside
diameter is less than 102 mm Radiography shall be done for
thickness between 12 to 19 mm and diameter between 102 to
170 mm, 5 to 10% of the total length of welds shall be
examined for thickness more than 19 mm and diameter more
than 170 mm all the welded joints shall be examined.
NILAY PATEL
Radiation passing through specimen is differently absorbed by
discontinuities (defects) than the normal one. The amount of
radiation that falls on the film in the area beneath the flaw in
different from the amount that falls on adjacent areas. The latent
images of variations are produced on the film.
The image on film is converted into black and white pattern
which indicates the structure of the test object An air bubble (or
defect) inside a steel plate shows black spot as more radiation
passes through it than rest of the part and gives more blackening
on the film Radiographic examination should be conducted
before final heat treatment. At least two penetra meters shall be
used for each radiograph
The source of gamma rays is radio isotopes radio isotopes,
which exists as Beta and X-ray
The radio isotopes generally used for gamma photography are
 Cobalt 60
 Iridium 192
 Cesium 192 - 74 days and Cesium 137 - 30years

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Advantages
 provides a permanent record of observation on film
 Reference standards of defects available
 Techniques standardized
 Gamma rays sources are portable and independent of power
supply (ideal for site jobs)

Disadvantages
o involves radiation hazards,
o Trained, BARC certified technicians needed
o Machines are comparatively costlier
o The activity of Gamma rays reduces periodically and needs
replacement

Personal exposure is due to external or internal radiation.

External radiation arise from radiographic source, radioactive
contamination, on inanimate sources and on the skin or clothing
Internal exposure arises from radio-nuclides within the body.
They may enter by inhalation, ingestion, through skin wounds or
absorbed through intact skin
NILAY
Hazards
Effects on cells
o Delay in replacement of worn out cells
o Chromosomes aberrations (break in chromosome)
o Cell death
o Gene mutation (Somatic or Genetic disorders)
Delayed effects (due to acute dozes)
o Cancer
o Cataract
o Shortened life span
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o Hereditary effects
o Immediate effects
Doze Range (in Rem) Effects
10 Non detectable
>10 to 25 Chromosome aberrations - recoverable
>25 to 100 Change in Blood picture - recoverable
>100 to 300 Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, (NVD), loss of
appetite – probable recovery
>300 to 499 NVD plus recoveryfever, radiation
Sickness –Probable
500 Death within few days
>500 to 600 LD – 50/30 i.e. 50% of the irradiated personnel
may die in 30 days period

Safety precautions
 all workers shall be shielded against direct and scattered
radiation
 Personnel monitoring can be done with film badges, pocket
dosimeter, pocket ionisation chamber & related PPE
 Workplace monitoring – i.e. radiation survey and site
monitoring can be done out by radiation survey instruments
– dosimeter, radiation meter, Geiger-Muller tubes and ion
chamber instruments
 Persons involved must be trained by BARC
 External exposure can be prevented by
 Reducing exposure time
 Increasing work distance from the source
 Interposing protective barrier between source and worker
o While radiation is ‗ON‘ cordon off the area
o Provision of appropriate caution boards
o Source should be shielded and located in a room with
lead or concrete walls
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o Until room door is not closed the control should not

start
NILAY PATEL
Q: Explain Ultrasonic testing method
IS 2417, 9346 and 11630 are related to ultrasonic
The sound waves above the limit of human audible frequency
i.e. 20,000 Hz are referred to as ―Ultrasonic waves‖. The testing
done by these waves are called Ultrasonic testing.

Principle
It is based on the principle of reflection of high frequency sound
waves. If the section is homogeneous and free from defect, the
wave is reflected back after travelling through the whole of the
section. If equipment contains some defect, the wave is reflected
from the surface of the defect and returns in a shorter period of
time. An oscillo graph is used to detect the lengths of time.
Method
 The ultrasonic waves are produced by piezo electrical
effect. When high frequency electrical pulses are applied to
piezoelectric crystal (also called probe, transducer), the
crystal will vibrate (cause material displacement within the
specimen) with the
 frequency equal to that of the applied electrical pulses. The
transducer converts electrical energy into equal frequency
of mechanical energy (vibrations) and vice versa. Thus
transducer transmits or receives energy.
 Piezo electric crystal used in Ultrasonic testing are Quartz,
Lithium, Sulphate, Barium Titanate etc.
 Steel, water and oil can transmit ultrasound very well. But,
air is poor transmitter because of low particle density.

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Therefore, water, oil (grease) or steel is used as a couplant

between the transducer and test specimen.
 The pulses (waves) return back (reflect) from
discontinuities in their path or from any boundary (end)
that they strike. The received reflections are displayed on a
cathode ray tube (CRT). The quality of the material is
measured in terms of energy
 lost by a sound beam as it travels through the material.
 Normally two methods are used
Contact testing – transducer is coupled to material through thin
layer of couplant
Immersion testing – both the material and transducer are
immersed in a tank of couplant (usually water)
 There are three types of test system
 Pulse-echo system
 Through transmission
 Resonant frequency (rarely used)
 There are three types of waves generally used
Longitudinal - particle movement is along the line of direction
of travel of waves
Shear – Particle movement is at right angle to the direction of
travel of waves
Surface – Particle movement is elliptical
 The transducer that produces longitudinal waves is called
―Normal Beam”, and that produces Shear and Surface
waves are called ―Angle Beam”.
 Three types of discontinuities can be detected
 Inherent wrought and Inherent case
 Processing
 In-service discontinuities
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Normal beam
The probe is used to generate and propagate the ultrasonic
waves into the material.
The ultrasonic wave travels through specimen and gets reflected
at the crack. The same defects the return pulse between
successive input pulses. The ultrasonic waves also travels
through the specimen and gets reflected at other surfaces. The
time interval between the transmitted and reflected pulses is a
measure of the distance of the flaw from the surface and the size
of the return pulse can be a measure of the size of flaw.
This method is used to detect cracks, laminations, inclusions,
cavities, and other discontinuities that are originated in a
perpendicular direction to the propagation of the waves.
Generally the frequencies from 0/5 MHz are used for testing of
steels
Angle beam
The angle beam technique is used to transmit sound waves into
test material at a predetermined angle to the test surface
Here the sound beam enters the test material at an angle and
proceeds by successive zigzag deflection form the specimen
boundaries until it is interrupted by a discontinuity or boundary
where the direction is reversed and reflected back to the
transducers.
This technique is mainly used for testing of welds, pipes, sheets,
plates etc. the defects that are oriented perpendicular to the axis
of the test material will be detected by this methods.
NILAY PATEL
Advantages
 can be used on metallic and non-metallic products
 Safe to use, no radiation hazards
 Fast results available immediately
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 High speed ultrasonic utilises C-scan presentations

 Defects oriented in longitudinal and transverse
 Indicates depth of flaw
 Superior penetrating power (inspection possible up to a
depth of 10 mm of steel)

Disadvantages
 creates biological effects
 Shield of electrical connections are necessary (which
causes
 Electro-magnetic field. Measures - sound isolated booth,
use of cotton lined rubber gloves, absorbent lining to tools,
ear muff, noise and vibration control periodical medical
examination)
 Interpretation depends entirely on the skill, experience and
judgement capacity of technician.
 Required surface contact (needs smooth / clean surface)
 Difficult to test on irregular shaped specimen
 Reference standards are needed both for calibrating the
equipment and for characterizing flaws
Explain – Magnetic particle method

IS 3415, 3703, 7743, 10724 and 10543 should be referred for

detail
This method is used for detection of surface discontinuities
cracks, blow holes, porosity, and welding defects of Ferro-
material. Mostly forgings are tested by this method.
Method
Finely ground ferromagnetic particles of different forms and
colours are available.

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Depending on the condition of surface to be inspected and type

of indication to be located, form of particles and type of method
– dry, wet or fluorescent – are selected. Colour is selected to
have full contrast with the surface.
Then magnetic field is applied by DC of AC (low volts) current.
This attracts and holds magnetic particles right on the surface.
Defects if any, interrupt the magnetic field and are clearly
shown by the pattern formed by the particles Nature of
discontinuities (defects) is disclosed and acceptable and
unacceptable material can be separated in accordance with
permitted standards.
After the test is over, the part should be demagnetised by
reversing and reducing the magnetic field.

Hazards
 flying dust particles
 Electrical arching (caused by loose contact, excessive
current or slipping of prods) can cause sparks or fire
 Burns can be caused due to resistance heating in the part or
in the prods.
 Black light while testing with fluorescent particles
Safety measure
 Local exhaust ventilation (if not possible)
 Dust mask (respirator) should be used
 Eye / skin protective equipment to be used by the worker
 No smoking near wet bath process
 Use of filters on the black light to protect skin and eyes
 Not to touch any part immediately

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Q: Explain –eddy current or electromagnetic method

Three types of methods are used
 Eddy-current
 Magneto-inductive
 Radar frequency
In eddy-current method, an eddy current is induced in the part to
be tested by passing alternating current in a coil or probe.
Defects cause changes in the strength and distribution of the
eddy current. Readout is presented on a cathode ray tube, on a
meter or by audio-visual alarm. IS 12965 should be referred for
detail.
In magneto-inductive method, variations in the permeability of
magnetic materials are used to create variations in a probe or
pickup coil In radar frequency method, high frequency radar
waves are used to measure electromagnetic properties of thin
coatings and surface layer of material.
Workers should not pass in between the object being tested and
the testing device otherwise they may burn internally. Barriers
should be provided to the area.

Q: Explain– Dye penetration test

Organic compounds or dyes are used as a penetrant which is
applied on the surface after cleaning it. By capillary action the
penetrant is drawn into discontinuities or defects and flaws
(cracks, pores, leaks). Time is allowed for penetrant to seep into
opening. The excess penetrant is removed from the surface
by cleaner and then developer is applied in form of thin uniform
white layer, which absorbs the entrapped penetrant from the
surface flaws and brings up a visible indication. It remains
visible until removed by cleaning.

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A coloured dye penetrant contracts with the surface colour in

white light while a fluorescent penetrant shows defects under
ultraviolet (black) light.
The penetrant should be non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-
destructive, and having halogen and sulphur content
Skin contact should be avoided. Skin should be washed just after
exposure and before eating, drinking or smoking.

Q: Explain – Strain measurement or Discussed hazard in

strain measurement (5) Dec’17
Like non-destructive testing, condition monitoring is the
measurement of the state of the equipment including pressure
vessels, other vessels, pipe work and machinery and it is carried
out during construction / fabrication and operational life. It is
based on the performance or condition of the equipment.
Various methods employed include following
 Corrosion monitoring
 Vibration monitoring
 Performance monitoring
 Thermal image monitoring
 Sound level monitoring
 Strain measurement
 Temperature measurement
 Speed measurement
 Torque measurement
 Position measurement
Thus strain measurement is one of the condition monitoring
methods. Any material undergoes stress (due to pressure or
force) or strain (due to stretch or pull)
depending on forces acting on it. Major forces are mechanical
strain and pressure and temperature
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Following methods are used for strain measurement

 Strain gauge
 Displacement measurement
 Lacquers and coating
 X-ray diffraction
 Interferometry utilising Moiré grid, Speckle and
holographic method.
A strain gauge (electrical) measures strain in one direction only
and it is less sensitive. Interferometric techniques measure a two
dimensional strain and are more sensitive.
In Moiré grid method a linear grid is applied to the object and its
distortions are measured
Photo-elastic coatings and brittle lacquers are used to detect
strain existence.
The holographic method takes a silicone replica of the strained
surface and analyses in a laboratory using powerful laser.

– Metallographic examination (Destructive testing)

The science of metallographic is essentially the study of
structural characteristics of a metal or alloy in relation to its
physical & mechanical properties. The method involves both
Macroscopic and Microscopic examination
Macroscopic examination
The nature of in homo-genetics in a metal and the extent to
which they exist there in are best determined by macroscopic
examination.
The examination is usually done with an aided eye or with the
aid of a low powered microscope (about 10x magnification of a
magnifying glass)

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Microscopic examination
This is carried out high magnification from about 100 to 2000x
with use of optical microscope.
This examination is essentially used for study of structure of
metals and alloys, grain size, case & measurement of
decarburization depths, determination of inclusion rating, micro
hardness etc.

Other NDT’s

Visual inspection
It consists of examination of the surface of the equipment with
the unaided eye, a magnifying lens or a low-power microscope.
Checking of thickness is done by using callipers, gauges,
templates etc. It requires great skill on the part of the inspector
to locate the defects. It is the cheapest and simplest NDT.
Sound percussion (Ring tests or vibration tests)
It consists of suitably supporting the part and swings it freely
and then tapping it with hammer to set up vibrations and
produce a certain characteristic tone. The sound produced is
listened electronically and compared with that of sound of
equipment.
Pressure tests
These are employed to locate the leaks by subjecting equipment
to a pressure of one and a half time to two times the working
pressure. A pressure gauge indicates presence of leaks. For
testing pneumatically, the equipment immersed in tank carrying
water and air pressure is applied. If there is a leak, air bubbles
will be noticed.
NILAY PATEL

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ANSPORTATION
Chapter 4 Safety in transportation

Transportation risk estimation

The products manufactured at various process units are required
to reach the customer‘s destinations in the time many of which
may be located at far away locations. The marketing distribution
and network of each manufacturing unit is required to have an
efficient, timing conservative, service oriented, and cost
effective. Within the country, both railways and roadways play
important roles in fulfilling transportation needs. In addition
pipe line transfer is gaining momentum (both for short distance
and interstate movements). Sea and Air routes are specifically
applicable to import & export of materials to and from overseas
countries.
Just like the various risks envisaged in the processing, storing
and handling of products in general and highly hazardous
chemicals in particular material movement and transportation
also have specific risk irrespective of any of the methodology
being adopted whether they be pipe line, road, rail, sea or air.
Specific risk factors based on all or any of the said methods are
listed below followed by the prevention aspects including the
prevention / control / combat / mitigation of the inevitable
incident / accident / mishap or even serious emergency / disaster
situation.
Containers are mostly standardised to ensure safety during
transit. When a truck or tanker meets with accident or leaks on
the way, it creates problem. Fire or explosion can cause harm to
public, animals, birds and environment etc. sometimes grave
emergency is created. Warning to public, speedy rescue

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operation, evacuation and calling helping hands may become

necessary.
While considering transportation of chemicals one has ot
consider the physical and chemical properties of the product
being handled, whether it is solid, a powder, a liquid or a gas
under pressure, the type of packing, hazard, and the mode of
transport available.

Vulnerable zone is estimated from the quantity being

transported. The worst case scenario is considered that the whole
quantity in immediately.
As the, transporting vehicle is moving on road, the vulnerable
zone also changing positions with the movement of the vehicle.
Thus the vulnerable zone of a transporting vehicle is called
moving circle. The moving circle is also called corridor.

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The rout of travel is very important. The population density of

the entire route should be taken in account

Road transport

Road tankers are constructed in a wide variety of materials like

steel, stainless steel, lined material and FRP construction. So
cooled.
They should be of good design, sound material and construction,
adequate strength depending on the material / goods to be
transported and maintained in good working condition.
Principles of safety and ergonomics design and operation.
transportation is released Sometimes they need to be heated or
should be considered in sometimes

In transportation engineering techniques NILAY PATEL

Vehicle should be properly equipped with proper light, horns,
silencers, power and hand brakes and reversing alarm. Drivers
should be well trained, medically examined, physically fit and
above 18 years of age.
Road tankers and their fastening should be capable of absorbing
following forces
 In the direction of travel - twice the total weight
 Vertically downwards - twice the total weight
 Vertically upwards - total weight
 Horizontally at right angles to direction of travel – total
weight
The service equipments such as valves, fittings, gauges etc.
should be protected against impact.

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Three types of independent stop valves – internal, external and

blind flange – are required. Spark arrestor on exhaust, a portable
fire extinguisher, TREM Card, emergency kit and instruction to
driver are also necessary.

Sr. Risk Factor Suggested Action Plan

No.
Heavy occupancy and Segregation and restriction of
congestion on roads / lanes / by heavy material haulage & normal
lanes due to a common vehicular personal vehicles especially in city
movement flow to serve both and suburban roads.
material and personal In few of the big cities this is being
1 transportation. practiced by prohibiting heavy
The type of vehicles range from material traffic at the city entry
very heavy to heavy, medium locations through by passes
and light motor vehicles of This facility needs to extended to
different capacities and types smaller cities and suburban as well
(truck, tractor, tanker, bus, car
and two / three wheeler) Besides,
the same roads are as well shared
by slow moving vehicles like
bicycle, hand and animal pulled
carts.
Movement of pedestrians on the Mass education of general public
middle of roads having busy highlighting various road safety
2
vehicular flow and aspects including stricter
indiscriminate running / crossing enforcement of Traffic rules
actions flouting important traffic covering pedestrians along with
rules / ethics drivers, transporters etc.
Movement of stray animals Strict enforcement of punitive
3 posing serious obstructions andactions on the offenders who leave
hazards to vehicular traffic animals free on the roads

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Encroachment of roads by
4 vendors, slum dwellers etc. Strict action by administrative
leaving little space for vehicular agencies
movement
Display of caution boards and
5 Haphazard stoppage / parking of enforcement of rules / regulations
vehicles by more regular and surprise
checks by RTO / Traffic police and
other agencies
Being more organized, structured single departmental activity
and centrally administered directly by the government, the
safety aspects are better taken care of. Besides, in our country
only a few number of hazardous chemicals are transported
through rails (e.g. refinery hydrocarbon products such as petrol,
diesel, fuel oils, LPG, ammonia etc.) as compared to large
number and variety of chemicals hauled by road vehicles. Hence
the risk factor can be assessed easily and tackled better.
Accordingly the number of accidents involving railway wagons
are also comparatively less in spite of the volume of traffic.
However, there is still scope for improvement in terms of
awareness on the hazards among railway personnel by constant
interaction with the Refinery units, ammonia manufacturing
organizations etc.
Like in road transportation, training, independent & joint mock-
up emergency exercises can also held railway tracks, yards and
other installations like loading / unloading gantries.
Transportation of explosives by rail rules (Railway Red Tariff
Rules 62 to 74) are as
 No explosives other than safety fuses and fireworks shall
be transported by rail except in the van specially
constructed for the carriage of explosives

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 Label ‗Explosive‘ on each side of the carriage shall be

affixed
 Carriage containing explosives shall be kept away from
engine (other than electric locomotive)
 Shall be close coupled to the adjoining carriage not loaded
with explosives or other flammable or hazardous
substances
 Not more than 10 carriages containing explosives shall be
attached to any one train
 Not more than 5 carriages shall be loaded or unloaded at
any one time at any railway station
 No explosive shall be transported by any passenger or
mixed train
 Safety fuses for blasting, explosives of the third class (nitro
compounds) in the form of cartridges and not exceeding 2.5
kg in weight, detonators up to 200 (each weighing up to
225 gms) and sporting powders and propellants indouble
packing as prescribed, can be transported by passenger or
mixed train
 Explosive consignment shall be received at the specified
railway premises only, during sunrise and sunset and by an
authorised railway servant only
 Shunting of carriages containing explosives shall be carried
out under the supervision of authorised officer
 Shunting speed shall not exceed 8 km/hr and no loose
shunting will take place
 The packages shall be removed by the consignee within 12
hours of day light following their arrival

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 The station master shall keep the packages at a safe

distance and covered with tarpaulins or other suitable
material

Rail transport
It accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemical
transportation. The greatest hazard in this mode of transportation
is that because of the far flung operations, it is not possible to
train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to
be taken. Proper labelling of hazards involved is a help.
Derailment and accidents are other hazards
The preventive measures are
 Improved design of the tankers and the couplers
 Limitations on the size of the tanks
 Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the
locomotive
 Avoiding bunching together of hazardous chemicals
 Proper labelling of content and the hazardous nature of the
chemicals
A serious risk is that an accident may occur at a place which is
not easily accessible and where competent guidance may not be
available.
Sea/water transport
Quite a lot of chemicals are transported by ocean going ships
and on river tugs. Crude oil products, natural gas and other
dangerous goods are some of the biggest bulk commodities in
international commerce. Because of their huge quantities
involved, spillage and leakages can create gigantic pollution
problems, besides a fire hazard. There has been several mishap
of this type. Tanker design has assumed special safeguards being

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made to prevent accidental spillage more than 1lac types of

hazardous chemicals are transported by sea. They include solid,
liquid, gases in [Link] solid chemicals are transported, care
should be taken that the material will not cake up due to
moisture, so that it may require to be emptied pneumatically.
When carrying drums or cylinders they should be properly
lashed so as not to break loose.
In river transport, spillage of chemicals may cause very serious
pollution problem
 International Maritime Organisation (IMO) International
Convention for Safety Of Life At Sea, 1974 (SOLAS) and
international Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL, 73)have developed
guidelines and codes for carriages of dangerous goods in
packaged form by sea.
 IMO has formulated International Maritime Dangerous
Goods (IMDG) Code and ‗Emergency Procedures for
Ships carrying dangerous goods (EmS)
 Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG) for use in accidents
involving dangerous goods, is available in IMO / WHO /
ILO publications
 IMO / ILO guidelines for packing cargo in Freight
Containers or Vehicles and IMO recommendations on safe
use of pesticides in ships are also available
 SOLAS has classified dangerous goods in 9 classes
Main information required is
 Proper shipping name and UN No.
 Chemical name, formula
 Properties and observations
 Classification

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 Packing, labelling, stowage and segregation

 Angle of repose
 MFAG table number
 Special emergency procedure and action to be taken

Sea/ water transport

International Aviation Transportation Agreement (LATA) is
practiced. More emphasis is put on weight of the container. The
size and hazard communication is also applicable. Basically
hazardous fluids (liquids / gases) are not transported in bulk
through air except for compressed gas cylinders, small quantities
of liquids, solids etc. and all of them are covered by strict
International Safety norms as per Department Of
Transportation (DOT) guidelines of UN at the packing /
labelling stages with appropriate norms on segregation,
temperature control threshold quantities allowed per flight in the
cargo aircrafts etc.

Pipeline transport
 Following are the considerations
 Battery limits
 Authorization
 Permits
 Tracers
 Underground, above ground, under sea pipelines
 Protection from breakage and corrosion
 Monitoring at both ends
 Signals
 Warning placards
 Watch
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Prior initial risk assessment, Maximum Credibility Risk

Analysis (MCRA) of pipeline transfer (both above and
underground) form an essential and integral part of the safety
related preparatory work just like the chemical process plants in
general and Major Accident Hazard (MAH) category units in
particular.
Besides they are also essential for environmental clearances,
adequate insurance cover inclusive of Public Liability as per the
latest clause related to Environmental Protection Act (EPA)
associated rules (EPR) etc. The pipeline can be of various
material, depending on the nature of chemicals handled – steel,
stainless steel, polythene, polypropylene, PVC, glass, lead, glass
lined, rubber lined etc. Many safety and operating aspects are
associated with the materials of construction, design, fabrication,
layout, installation, upkeep and maintenance of piping in
chemical industries. In general piping is most expensive ‗single
item‘ of equipment in a process unit. Designers must specifically
concentrate on developing efficiently operable, trouble free,
lasting and economically viable systems of pipe line transfer
arrangements.
As a thumb rule, most of the high hazardous chemicals
conveying pipes are located above ground level to facilitate
 Lower installation cost
 Reduction of external corrosion
 Easy access for regular checking, inspection, maintenance
etc
 Oily sewers, pumps out systems etc are normally located
below ground level
Following safety precautions should be taken for pipeline
transfer. Most highly hazardous chemicals conveying pipes

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should be located above ground [Link] should be of

proper material to carry particular chemical Should be well laid
and should have enough supports Proper provision for
maintenance Pipeline should be properly bonded and earthed.
Avoidance of water accumulation near piping Avoid mixing of
non-compatible chemical piping to cross or laid near Avoidance
of valves in vertical section Blow down drain must slope
towards blow down drum Avoidance of dead-end section.
It should be quickly isolated by valves during failure at any
point.
The design must take care for easy drainage during both start-up
and shutdown activities Compressor suction line must slop
towards suction knock out drums Use of eccentric reducers with
the straight side on the bottom in horizontal lines A modest
attempt is being made through a checklist as given below
fabrication of vehicle (both chassis and tanker) as per the
approved design code / standard with reference of stability, road
worthiness etc.
Obtaining clearance, statutory approvals form concerned
agencied such as RTO, department of explosives (with reference
to hydrocarbon tankers, mobile pressure vessel rules) followed
by periodic examinations, recertification by competent
personnel Upkeep / maintenance of vehicle and execution of
repairs, rectification or condemnation as advised by the
competent inspection agencies. Painting / repainting of vehicles,
tankers, display of all types of hazard identification panel etc.
Training and certification of drivers by approved institutes on
safety, medical help and emergency response Issue of MSDS
and Transport Emergency card (TREM card) about the material
being transported Provision of Personal protective equipment,
fire extinguisher, emergency repair / rescue kits suited to
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specific chemical being transported Restriction of timings for

transporting hazardous chemicals on busy city / village roads,
lanes / by lanes etc.

Q: Safety criteria for transportation of Hazardous goods.

(5)June ‘19
NILAY PATEL
 It is desirable to provide an approved route map to the
driver based on the safety aspects
 Training / appraisal on the hazards of the material being
transported and blocking their entry into accident hit zones
by general road users
 Provision of spark arrester at engine exhaust outlet, strict
compliance on NO SMOKING
 Barrier / railing provision on the sides of the tanker against
the hazard of being directly hit on moving or stationary
objects during travel
 Provision of barrier guard between tanker and driver‘s
cabin
The material being transported
 Hazards associated with the material
 Quantity

The Driver
 Should be able to read and write at least two languages
English and any one Indian language
 Should have specific licence to drive vehicle carrying
hazardous material
o Trained from the recognized institute
o Undergone the specified training

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o Required documents like licence, TREM card, Route

chart, Chemical details
The Vehicle
- Specific permits to transport hazardous goods displays
 HAZCHEM labels
 Emergency Information Panel
The Road
 Condition
 Speed breakers
 Signs and signals
OR
NILAY PATEL
The Environment
 Season — Rain, summer, winter
 Terrain
 Winds
 Public
Hazardous goods are transferred in Solid, liquid or gaseous
form. Form storage to production place, chemicals are
transferred or transported from one place to another outside or
within factory premises.
 Improved design of tankers and couplers
 Limitation of the size of the tanker
 Avoid bunching together of hazardous chemicals
 Contamination in tanker shall be avoided
 Good arrangement for receiving and discharge of chemical
should be provided
 Vent valves and arrangement for elimination of static
charge shall be done

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 No explosive should be transported by any passenger or

mixed train
 Carriage containing explosives should be kept away from
engine
 Availability of proper valves and fittings like temperature
gauge, pressure gauge, level indicator, stop valve etc are
required and should be protected against impact
 Necessary PPE, spark arrestor and fire extinguisher are
must
 TREM card and emergency kit and instruction to driver are
necessary
 Information panel should be marked on each side of the
container
 Compression or extraction system is necessary for dust
control from solid
 Control of flow rate, safety showers, absorbents, and PPE‘s
become necessary for prevention of splashes
 Flow rate control, scrubber, condenser, venting and safe
discharge are essential for gaseous leak
 Pipeline should be well laid and painted
 Pipeline should be properly bonded and earthed
 Air pressure should not be used while using drums
 Transfer by vacuum and using necessary PPE is the best
procedure for transfer of chemical by drums
 Solids can be discharged into reactors by drum tilters or
emptied onto specially designed screw conveyor or storage
drum
 No use of empty drums should be done unless specially
cleaned

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 Necked carboys and glass bottle should never be

transported
OR
NILAY PATEL
 It should be transported in wooden crates or cases properly
closed
 Special spouts should be provided to prevent spillage from
plastic carboys
 Use of conveyor belt should be provided for handling large
quantities of chemicals
 Elimination of static charge while handling organic powder
 Use of pneumatic conveyor for transportation of chemical
from one place to another within the plant
 Gas cylinders should be handled with the right type of
tackle, trolley and should not be thrown down
 They should be transported in upright position and should
protected against heat and impact
 Should be clamped or tied to prevent fall when kept vertical
 Use of steel drums for transportation of solvents
 Jute bags and paper bags are used for the innocuous
chemicals
Threshold quantities
The Threshold Quantities (TQ) set out below related to each
installation or group of installations belonging to the same
occupier where the distance between installations in not
adequate to prevent / avoid, in foreseeable circumstances, any
aggravations if Major Accident Hazard (say bulk storages).
These quantities apply in any case to each group of installations
belonging to the same occupier where the distance between
installations is less than 500 meter.
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For the purpose of determining the TQ of a hazardous chemical

at an isolated storage, account shall also be taken of the
chemical which is at any other site under the control of the same
occupier in any part of the boundary which is within 500 meters
of the said site in any vehicle, vessel, aircraft or hovercraft under
the control of the same occupier which is used for storage
purpose either at the site or within 500 meter of it, But no
account to be taken of any hazardous chemical which is a
vehicle, vessel, aircraft or hovercraft used for transporting it (i.e.
petrol, diesel, LPG etc being used for fuelling the vehicles)
NILAY PATEL
Refer page 65 from the material given form college
Statutory provision
Construction, equipment and Maintenance of Motor Vehicle
Rule No. 91, 92 and 129 to 137 are pertaining to transport of
dangerous or hazardous goods and their abstract is given below.
R-91-- Definition
Dangerous or hazardous goods means the goods of dangerous or
hazardous nature to human life specified in Table I, II and III to
rule 137
R. 92 -- General
A motor vehicle including construction equipment vehicle shall
be used or allowed to be used in a public place in compliance
with this chapter. If a vehicle does not remain under effective
control it shall not be used except by towing
R. 129 – Class labels, safety equipment 7 techno graph
Every owner shall display on goods carriage and on every
package mark of class label specified in Table I to Rule 137. If
package represents two hazards given in Table III to rule 137,
two labels shall be displayed on the package The label on the
package should be appropriate to the type of hazardous goods.
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Such goods carriage shall carry safety equipment to prevent fire,

explosion or escape of hazardous goods and shall be fitted with
Tachograph
R. 129A – Spark arrestor
Goods carriage carrying dangerous or hazardous goods to
human life, shall be fitted with a spark arrestor
R. 130 – Manner of display of class labels
Size of class label on a goods package should be more than 25
mm2 and display angle 45°. Adhesive material should be
waterproof. On front and rear both the sides it should be
displayed
OR
ILAY PATEL
R. 131 – Consigner duty
Every consignor shall supply to the owner of the goods carriage
accurate and sufficient information about the hazardous goods
so as to in his driver is aware of the risk to the health and safety
of any person
R. 132 – Carriage owner
They will satisfy themselves about the information given by the
consigner. The driver will be given relevant information
available during transportation Valid registration to carry
hazardous goods, first aid, safety equipment, tool box, antidotes,
fixing of trip route and valid driving licence are also necessary
R. 133 – Driver to take P
Driver shall observe at all times all the precautions to prevent
fire, explosion or escape of hazardous goods, shall ensure
parking in a safe place and under control and supervision of
himself or other competent person above the age of 1 The driver
will keep TREM card and information u/r 132(3) in his cabin

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R.134 – Emergency information penal (5) May’18

Such panel (marked on goods carriage i.e. vehicle) shall contain

The correct technical name of the hazardous goods in letters
bigger than 5 mm size Class label of more than 260 mm
Telephone number of emergency services to be contacted in
case of fire or any accident with letters and numbers of more
than 50 mm size and also the name and telephone number of the
above consignor or other perceive advice on emergency
measures.
A sticker on vehicle showing goods being carried on in that trip

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ILAL
R. 135 – Driver to be instructed
The owner of the goods carriage shall ensure the satisfaction of
the consignor that the driver has received adequate instruction
and training to understand
 Nature of goods
 Nature of the risks there from
 Precautions while driving or parking
 Action to be taken in case of emergency
R. 136 – Report of accident
The driver transporting any hazardous goods shall fortwith
report any accident involving such goods to the nearest police
station and also the owner of the goods carriage or the
transporter
R. 137 – Class labels
TABLE I
Eight type of class label for Hazardous
1. Explosives
2. Non flammable, flammable and poisonous gases
3. Flammable liquids
4. Flammable solids
5. Oxidizing substances
6. Poisonous (toxic), Infectious substances
7. Radioactive substances
8. corrosives
TABLE II
Toxic Chemicals
1. oral in rats LD50 ≥ 5 to 200 mg/kg
2. cutaneous in rats or rabbits LD50 = 10 to 400 mg/kg
3. inhalation (4 hours) in rats LC50 = 0.1 to 2% mg/l

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Flammable Chemicals
1. flammable gases BP = 20°C at normal pressure
2. highly flammable liquids BP > 20°C at normal pressu re and
FP < 21°C
3. flammable liquids FP < 55°C and which remains liqui d under
pressure
Explosives
Chemicals which may explode under the effect of flame or
which are more sensitive to shocks or friction than
dinitrobenzene
NILAY PATEL
TABLE III
Chemicals are listed and classified as
C = corrosive, E= explosive, F= Flammable, O = Oxidising, R=
Reactive, T = Toxic

UN NO.

CLASS 1 – Explosives
Division 1.1 – Substances and article which have mass
explosion hazard
Division 1.2 – Substances and article which have projection
hazard but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.3 – Substances and articles which have a fire hazard
and either a minor blast hazard or major projection hazard or
both, but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.4 – Substances and articles which present no
significant hazard
Division 1.5 – Very intensive substances which have a mass
explosion
hazard
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CLASS 2 – Gases compressed, liquefied, dissolved under

pressure or deeply
refrigerated [non-flammable, flammable and poison (toxic)
gases]
CLASS 3 – Inflammable or flammable liquids
CLASS 4 – Inflammable solids, substances liable to
spontaneous combustion,
substances which on contact with water emits inflammable gases
Division 4.1 – Inflammable solids
Division 4.2 – substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Division 4.3 – Substances which on contact with water emits
inflammable gases
CLASS 5 – Oxidising substances, Organic peroxide
Division 5.1 – Oxidising substances
Division 5.2 – Organic peroxide
CLASS 6 – Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious substances
Division 6.1 – Poisonous (toxic) substances
Division 6.2 – Organic peroxide
CLASS 7 – Radioactive substances
CLASS 8 – Corrosives
CLASS 9 – miscellaneous Dangerous substances

Q: short note on: HAZCHEM code

The HAZCHEM code for any chemical consists background
 A number 1 to 4
 A capital letter P to T or W to Z (except Q)
 An optional letter E
Significance of Numbers 1 to 4 (types of extinguishers to be
used)
1. Water jet
2. Water fog produced by a high pressure atomizing jet direct
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3. Foam (normal protein foam as used by all fire brigades)

4. Dry agents – commonly known as Dry Chemical Powder and
vaporizing liquids are also in this category Significance of Letter
P to T and W to Z (except Q) of three parts on an orange
directed upwards
 Materials coded from P to T are those which may in an
emergency be diluted and flushed down the nearest drain.
 Materials coded form W to Z may not be diluted and must
be contained.
 Materials P & R and W & X are those whose vapour or
products of combustion are injurious to the human skin and
for which full impervious protective clothing (generally
nitrile rubber) as well as (self contained breathing apparatus
SCBA) must be provided
 Materials S & T and Y & Z are those which Breathing
apparatus (BA) alone is necessary. BA is frequently
necessary for work in smoke and oxygen deficient
atmosphere even when the chemical itself presents no
hazards materials P, W and Y are capable of reacting,
violently either alone or with some other substances (e.g.
water, air, metals or combustible material) with which may
come in contact.
 The final and optional letter E calls for evacuation of all
persons other than the fire brigade to a minimum distance
of 200 meters form the incident spot, whether fire or
spillage
 This is used for materials which may be particularly
hazardous, e.g. explosive, super toxic, biologically active or
radioactive

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Safety and risk phrases

Material hazards and their safety measures are described in

MSDS. Now, web sites and databases are easily accessible. To
mention phrases of safety some code is assigned which is known
as safety phrase. The safety phrase is a alphanumeric code. The
first digit is ―S‖ to denote safety and following digits are simply
serial number of the safety phrases. Similar method is also used
for Risk Phrases and is starts with ―R‖ followed by serial
number of that phrase. These are reserved numbers. Numbering
and codification helps in easy access of the phrase in the
computers. Today our all working is on computers, this phrases
are useful in that aspect. Safety Phrase: S4 1 some times
combination is expressed as S4 1-51/53 Risk Phrase : R4 1
Sometimes combination is expressed as R4 1-49/51 etc.

EC safety phrases
Under EC legislation, data sheets available in the UK now
contain codes for certain ―safety phrases‖ shown as 51, 517 etc.
These phrases are also extensively used elsewhere in the world
Safety phrase codes have the following meanings:
S1 Keep locked up.
S2 keep out of the reach of children.
S3 Keep in a cool place.
S4 Keep away from living quarters.
S5 Keep contents under (there follows the name of a liquid).
S6 Keep under ... (there follows the name of on inert gas).
S7 Keep container tightly closed.
S8 Keep container dry.
S9 Keep container in a well-ventilated place.

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[To Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Lab. Safety home page]

This information was last updated on November 5, 2001. We
have tried to make it as accurate and useful as possible, but can
take no responsibility for its use, misuse, or accuracy. ‗We have
not verified this information, and cannot guarantee that it is up-
to-date.
Risk phrases
Chemical data sheets available in many countries now contain
code for certain―Risk phrases‖ shown as R23, R45 etc. These
risk phrase codes have the following meanings:
NILAY PATEL
R1 Explosive when dry.
R2 Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other source of
ignition.
R3 Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other
sources of ignition.
R4 Forms very sensitive explosive metallic compounds. R5
Heating may cause an explosion.
R6 Explosive with or without contact with air.
R7 May cause fire.
R8 Contact with combustible material ma cause fire.
R9 Explosive when mixed with combustible material.
R10 Flammable.
[To Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Lab. Safety home page]
This information was last updated on October 11, 2002. We
have tried to make it as accurate and useful as possible, but can
take no responsibility for its use, misuse, or accuracy. ‗We have
not verified this information, and cannot guarantee that it is up-
to-date.
☺

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Q: Short note on TREM card (5) June ‘19 ATEL

TREM (Transport Emergency) card is an important part of
hazard communication which must be available in the vehicle to
facilitate actions by administrative agencies with the help of
others in case any emergency situation arises on route as result
of any type of accidents of serious nature and especially when
drivers / helpers are also involved in the accident, got seriously
injured / lost lives or ran out in panic fearing serious danger to
them.
On such occasion an appropriate and duly compiled TREM Card
available in the vehicle shall of great help in carrying out initial
emergency actions.
The format for the TREM card shall be as prescribed in the
Central Motor Vehicles Rules No. 132 (2) – Annexure V.
The card must be printed on a white paper with the element
heading appearing on red background and the descriptive
information in Black.
It is also desirable to make it multilingual (Hindi, English and a
regional language of the area through which the vehicle may be
regularly moving)
The content of the card shall be as...
 Name of the cargo (Chemical name, identity of the
dangerous chemical ingredient)
 Nature of Hazard
 Protective device
 Emergency action (Notify the police and fire brigade
immediately)
 Spillage control
 Fire extinguishment media and techniques
 Emergency First Aid

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 Additional information provided by the supplier

 Emergency help line numbers (of Manufacturers /
suppliers)
Q: Day – Night release and consequences (5) Dec ‘17
There is difference in day and night consequences. At day time,
the temperature will be higher compared to the night. Higher
temperature will expand the release and hence it will become
less dense and hence it will disperse fast and mainly go up.
This situation is reducing the severity of the consequences.
Moreover the emergency combating resources are accessible. Of
course, the people movement is less.
On the other hand, in the night hours, the temperature is low and
hence release has high density and tendency to settle on the
ground which will not release faster. The situation will increase
the severity of the consequences. Further, the emergency
combating resources are scarce and difficult to approach.

Emergency planning for transportation of hazardous

chemicals
The management strategy of probable emergency scenarios
exclusively related to transportation of Hazardous chemicals.
The situation could be totally different as compared to the
emergency preparedness and execution of action plan at
industrial establishments of any nature In industries the control
strategy of cab be better organized and acted upon since, persons
involved would be duly conversant and confident about the way
to respond since most of them will be well trained employees of
the same organization. They also will be more experienced by
tacking similar situation in the past and must have improved
upon after each incident where as in case of road accidents the
persons would have been facing such events for the first time.
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Accordingly the response of the apparently ignorant / less

qualified / untrained / experience lacking (and also panic driven)
drivers / helpers could be totally different.
Apart from that there is also possibility of them running away
either due to fear of mob rage at the incident site or concern for
own safety for the hazard.
Besides, the nearby public, other road user, police and other
local administrative authorities may find it tough to handle the
task even if they are sincere and well concerned about the
responsibilities entrusted on them.
In such situation only a well designed and articulate ―Off site
Emergency ― plan covering all aspects including clear cut
responsibility matrix shall be of help especially if the emergency
strikes at far away location from the supplier‘s premises. Still
the real success of plan will greatly depend on the active
involvement and joint participation by transporter, local
administrative bodies, nearby fire station, primary health
centres, hospitals, volunteer groups, NGO‘s etc. with proper
guidance from the supplier either on phone or computer
networking followed by immediate arrival of their emergency
rescue team at the incident spot.
NILAY
Following are the phases.
1. Risk assessment for the transportation of hazardous chemical
 Hazard Identification
 Vulnerability Analysis
 Risk Analysis
 HAZAN
 FTA
 ETA

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 FMECA
2. Documentation — Transport Emergency Action Plan
3. Roles and Responsibilities
4. Rehearsing Plans and Updating documents
Various directives and recommended actions have been issued
by international organisations like
 UN Committee of experts on the transport of dangerous
goods
 European Economic Committee (EEC)
 US Department of Transport etc.
They need special labels or notices on packages or on vehicles,
display of correct technical name of the chemical, special signs
or plates, instructions in writing to thedrivers i.e. TREM card,
safe packing conditions, particulars in transport documents,
display of supplier‘s name, address and phone number including
phone number from where specialist advise can be available
The transporter should carry ‗Emergency kit‘ containing tool kit,
emergency lighting, fire extinguisher, protective clothing,
breathing equipment and first-aid kit.
Proper training to drivers of hazardous chemicals is legally
required Safety checklist of transport vehicles shall be prepared
and used.
Emergency actions in case of toxic release
 Driver of hazardous cargo should be trained to handle small
emergencies
 Inform police, fire brigade and manufacturer
 Takeout TREM card, MSDS etc. from the vehicle and give
it to police
 Vehicle should be taken to open area and parked away from
thicky populated area

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 Cordon the area around leak

 Stop traffic and keep people away from the vehicle
 Leaking liquid can be contained in bunds of sand / earthY
PATEL
 Small leaks can be plugged by wooden peg
 It a leak is form cylinder valve it can be capped by yoke
clamp
 A leaking cylinder can be turned so as to bring leaking
portion in gas phase
 Water in not to be added on leaking cylinder and spill if
chemical is corrosive
 Use water sprays, fogs to absorb toxic vapour cloud
 Evacuate the downwind area in case of large toxic leakage
In case of Inflammable chemical
 Park vehicle on the road side
 Stop engine
 Inform police, fire brigade and manufacturer
 Takeout TREM card, MSDS etc. from the vehicle and give
it to police
 Cordon off the area, stop traffic and keep people away
 Do not smoke, ignition source to be avoided
 In case of fire, try to extinguish it with fir extinguisher
 Try to stop leak by cutting off the source, close valve
 Keep the tank cool by water sprays to avoid explosion
 Surrounding area should be checked for explosion
possibility and evacuated if necessary
NILAY PATEL

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FETY THROUGH DESIGN

Chapter 5 Safety through Design

The components involved in design process

Successful risk reduction depends on both design and
organization; in general, good design is only possible with good
organization. Safety and quality assurance are thus two sides of
the same coin. Human factor must be considered at all stages of
safety assurance; the fallibility of the designers can be just as
important as that of operating personnel
Defination
Safety through design is defined as the integration of Hazard
Analysis and Risk Assessment methods early in the design and
engineering stages and the taking of the actions necessary so that
the risks of injury or damage are at an acceptable level
This concept encompasses facilities, hardware, equipment,
tooling materials, layout and configuration, energy controls,
environmental concerns, and products.
General principles of definition
For the purpose explaining our topic, the design processes
applies to facilities, hardware, equipment, tooling materials,
layout and configuration, energy controls, environmental
concerns, and products
 Work methods & procedures, personnel selection,
standards, training content, work scheduling, management
of change procedures, maintenance requirements and
personal protective appliances Industrial, commercial &
consumer products for human consumption

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Objective of safety through design

The following objectives should be considered when companies
are developing a safety through design process
 Safety consistent with goals is to be designed in all
processes, the workplace, work methods and products in a
proactive, cost-effective manner.
 Risk assessment is to be an integral part of the design
process
 A fundamental design purpose is to have processes and
products that are error proof or error tolerant
 Hazards must be identified and evaluated, and then
avoided, eliminated or controlled so that the associated
risks are at an acceptable level
 Requirements for minimum risk are to be established and
applied in acceptance of new materials, technology or
design, and prior to adoption of new production, test or
operating techniques.
 Actions taken to identify and eliminate hazards and to
reduce their attendant risks to an acceptable level are to be
documented
 Retrofit actions required to improve safety are to be
minimized through timely inclusion of safety features
during research, technology development and purchasing
acquisition
 A management of change system is to be in place that
includes identification of hazards so that acceptable risk
level is maintained when design or work methods changes
are made.
 Consideration is to be given early in the design process to
the risk attendant in the eventual disposal of procedures and
products.
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 Significant safety data reflecting lessons company has

learned are to be documented and disseminated to
interested personnel.
These objectives represent an ideal level toward which
companies can work in their efforts to improve their safety
records.

Benefits of safety through design

Data prevalent indicating that the following benefits will be

derived if decisions affecting safety, health and the environment
are integrated into early stages of the design process
 Significant reductions will be achieved in injuries, illness,
damage to the environment and their attendant costs
 Productivity will be improved
 Operating costs will be reduced
 Expensive retrofitting to correct design shortcomings will
be avoided Safety in process plants starts at the design
stage with the selection of technology and preparation of
flow sheets; it can be assured in two ways
 Inherent safety
 Engineered safety
NILAY PATEL
Inherent safety
This is the best way of ensuring safety, because it does not have
to rely on ‗added on‘ features and their reliability. Inherent
safety includes reducing the inventories of hazardous materials,
or, if possible, replacing them by less hazardous materials.
The use of alternative process routes involving lower pressure,
moderate temperatures or flow velocities, are another principle
of Inherent safety.
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The substitution by more efficient means of earlier process

routes has made significant contribution towards better inherent
safety.
In general, design should always ensure that a process ‗fails‘ to a
safe or stable condition if power and / or utilities are lost. If
feasible, the design must be such that operator intervention is
not needed for 30 minutes after an incident. Experience has
shown that operator cannot always be relied upon to make
correct decision under immediate post – accident scenarios.
Engineered safety
Properly designed, constructed, operated and maintained
equipment will not fail catastrophically provided that its
mechanical condition are not exceeded, the properties of the
material of construction do not deteriorate and the process
conditions remain within specification.
It is thus the first priority of engineered safety to ensure that the
basic design is adequate under normal operating conditions.
It is then necessary to incorporate protective devices to ensure
that the design conditions cannot be exceeded or that appropriate
corrective actions get actuated before the situation becomes
undesirable.
Please remember that engineered protective device can also fail
occasionally. Never place too much reliance on ‗built on‘ safety;
always give priority to preventing the problems in the first place.

Safety assurance in design

The Health & Safety at Work Act (UK) makes suppliers

responsible for the safe operation of plant and the equipment
being supplied.

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In order to discharge the said responsibility he must demonstrate

that all practical steps have been taken in terms of safe design. It
should also be both proactive and reactive.
Safety assurance calls for both for identification of potential
hazards and an assessment of their frequency and consequences.
Safety assurance must be an integral part of design procedures
i.e. part of the overall qualitative assurance.
NILAY PATEL
A formal set of review procedures needs to be established to
ensure that safety is considered at all points in the design
process. The review should be carried out at all stages of project.
A typical procedure involves carrying out safety reviews at six
stages as shown below.
 Conceptual design
 Completion of flow sheet development
 Basic process design freeze
 Completion of detailed design
 Pre commissioning
 Completion of the first year of operation
Conceptual design Review
The object of this report is to ensure that all the major safety
implications of the process have been considered. If the process
is hazardous, make attempts at design stage to find out a less
hazardous route to minimize the risks as far as practicable. This
is the time to consider inherent safety in detail.

The report comprises of

 Process description
 Inventory of hazardous chemicals
 List of hazardous unit processes and operations

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 Preliminary assessment of risks and mitigating

measures
 Review of the previous experiences with similar
processes or
 materials
The report should make all designers and others concerned
officials with the project aware of the special attention required
to ensure a safer design
Flow sheet Safety Review
Once PFD has been completed it is possible to carryout the intial
HAZOP review.
The list of key word includes
 Fire
 Explosion
 Toxic release
 Flammable material release

Although carried out at an early stage of the design, this review
can show up potential problems and allow changes to be made.
AY PATEL
Process Design Freeze Review
Once the process design has reached the point where the P&ID
are complete and can be ‗frozen and approved for design‘, a full
– scale HAZOP can be carried out. The HAZOP examines the
plant line by line in a structured re-examination by Appling a
series of guide words and deviations.
The object is to reveal potential hazards in both normal and
abnormal operations

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Review at completion of detailed design

Development of the detailed design is bound to result in changes

in the plant as subject to the HAZOP review. It is thus essential
that all subsequent changes to the design are also examined.
Establish a good project management system to ensure that no
changes can be made again to the design following the HAZOP
without the study team being made aware of the same. Once
again the quality assurance and safety go hand in hand.
Pre commissioning Safety Review
Commissioning is one of the most hazardous stages of any plant
[Link] only design errors, but problems due to
construction errors also become obvious. In addition,
commissioning generates hazards of its own as the plant moves
from the project to the operation status. It is essential that a
formal set of checks be carried out before process materials are
introduced into the system for the first time.
First check the plant line by line against P&ID, then clean
thoroughly all construction debris, make final check to ensure
instrumentation, thereafter carryout a HAZOP review to confirm
all outstanding actions have been completed
Review on completion of first year in operation
A further safety review is to be carries out after plant has
completed a one year spell of operation. This view includes an
examination of the plant records for about an year. To see if
there have been any specific incidents or accidents, or there
were any intrinsic problems with the plant or even the manner in
which the plant has been kept operating. Discussion with field
operating personnel enables a check that the instructions are
being read, understood and followed.

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Reputed organizations continue to carry out safety reviews or

audits on operating plants at regular intervals by applying the
basic methodologies.
Design safety guidelines
The guidelines include code of practice such as statutory
provisions, national / international level engineering standards,
etc. besides specific in house systems / procedures and practices.
Some guidelines include checklist which compel designers to
examine each area of design against pro forma – questionnaire.
Guidelines must always be backed up by proactive safety advice
and designers must have someone to whom they can refer for
interpretation and further advice
Model review
a further valuable safety review can be carried out when the
plant model (plastic or computerised) is complete. Much can be
seen on the model which might not be detected in drawings. A
‗walk through‘ model again using a prepared set check list, can
do much to pick up problems which have slipped through earlier
nets. Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems often contain
packages which can perform many of these checks
automatically.
The safety through design model
The consideration of hazards and risks would be moved as far
‗upstream‘ as possible in design process. Upstream includes all
aspects of the origination of business concepts, the relative
decision making, and the design process, during which the
greatest effectiveness can be achievement in hazard avoidance,
elimination or control.

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Benchmarking for cultural change

To understand how far an organization has progressed in safety

through design, the safety practitioner should consider proposing
a benchmarking initiative. In that process, it may be determined
that a culture change will be needed to effectively incorporate
safety through design concepts into the design process.
Benchmarking is a standard of excellence against which other
similar things are measured or judged. Benchmarking against
superior performers allows learning form experience of others
without awaiting downstream experience to influence changes
necessary in the design / build stage of safety through design
model
Relating safety through design to quality management
There is a remarkable correlation between quality management
and safety through design principles. The same system design
and continuous improvement processes that ensure that a
product meets quality expectations will also ensure the safety
expectations will be met.
Improve constantly forever the system of production and
service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly
decrease costs. If you want superior quality or superior safety,
you must design it into new systems, and you must also maintain
a continual improvement.

Integration safety through design into design process

Safety through design cannot be isolated from normal business
planning. Safety through design is integrated culture by
achieving recognition that benefits obtained are supportive of
management goals. Those benefits related to business objectives

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of survival, competition, cost control and reduction, and return

on investment
The designer considers the mental, physical, and human factors
of very large part of the user population to achieve a design that
is user friendly.
Order of design precedence
To achieve greatest effectiveness in hazards avoidance,
elimination or control, companies should apply the following
priorities to all design and redesign processes
First priority – Design for minimum risk
Second priority – Incorporate safety devices
Third priority – Provide warning devices
Fourth priority – develop and implement operating procedures
and employee training programs
Fifty priority – use of personal protective equipments
Role of safety practioner
The safety professional is often the driving force in a company
for including safety decisions during design stages. The safety
professional must work to make safety in design part of the
company‘s philosophy and standard operation procedures.
They can also influence the design of the workplace and work
methods at three critical points
In the pre operational design stage
Before a building, system or piece of equipment becomes
operational, the safety professional has the greatest
opportunity to indemnify and analyze and to help engineers
and architects design ways to avoid, control or eliminate
them. This stage avoid costly redesigning, retrofitting, or
replacing elements of the workplace
NILAY PATEL

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In the operational stage

After a building, system or piece of equipment becomes
operational, the safety professional can seek to make them
safety through the process of continuous improvement. He
or she accomplishes this task by anticipating, helping to
control or eliminate them before their potentials to cause
injury or death are realized

In the post incident stage

After the incident has already occurred, the safety
professional can still work to improve safety. By
investigating the hazards related to the incident, he or she
can determine the casual factors involved and can review
the possible impact of design decisions on the incident.
These data can be used to improve future design and
eliminate the factors that led to the current incident
Proactive versus reactive response
as in other areas of safety, companies have a choice of
either initiating safety through design or simply reacting to
incidents and attempting to redesign equipment and
procedures to prevent recurrences.
By taking a proactive approach, the company obtain
designs that can reduce employees risk, improve
productivity and at lower costs. A proactive company asks
for safety related options while a building, work system, or
equipment is being designed.
Behavior modification versus work place redesign
because many companies still adopt a reactive mode in
designing for management and safety professional tend to
focus on behaviour modification or training as solutions
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when the problem in workplace of work method design.

Although behaviour modification and training are
important elements of safety and health initiative, such
measures are misdirected when applied to solve workplace
or work method design problems.
Ergonomics and human factors in safety through design
YPATEL
In short
The Components involved in design process Material to be
contained / handled
 Toxicity, Flammability, Reactivity, Physical & Chemical
Properties,
 Availability, Cost, Compatibility with container
 Material of Construction of Vessel
 Mechanical Properties — Strength, Stress, Durability,
Corrosion, Fatigue, Factor of Safety Chemical Properties:
Compatibility with containment as Well as with the
Environment
 Storage / Handling Conditions:
 Reactions, Temperatures, Pressures, Products, Byproducts,
Wastes, Environmental parameters - Rural-Urban,
Temperature, Wind speed, Humidity, Atmospheric stability
 Standardization:
Tolerances, Inter changeability
Others:
 Orientation, Mountings
 VESSELS CLASSIFICATION
 Classification
 Other Considerations
 No sharp edges

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 No sharp corners
 Inspection
 Maintenance
 Law of the Land — regulation compliance — The
Factories Act, 1948, the Petroleum Act, Explosives Act etc.
 Standard: Code of Design of Unfired Pressure Vessels
Q: Write short note on: Preliminary hazard Analysis(PHA)
May’18, June ‘19
ILAY PATEL
Preliminary hazard analysis(PHA)
It is a procedure for identifying hazards early in the design phase
of project before the final design has been established. Its
purpose is to identify opportunities for design modifications,
which would or eliminate hazards, mitigate the consequence of
accidents or both.
Since PHA is a fast, cost effective and not complicated like
other methods of hazard assessment, it should be adopted as the
first step.
Its basic steps are :
 Assume a type of accident or hazard possible (e.g. fire,
explosion, toxic release, finger cutting etc)
 Find out which plant component, system or machine can
cause this accident (e.g. storage vessel, reactor, pipeline,
circular saw etc)
 Find out the event (result) initiating the hazard or accident
(e.g. release of explosive or toxic gas, runaway reaction
etc)
 This will naturally suggest the corresponding safety devices
(safety valves, rupture disc, alarms etc)

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 Preliminary hazard identification is required at different

stages of project as under :
 R & D : Chemicals, reactions, impurities and pilot plant
 Pre Design : Hazard indices, hazard studies
 Design : Process design checks, HAZOP, Failure mode and
effects
 Commissioning: Safety audits, mechanical commissioning
tests, NDT, emergency planning.
 Operation: condition and corrosion monitoring.
 PHA is generally used for early identification of hazards.

It is based on
 Raw materials
 Intermediates
 Final products
 Plant equipment
 Interface among system components
 Operation environment
 Operations
 Other facilities
 Safety equipments etc

Once the hazardous conditions have been identified the events

that may lead to the accident must be specified. Events such as
the formation of an explosive atmosphere outside or inside a
storage vessel or release of a toxic gas need to be examined so
as to identify the component of a plant that can cause the
accident. The component will then be singled out for a more
detailed examination by other evaluation methods such as the
HAZOP. The results are recorded on a form since the PHA is
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fast and cost effective & since it identified key problems, hazard
evaluation should always start with this method.
Its results indicate which systems or procedure require further
analysis & which system are of less interest from a major
hazardous point of view.
In this way it is possible to limit the evaluation to key problems,
thus avoiding unnecessary efforts.

Q: short note on – HAZOP

HAZOP is defined as ― the application of a formal systematic

critical examination to the process and engineering intentions of
the facilities to access the hazard potential of mal-operation or
malfunction of individual items of equipment and the
consequential effects on the facility as a whole‖
Principle
It is based on the principle that several experts with different
background can interact and identify more problems when
working together than working independently and combining
their results.
So, HAZOP study is performed by a multidisciplinary expert
group always including worker familiar with the installations.
 HAZOP can be conducted to check the designs or operating
procedures for a new project or an existing one
 Can also be conducted to improve safety of existing
facilities
 It is also useful before implementing significant
modifications or for other operational or legal reasons
HAZOP study is carried out to determine deviations from
normal operation and operational malfunction which could
lead to uncontrolled event
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The most important terms

Intention: The intention defines how the part is expected to
operate.
Deviations: These are departures from the intention (which
are discovered by systematically applying the guide words).
Causes: These are the reasons why deviations might occur.
Consequences: These are the results of the deviations should
they occur.
Hazards: These are the consequences which can cause damage,
injury or loss. Guide words: These are simple words which are
used to qualify the intention in order to guide and stimulate the
creative thinking and so discover deviations
Types of Hazard to be considered:
 to people working in a plant
 to plant and equipment
 to or from product quality
 to the general public
 to the environment
Examination procedure takes
 Full description of process
 Systematically questions every part of it
 To discover how deviation from the intention of
design can occur
 Decides whether deviation can give rise to hazards
The potential hazards are noted for remedial actions. Trivial or
meaningless consequences are dropped out

Stages at which HAZOP can be carried out

 At an early stage of development
 Design freeze stage (when design is completed and
construction is to be started)EL
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 At pre-start up stage (when construction is completed

and operation is to be started)
 Studies on existing plants
 Studies prior to plant modification
 Studies prior to taking a plant out of service
 Studies on research facilities
Procedure for HAZOP study follows
 Define objective and scope
 Select the team
 Prepare for the study
 Carryout the examination
 Follow up
 Record the results
The examination in practice
 leader will select the first item for study approach
 explanation of the intention of that selected item
 discussion using guide words
 problem solving for hazard detected or search for
solutions
 sum up at the end of discussion
 mark that item as ―over‖
 reselect the next item
 Go on...
The objectives may be
 To check a design
 To decide whether and where to build
 To decide whether to by an equipment
 To obtain list of questions to put to a supplier
 To check running instructions
 To improve safety of existing facilities etc.

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The team may be composed of

Mechanical engineer, chemical engineer, R & D chemist,
Production manager, project manager, instrument /
electrical engineer, civil engineer and a member form
purchase, finance, personnel department etc
The team should not be too large and should possess
Positive attitude, Constructive attitude, Imaginative
thinking

The preparative work includes

 Obtain the data
 Convert the data into suitable form
 Plan the sequence for the study
 Arrange the necessary meetings
After discovery of hazard, follow up actions becomes necessary.
These may be number of possible actions
 Change in process (material, recipe etc.)
 Change in process conditions (temperature, pressure etc.)
 Alteration to the physical design including safety guarding
 Change in operating methods
Recording needs hazard file containing copy of data Process
description, process flow diagram, material etc.
 Piping and instrumentation diagram
 Process equipments layout
 Operating manual
 Safety manual
 Vendor diagram (P & ID)
 Equipment specification sheet
 Piping specifications
 Plot plan
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 MSDS for materials

 Any reports on safety reviewsCopy of all working
papers, questions, recommendations, redesign etc.
 The file should be retained on plant and report be prepared
for the guidance Success or failure of study depends on
 The accuracy of drawings and other data used as the basis
for the study.
 The ability of the team to use the approach as an aid to their
 imagination in visualizing deviations, causes and
consequences.
 The ability of the team to maintain a sense of proportion,
particularly when assessing the seriousness of the hazards
which are identified.
NILAY
Guidewords used in HAZOP are

Type Guide word Meaning Comments

Negation NO or NOT The complete No part of the intentions
negation of these isachieved but no thing
intentions else happens.
Quantitativ MOR Quantitative These refers to quantities
e E increase or decrease + properties such as flow
rates and temperatures as
LESS well as activities like
HEAT and REACT
Qualitative AS WELL A qualitative At the design and
AS increase operating intentions are
achieved together with
some additional activity
PART OF A Qualitative Only some of the
decrease intentions are achieved;

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some are not.

Logical REVERSE The logical This is mostly applicable

opposite of the to activities,(e.g. reverse
intentions flow rate or chemical
reaction) it can also be
applied to substances
(e.g. POISON instead of
ANTIDOTE of D instead
of L optical isomer)
Substitutio OTHER Complete No part of the original
n THAN substitution intention is achieved.
Something quite
different happens.

Different tires of protection and redundancy

There are three tiers of protection and redundancy.
First - On failure of process variable, signalling and then
manual control
Second - Control system initiates automatic action to bring the
process variable back into its normal range.
Third - Independent protective system which takes automatic
action when the hazardous condition is approached.

General considerations of design for emergency shutdown

and start up
Shut-down & start-up activities are very significant in chemical
industries considering the safety of men & property and many of
the accidents case studies bear testimony to this aspect
As per BP Chemicals more than 20% of accidents occur during
shut-down / startup activities. Hence, there arise need of safe

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design for safe shut-down and startup Start-up / shut-down

operations / procedures need special precautions also during
design stage Some of the considerations should be.

Material of construction
 Compatible to processing material
 Capable of handling thermal expansion /
contraction during shutdown activities due to
heating and cooling
 Long lasting and capable of dealing with wear like
corrosion, cracks etc.
 Proper space around equipments for moving during
activities
 Proper location of blinds, gauges, meters, connections
that can be easily reachable and ergonomically for
carrying out work (like blinding, deblinding,
 maintenance etc.) during shut-down / start-up activities.
 Proper size of manhole for reaching inside vessel for
maintenance work
 Provision of points where ventilation system can be
attached while any man working inside the vessel
 Should be located such that it does not interferes other
machinery / equipments, when need arise for
replacement.
 There should not be any secondary hazard development
 Vessel should be properly anchored / fastened / fixed to
handle vibration, shock or any kind of impact during
shut-down / start-up activities.

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During emergency or immediate shut-down it should be well

programmed to follow the safe shut-down sequence without
interference of any person.
The industries devote considerable time and spend large
amounts of money designing safe plants. However, when certain
hazards cannot be economically eliminated at the design stage, it
must be recognized that appropriate procedures are set up to
avoid risk manifesting out a hazard. Shut-down / start-up
procedures are vital and important among them and must be
diligently followed.
The processes should be well defined, written and known to the
workers involved in this work. The critical path arrow diagram
method has been effectively used in recent years for shut-down /
start-up planning.

Shut down procedure

Each shift must understand clearly what has already been done
in previous shift and what is still remaining. Shutdown operation
needs sequential steps as mentioned
 Bring down the unit by cutting the heat source
 Cooling is done till required
 Introduce inert gas where there is possibility of vacuum
generation due to cooling
 Pumping out of the liquid is done
 Removal of residual material
 Residual hydrocarbon can be removed by purging
with steam, water or water followed by steam
 Displacement of material using purge method – steam
or inert gas
 Removal and displacement of water or condensate due to
steam
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 Blinding of lines and connections and taking electrical

lock-out where required
 Again purging is done where required followed by de-
pressurising
 Opening of equipment
 Provision of ventilation system for vessel
 Inspection of equipment for confirming everything ok
(flammability index, explosion factor, Oxygen content,
ventilation and after residual risk assessment and appraisal
to working group)
 Issue of work permit (permitting maintenance persons to
work on vessel and carry out required maintenance work
with all safety aspects)
Start-up-procedure
Detailed plans and procedures for start-up should be prepared in
advance of the shut-down. The significance of communication
between shift personnel and officials in the same shift must be
emphasized. Each shift must understand clearly what has
already been done in previous shift and what is still remaining.
The most important is to be high alert during start-up for
eliminating miss operation and to follow the proper sequence
with the use of required material or utility.
 Start-up operation needs sequential steps as mentioned
 Closing of all pending work permits
 Removal of shut down binds & application of running /
operational blinds
 Checking of plant site for safe completion of all
maintenance jobs and boxing up.
 Carrying out leakage tests to confirm leak free and healthy
system NILAY PATE

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 Restoration of housekeeping (viz. Removal of maintenance

debris, tools, tackles, portable electrical appliances,
replacement of guards, insulation, lifting electrical lock-out
etc,)
 Checking line-up (e.g. opening / closing of valves, pump
suction – discharge, bypass line, drain valves etc)
 Readiness of fire fighting equipments with respective
personnel
 Preparation of auxiliary equipments and services
 Removal / elimination of air trapped
 Removal of condensate from steam line
 Backing up of fuel gas in furnace, heaters, burners etc.
 Again confirmation of all the equipments, machinery,
pumps etc for readiness to start-up
 Bringing equipments (columns) to desired dew point,
pressure (vacuum or pressurised).
 Bringing the unit on stream
 Applying heating gradually
 Gradually reach to working parameters and normal
operations.
Hazard communication system
Communication is one of the key words in Safety Hazard
Communication System includes
 Qualitative description like health hazard, flammability
hazard, reactivity hazard, electrical hazard, machinery
hazard, fall slipping hazard etc.
 Display of hazard, warning and central indicating signs and
posters
 Safe permissible limits of hazards like TLV, STEL, LD,
LC, dBA etc.
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 Threshold quantities of hazardous chemicals given in

Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals
Rule 1989
 CAS No., UN No., HACHEM, DOT, SOLAS etc.
 Class label and Emergency panel
 TREM card
 Index lime DOW and MOND
 Hazard prioritization by number as given by NFPA
 Safety and Risk phrases
 OH & S policy
 Education, training, retraining and awareness programmes
 Issue of safety reports, SOP‘s, work instructions, MSDS,
Product safety, Booklets, emergency preparedness plan
including mock-up exercise.
NILAY PATEL

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CHAPTER – 6 PRESSURE SYSTEM DESIGN

HPTER – 6
Q: Explain pressure vessel
Any vessel subject to or operated at a pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure. Thus it is the internal pressure of the fluid
or vapour which is above atmospheric pressure.
A pressure vessel could be defined as ―a closed container and
subject to high pressure – mostly internally and at times
externally too (unconditionally) with potential to cause
accidents‖. Vessel may be used for storing pressure or for
carrying out chemical reactions involving high pressure &
temperature.
Pressure vessels are of two types
Fired pressure vessels – which include Boilers, Economizers,
Steam pipes, fittings etc., as per section 2, 2A, 2D of the Indian
Boilers Act 1923
Unfired pressure vessels – which include Reaction vessel,
Autoclaves, Digesters, Heat-exchangers, receivers, Containers,
Compressors, Vulcanisers, Agers, Dyeing vessels, Jacketed
kettles etc. operating above the atmospheric pressure.
The portable gas cylinders, metal bottles used for storage or
transport of compressed gases or liquefied or dissolved gases
under pressure, gas tankers, vessels for nuclear energy,
refrigeration plant of less than 3 TPD capacity, vessel operating
below 1 kg/cm2 etc., are not covered under the pressure vessels.
Specific safety features
 Pressure, temperature, vacuum relief protection (viz. safety
valves, rupture disks, snuffing valves, open vents, cooling
systems like condenser, chillers, sprinklers etc.)
 Cold & thermal insulations

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 Trips, alarms, interlocks, emergency shut-offs, non-return /

excess flow check valves etc.
 Scrubbers, neutralizers, absorbers etc.
 Pressure / temperature / flow controls
 Control of containment losses (double walls, bund walls,
catch pots etc.)
 Appropriate type of electrical fittings / fixtures as per area
classification
 Static dissipation arrangements (grounding, bonding)
 Layout distances as per standard engineering practices
 Blast resistant walls between pressure vessels and other
facilities such as control rooms, office buildings, other
equipments etc.
 Inspection manholes, lifting lugs, linings, water seals etc.
 Davits for facilitating lifting, lowering of hoisting
equipments
 Connection facilities for safety devices such as gauges etc
 Electrical grounding
 Overflow protection, level indicator / control instruments
etc.

Q: Various pressure system components Or Enlist pressure

system components.
Q: Explain pressure vessel and Safety feature. May’18
Pressure System Components are
 Pressure vessel
 Pumps, compressors, Fans
 Control valves
 Piping system, tracing
 Dump vessel
 Steam traps
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 Insulation
 Vent for pressure relief
 Pressure recorders
 Pressure relief devices
 Pressure gauges
 Pressure reducing valves (PRV)
 Non-return valve (NRV)
 Pressure controllers or regulators
 Utilities like – steam, water, air, thermic fluid, inert
gas etc.

Pressure reducing valve (PRV)

 It is a statutory requirement u/r 61 of the Gujarat
Factories Rules.
 It is to be provided between a source of supply of
pressure and the user point or a vessel receiving the
pressure.
 It is to be set at desired set pressure
 It will reduce the pressure on delivery side accordingly
 A safety valve and a pressure gauge is provided on
low pressure sideand a pressure gauge on high
pressure side to see the pressure reduction.
 It shall not be bypassed at any time and should be
tested accordingly.

Spring loaded safety valve

It is desirable with oil seals

 For high pressure, rupture and bursting disc or rupture
diaphragm

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 should also be provided.

 Pressure reducing or pressure control valves are
necessary
 Safety valves should be connected nearest to the
vessel
 It should not be connected where pulsating pressure
fluctuates.
Rupture and bursting disc

It should be provided in upstream of the safety valve and if toxic

or inflammable mixture / gas is pressed, ducting should be
provided covering fully the outlet of the rupture disc so that in
case of rupturing of the disc, the mixture / gas coming out from
it will be collected in duct or blow down tank and not in
environment.
 Rupture disc and bursting disc should be provided in
series (in vertical line of same outflow) with a
pressure gauge in between.
 Rupture disc and bursting disc can be provided in
parallel also
Fusible plugs, pressure gauges, temperature indicators, stop
valves, drain valves, air vent, auto controls and recorders are
also necessary

Q: Fundamentals of pressure vessel design

IS 2825,

SECTION I
 in its design section - General Provision, corrosion, erosion
and protection, cylindrical and spherical shells, domed

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ends, conical ends, unstayed flat heads and covers, stayed

and braced plates, openings branches and compensation,
access and inspection openings, bolted flange connections,
ligament efficiency, jacketed vessels, supports and internal
structures.
 The code also explains materials of construction, allowable
stress, materials for low temperature service and materials
for welding.
 It also explains flange calculations for non-standard flanges
 Design, marking, capacity, setting, installation and
discharge lines of pressure relieving devices are also
specified.
SECTION II
 manufacture and workmanship are explained in the
headings of approval of design, general consideration and
design of welded joints, preparation of parent metal,
assembly of plates and fit-up, alignment and tolerance,
welding procedure, welding of non-ferrous metals,
rectification of welds, repair of drilled holes, repair of
cracks and post weld heat treatment
 the section also prescribes welding procedure, qualification
and welder‘s performance qualification

SECTION III: Gives inspection and test methods, marking and

records.
APPENDICES A TO N
 Gives various values of stress, temperature, recommended
practice, typical design of welded connections and
Performa‘s.

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Design formulae
The following formulae shall apply in the case of cylindrical and
spherical vessels subject to internal pressure

For Cylindrical Shells

or
For Spherical Shells
or

Where,
t = minimum thickness of shell plates exclusion of corrosion
allowance in mm
p = design pressure in kg/cm2
Di = inside diameter of the shell in mm
Do = Outside diameter of the shell in mm
f = allowable stress value in kg/mm2
j = joint factor or efficiency
Depending upon the material of the shell and the design
temperature, the factor ‗f‘ should be selected from the tables
given in Appendix A of IS 2825. This f is form 9.5 to 9.8 for
some carbon and low alloy steel plates to be used up to 250°C
design temperature

Basic for design

Pressure & Temperature

 The design pressure is customarily set at 15 psi or 10%
whichever is greater, over the operating pressure for vessels

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without eyclic swings and is usually 5 to 10% above the

highest pressure for the rest.
 The design temperature is usually 50°C above the
maximum temperature
Minimum Plate thickness
 The plate thickness of large diameter pressure vessel is
often based on arbitrary plate thickness rather than
calculated thickness based on design pressure
 This results in a calculated maximum allowable working
pressure that may be much greater than design pressure
External Pressure or Vacuum
 Consideration should be given to many consequences
before taking advantages of such waiver, such as personal
hazard in event the tank collapsed, cost of replacing vessel
property damage and the hazards, due to release of contents
and value of lost contents.
 It at all possible, the use of vacuum breaker or a seal leg is
much cheaper than designing for vacuum.
Selection of Material
 The selection of material of construction (MOC) in most
instances is a matter of experience.
 When experience is lacking , a number of factors must be
considered
Stress Limitations
 The material‘s allowable stress should not require
excessive thickness for the design pressure and
temperature.
Temperature Limitations
Some material such as copper and aluminium and their
alloys and cast iron have specific limitations on
temperature
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Materials Resistance to Corrosion by Process fluid

The resistance to corrosion that may be expected of MOC
used may be approximated by field test conducted under
identical conditions.
Permissible contamination of Process fluids by Corrosive
agents
 While high purity requirements may limit selection of
material, it does not necessarily mean that the most
expensive material is the best. Rubber or plastic or such
linings may be used rather than expensive alloys
Relative Fabricated cost of vessel for various materials
considered
For other than large, complicated vessel, difficult to
remove, it may be economically feasible to design
equipment using less expensive metals and replace the
vessel after a few years.
Loadings other than Pressure
The vessel and its supports must be designed to accommodate
loadings resulting from
 Weight of vessel
 Weight of internals – viz. trays, baffles, coils etc.
 Weight of externals – viz. Equipment, agitators,
exchangers,
 drums etc.
 Weight of externals – viz. Dead and live loads
 Weight of insulation and fire proofing
 Wind and seismic loads.
Supports
 The design of supports other than small tanks, either
horizontal or vertical, may be quite complex due to

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secondary stress, moments and shears caused by support

attachments
 Vessels may be supported by legs, lugs or brackets, either
with or without a ring girder or skirt may be used.
Heads
Pressure vessel heads may be of the following which are listed
in order of increasing thickness for a given pressure
 Hemispherical
 Ellipsoidal
 Conical
 Torispherical
 Flat

Inspection and test

 The code has requirements for forming, fit-up and tolerance
 It is well for the purchaser to have his own inspector in the
shop to supplement the code inspector
 For critical services it is often desirable to have more
stringent
 requirements for testing than those currently required by
code such as ultrasonic, magnetic particle testing, fluid
penetration and helium leak testing.

Certification
Upon completion of fabrication and testing of the vessel it is
stamped as required by the code in the presence of the code
inspector who will also sign the proper ASNE format

Codes, standards and specifications

Section 31(1) of the Factories Act 1948, Rule 61 of the Gujarat
Factories Rules 1963 and Section 1.2.1 of the Indian Standards –
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code of unfired pressure vessels IS 2825 give definition of the

pressure plant / vessel. The operating pressure should be above
atmospheric pressure.
The IS 2825 provides more detail on the subject of construction
and other requirement for the design, fabrication, welding,
inspection, testing, marking and certification of fusion welded
unfired pressure vessels in ferrous and non- ferrous metals
terminology of maximum working pressure, design pressure,
minimum thickness and allowance to add into it, weld joint
efficiency factor, ligament efficiency, postweld heat treatment
and allowable stress value are also explained in this code.
Pressure relief devices and corrosion, erosion and protection
details are also given.
It has considered BS 1500, 1515, ASME and the Swedish Code
Rule 61 of The Gujarat Factories Rules:

The term are defined

Design Pressure
Means the maximum pressure that a pressure vessel or plant is
designed to withstand safely when operating normally
Maximum Permissible Working Pressure (MPWP)
o Means the maximum pressure at which a pressure vessel or a
plant is permitted to operated or used under this rule and is
determined by the technical requirement of the process
Scope
The rule applies to the pressure vessel or plant operating above
the atmospheric pressure and includes piping system
The Rules does not applies to
 Vessels operating at a pressure below 1 kg/cm2
 Where Indian Boilers Act 1923 is applicable
 Where Gas cylinders Rules 1981 are applicable
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 Where pressure is solely due to static head of liquid

 Vessel with nominal water capacity less than 500 litres
connected to a water pumping system
 Vessel subjected to nuclear energy
 Refrigeration plant of capacity less than 3 tonnes per day
 Working cylinders, steam traps, turbine casing, steam
separators, dryers, strainers desuperheaters, and oil
separators, air receivers with MWP below 1.33 kg /cm2
volume 85 litres, and other air vessels.

Q: What is the Over pressure protection (5) Dec’17

Pressure exceeding the maximum permissible working pressure
(MPWP) of a pressure vessel poses high hazard and needs
pressure relief devices.
Rule 61 of Gujarat Factories Rules requires safety valve or
pressure relieving device, suitable pressure gauge, and stop or
isolation valve to shut off pressure source, drain valve, pressure
reducing valve or automatic pressure regulator.
IS 2825, section I, part 5 gives much details on over pressure
protection as under
 Fully liquid filled vessels should have liquid relief valve
 If a vessel is fitted with a heating coil or element, pressure
increase due to overheating should be considered for
designing of the protective device
 Vessels operating under vacuum should have a vacuum
break relief device
 Vessels operating under pressure and vacuum (due to
cooling of content) both, should have a combined pressure
– vacuum relief device

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 Pilot or other indirect control valve alone are not permitted.

Main valve opening at a set pressure automatically must be
provided
 Designing of relief valve shall be so that they cannot be
loaded beyond the set pressure
 Bursting (rupture) discs are preferred where pressure rise is
fast like explosion, or where chocking may make safety
valve inoperative.
 RD or BD may be mounted independently or in series with
relief valve.
 MPWP of the vessel and its opening should be sufficient to
prevent interference with proper functioning of relief
device.
 RD or BD shall be marked with bursting pressure at a
specified temperature and shall burst within ±5% of that
bursting pressure.
 The relief valve shall be of sufficient capacity to discharge
the maximum quantity of the fluid and during discharging,
pressure in the vessel should not rise more than 10% above
set pressure.
 Set pressure of a pressure relieving device shall not exceed
MPWP.
 If more than one pressure protecting device is provided,
only one be set at MPWP and other devices at pressure not
more than 5% in excess of MPWP.
 Vapour relief valve shall be provided in vapour space and
liquid relief valve in below the liquid level
 Discharge line (after or in downstream of relief device)
diameter shall not be less than that of the relief device
outlet.

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 Size of drainages or blow down tank should be such that it

will not reduce the relieving capacity of the relief device.
 The number of safety valves on any vessel depends on the
volume of working fluid and discharge capacity of the
valve
High noise is created by blow down of safety valve. Engineering
control for noise reduction are necessary
Water seal is used on pressure vessels that operate at low
pressure or slight vacuum.
o A U-pipe filled with water with one end connected to the
pressure side
and other end open works as a low pressure safety valve.
Depressurising devices or pressure interlocks are required on
autoclaves, digesters, jet dyeing vessel etc. where charging
doors are to be opened.
The device or interlock will prevent the door opening till all
pressure inside is relieved or prevent the pressure build-up till
the door is closed
High pressure alarm gives audio visual alarm that the pressure is
being increased.
 They are useful when pressure relief device may not work
 In that event a vent valve or discharge valve should be
manually or remotely opened

Pressure / temperature recorders or printouts are useful to study

the process behaviour or investigate an accident happened on the
system.

Pressure relief and blow down

Relief device means an automatic pressure relieving device
actuated by the pressure upstream of the valve and characterised
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by fully opened pop action, intended to prevent the rupture of a

pressure vessel under certain conditions of exposure.
If pressure inside a tank rises due to any reason, it may burst the
tank from its weakest part or cause leakage from where it is
possible. The content thus coming out is a material loss and in
addition, it may create fire, explosion, or toxic hazard.
Therefore to avoid such situation a pressure relief device is
necessary.
Safety valve
 A safety valve is a common pressure relief device
 Safety valves are used to release gas or vapour and not
liquid
 It can be set to a predetermined (desired) pressured and
when pressure exceeds that pressure it automatically opens
and allows the pressure to release either in the or in the
released pressure catching loop or system (such as catch-
pot or drowning tank) if content coming out is hazardous or
hot
 It also automatically close down when pressure inside
reaches the desired pressure after release of excess
pressure.
 Safety valves are of four types
 Spring loaded
 Weight level
 Solenoid
 Pilot
Rupture disc
 it is used for fast relief or more flow
 A RD is useful to control If internal pressure is too high or
too rapid or the material is sticky and chocked safety valve

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 The disc is selected based on many parameters (viz. Type

of chemical used, working pressure, temperature, reaction,
material of tank, viscosity, corrosivity, toxicity,
flammability etc.)
 One disk can only be used for one pressure
o It cannot be changed like safety valve
 After rupture the same disk cannot be used
 RD can be used in combination with safety valve or
relief valve.
Relief valve
Relief valves are used for liquid discharge and not for gas or
vapour
 It neither fully opens like safety valve not bursts like RD /
BD, but slightly opens, and then open further as the
pressure increases.
 They are of two types
o Spring loaded
o Power actuated (by electric, air, steam or hydraulic
power) activated by a pressure sensor in upstream of
the valve
Manually operated relief valves are also possible which is to be
operated looking to the pressure in gauge or after hearing alarm
Safety –relief valve
 it can be used either as a safety valve or relief valve,
depending on the application
 They can be used for gas, vapour and liquid
Fusible plug
 It is a fitting fixed with an alloy that melts at a
predetermined temperature (not pressure) and allows
material to come out.

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 Fusible plugs are used in boilers, domestic pressure cookers

and
 compressed gas cylinders to prevent violent bursting
 They are used for gas, vapour and liquid of high
temperature.
Fire and explosion relief
It is provided by making the seam between the shell and the
roof of the tank deliberately weak so that it may rupture
first and the shell remains intact.
Vacuum breaker
 it is also a type of pressure relief device and works like a
spring loaded safety valve or relief valve but in reversed
direction (sucks the outside air instead of releasing inside
pressure)
 It is set at desired pressure and operates when vacuum
increases beyond tolerable by equipment or system and
may collapse the equipment or system
 The outside atmospheric air pressure being higher than that
inside the vessel, opens it to break the vacuum
Breather valve
 It is useful (to prevent damage to tank or vessel) during
pressurising and depressurizing the tank or vessel for
special purpose.
 It is used for breathing for tank or equipment where
pressure may vary from low to high and needs to be
maintained
 It works as breathing, release the gas when pressure goes
high and intakes the air when pressure reduces below the
set / desired pressure.

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Q: short note on: Flare system (5) June’19

In plants where highly toxic or flammable gases are generated in
bulk or continuously, a flare system becomes necessary for their
collection and safe discharge by burning at height.
Basic requirements
 The flare system should be designed to accommodate &
vent the gases during normal operations and emergency
conditions.
 Maximum possible discharge at a time should be
considered for safer venting and preventing pollution of the
atmosphere.
 A flare system should consist of
 A flare stack, piping to collect the gases, a tank or gas
holder to hold the gas to maintain pressure in the system
and to prevent back flow of vent gases or flame inside the
system during any abnormal condition in the plant.
 At the tip, steam nozzles are provided for air entrainment
and seals to prevent flashback of the flame.
 At the base a knock out drum is provided to collect the
liquid form the gases passing to the flare
 Auto igniting system when gas starts to flow after any
stoppage of gas flow.
Protection and practical application

An intense heat radiation occurs from a flare

 Therefore, it should have sufficient height and no
population in surrounding area.
 Efficient combustion in the flame is necessary otherwise a
smoky flame may result. Liquid carryover can also result in
smoky flame

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 By good mixing of fuel gas, steam and air entrainment

good
 Combustion is achieved.
o For this operator relies on visual observation
o An automatic system operates based on flame root
o temperature.
 Because of air entering down in the stack when the flame
may not be working or when any valves are open or due to
corrosion this air and flammable gas may enter / reach in
explosive range and may explode.
 To avoid such air explosion, measures taken are purge gas,
leak elimination, monitoring oxygen concentration, water
seals, molecular seals and flame arresters.
 A fuel gas is used as a purge gas to maintain positive
pressure in the system to disallow air inside. This can be
confirmed by monitoring oxygen content

Hazards
The hazards associated with flaring are
 Obstruction in the flare system
 Explosion in the flare system
 Low temperature embrittlement of the pipe work
 Emission of toxic materials from the flare
 Heat radiation from the flare
 Liquid carryover from the flare
 Smoke, glare and noise of the flare is also a problem.
NILAY PATEL

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CHAPTER – 7 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN

Process and control system characteristics control system

design
Chemical processes and operations need efficient process and
control system and a variety of instruments for them. Types of
instruments – manual, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic,
electrical, and electronic and computer aided, their quality and
sophistication are day by day improving. Their design, erection
and maintenance certainly need qualified and experienced
personnel. When the safety, productivity and control systems are
governed by such instrumentation, it occupies due importance
and place in modern industry.
Process control system can be classified
 machine, reactor or parameter wise
 Viz. Machine control, turbine or compressor control,
reactor or vessel control, pressure / temperature / flow
control, speed control and instrument control
o Manual control
o Auto control
o Semi – auto control
o Analogue control
o Computer control
o Mechanical control
o Pneumatic (air) control
o Hydraulic (water or oil) control
o Electronic control etc.
Objectives
The main functions (objectives) of control system are
 To collect information

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 To measure and display

 To control normal working
 To detect fault and correct it
Process characteristics
It includes many things as
 Process characteristics which tends to make feedback
control more difficult are measurement problem, dead time,
recycle, very short or long time constants, nonlinearity,
limit cycles, strong interactions, high sensitive, high
penalties and changes in parameters of constraint.
 The process disturbances include quality and availability or
raw materials, product, services, plant equipment and
environmental conditions.
o These disturbances may be due to malfunction of plant
equipment or control system, process materials
behavior, drifting and decaying factors and links with
other plants.
 Function wise they require monitoring, optimisation,
scheduling, process investigation, plant commissioning,
feed forward control etc.
 Sequential control characteristics include batch or
continuous operation, plant start-up or shut-down, changes
in equipment, product quality or throughput, and
mechanical handling operations.
Control system characteristics
Manual control system includes instruments for whole range of
chemical and physical properties and a wide range of displays
such as a panel board displays, computer graphics and displays
of flow, current measurement, alarms, sequential control, mal-
operation, command etc.

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 Analogue control equipment are used for measurement,

information reduction and sequential control.
 They include data loggers, alarm scanners and trip systems.
Trip may be used for safety shut-down functions also.
Computer controls include direct digital control (DDC),
programmable logic control (PLC), distribution control system
(DCS) and supervisory control. Present trend in control system
is to increase degree of automation and a change in operator‘s
role form control to monitoring.
Instrument system of safety
Use of instrumentation for safety is equally important. Process
parameters are well known because of the fixed objectives and
therefore instrument system for process control developed first.
Instrument system for safety developed at a later stage based on
learning from accidents and thinking of remedial measures.
Types of instrument system for safety include fail-safe design,
type, alarms, interlocks; gas, smoke and fire detectors, toxic
detectors, reaction runaway detectors, logic systems like PLC,
DCS etc.
Some basic principles for safety instrumentation are as under.
 Instead of providing elaborate or complex instrument
system, the hazard should be reduced at source
 HAZOP study should be conducted to assess potential
hazards, operating difficulties and instrumentation
necessary.
 The measurement should be of direct variable and at direct
location
 While designing alarms, other factors like instrument
failure, operator confidence, his information load etc.
should also be considered as far as possible instrument

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should be fail-safe range of the instrument should be

sufficient so that even low input can be measured.
 Control system should be capable of dealing with normal
and abnormal conditions
 In case of failure of auto-controls, manual controls should
also be provided
 Fault finding instrument should not be disturbed by the
fault itself.
 Service instruments (e.g. air, power, inert gas) should have
high integrity
 Instrument should be checked regularly and repaired
quickly
 Instrument design should be such that it should indicate its
fault easily
 Test should correspond as nearly as possible to the
expected plant conditions.
 Valves may stick or jam. More positive isolation may
require double block and bleed valves
 Human errors should be fully considered
 Ergonomics principle should be applied to reduce human
error as far as possible
Q: Safety features of instruments (5) May’18
Instruments failure can also cause accidents. Therefore, while
designing and manufacturing, it is necessary to consider safety
features of instruments also. Instrument may fail due to
functional fault or loss of containment from the instrument
 Slight glass or rota meters, made of glass, can break and
leak.
o If leaks are dangerous, glass should be avoided
MOC should be proper
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After considering chemical property, material for instrument

should be selected
 Overpressure may break pressure transmitter and regulators
o If they break, their pressure should be safely released
o Protection against corrosive fluid is necessary
o E.g. use of inert liquid in impulse lines on pressure
transmitters
Sampling and impulse lines should be checked for blockage
Steam tracing is useful against freezing
A thermo well to hold thermometer should be carefully designed
considering corrosion and erosion effect
Pulsating flow in flow meters can cause inaccuracies
Design orifice plate should consider this factor
 Out of different types of pressure regulators (i.e. PRV,
NRV, EFV, SV, RD the right one should be used at right
place
 No bypass should be provided between pressure regulators
 A control valve should be selected properly
 Nominal capacity, rangeability, control characteristics, flow
limit, seals to prevent leaks, mechanical balancing against
pressure etc. are the factors to be considered for selection.
 Instruments should not become a source of ignition.

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Block diagram of instrument system

Electrical area classification should be considered.

NILAY PATEL

Testing and certification of vessels and equipment and their

records

Storage and pressure vessel are to be tested and checked for the
assessment of their reliability. Testing of pressure vessel and
their parts is most essential
Mainly two types of tests are in practice
Pressure test
Include hydraulic, pneumatic and combined
Non-destructive testing
Includes Radiography, ultrasonic, dye penetration, magnetic
particle method etc. NDT methods can be used before and after
pressure test method.
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o Tanks which are not pressure vessel should be tested

for its water load (static) test by filling if fully with
water and observing any subsidence or damage.
o The tanks which are pressure vessel should be tested
as per statutory provisions, its design code and
standards or recommended by manufacturer.
o Periodicity of test should be decided after considering
material to be filled, its properties, storing parameters,
heating / cooling, method of use, rate of corrosion and
type and thickness of metal
Q: Examination and test u/r 61 of Gujarat factories rules (5)
may’18
o New vessel to be used for the first time – Hydraulic test at
1.3 x design pressure
o Old vessel, unused vessel for more than 2 months or where
repair / alteration is made – Hydraulic test at 1.5 x MPWP
(maximum permissible working pressure)
Where water is not suitable for test – pneumatic (air) test at
o Design pressure for new vessel
o MPWP for old vessel
Glass lined vessel – Hydraulic or Pneumatic test at
1. Design pressure for new vessel
2. MPWP for old vessel
o Test certificate from the manufacturer or competent person
should be obtained before using any vessel for the first
time. Inspector may demand it.
o No vessel can be operated at pressure higher than that
mentioned in the certificate
o In service test / examination as
 External test at 6 months
 Internal test at 1 year
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 Hydraulic test at 2 years

 Internal or hydro test a 4 years for vessel in continuous
process
 If external, internal or hydro test is not possible as
above, then – NDTfor metal thickness and other
defects
Thin – walled vessels of non-ferrous metal
o Maximum life 20 years
o 5% reduction in MPWP every year
o New, second hand or repaired vessel shall be tested at
1.5 x MPWP before its use.
Certification
Upon completion of fabrication and testing of the vessel it is
stamped as required by the code in presence of the code
inspector who will also sign the proper ASNE
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers) format
 U – 1 manufacturing data report covering shop and / or
field assemble inspection
 U-1A for single chamber shop fabricated vessel
 U-2 partial data report data for part fabricated by one
manufacturer of another manufacturer
 U-3 data report for vessels that owing to small size are
not shop inspected and certified by the manufacturer and
stamped UM
Marking on vessel should indicate
 Manufacturer‘s name and identification
 Standard code
 Official stamp of inspector
 Design pressure
 Date of test

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 Hydrostatic test pressure

 Water capacity
 Gas capacity
 Name or chemical symbol of the gas
Report by a competent person
Report of the test observation should be entered in Form 11,
GFR and shall be signed by competent person
 Signed report should be kept readily available for perusal
by the DISH or his department officials at any time
 Condition stated in report must be fulfilled before using the
vessel
 The competent person shall send a copy of such report to
the inspector within 7 days of the completion of the test.
 Where pressure reduction or repair is suggested, it cannot
be continued to be used with safety unless certain repairs
are carried out or unless any other additional measures are
taken.
 If the above said form is not available, competent person
has to design according to relevant information required.
Safety Integrity Level (SIL) is defined as a relative level of
risk-reduction provided by a safety function, or to specify a
target level of risk reduction. In simple terms, SIL is a
measurement of performance required for a Safety Instrumented
Function (SIF).
Safety instrumented systems (SIS) are used to provide safe
control functions for processes, e.g. emergency shutdown
(ESD), fire detection and blow down functions. SIS typically are
composed of sensors, logic solvers and final control elements.
Due to the critical nature of such systems, OSHA recognizes
compliance with the standard ANSI/ISA S84.01 - Application of

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SIS for the Process Industries - as a good engineering practice

for safety instrumented systems. This is a consensus standard for
the application of SIS for the process industries, which is based
on international standards from the International Electro
technical commission (IEC).

 A SIL is a statistical representation of the reliability of the

SIS when a process demand occurs. It is used in both
ANSI/ISA-S84.01 and IEC 61508 to measure the reliability
of SIS. Both ISA and IEC have agreed that there are three
categories:
 SILs 1, 2 and 3. IEC also includes an additional level, SIL
4 that ISA does not. The higher the SIL is, the more reliable
or effective the system is.
 SILs are correlated to the probability f failure of demand
(PFD), which is equivalent to the unavailability of a system
at the time of a process demand.
There are several methods to determine SIL for a SIF. Following
are some of the popular ones:
 ALARP (this is not correct. (Alarp is a decision tool based
on Cost-benefit and to provide guidance / justification on
safety effort)
 Risk Matrix
 Risk Graph
 Layers of Protection Analysis (LOPA)

The International Electro technical Commission's (IEC) standard

IEC 61508 defines SIL using requirements grouped into two
broad categories: hardware safety integrity and systematic safety
integrity. A device or system must meet the requirements for

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both categories to achieve a given SIL.

The SIL requirements for hardware safety integrity are based on
a probabilistic analysis of the device. To achieve a given SIL,
the device must have less than the specified probability of
dangerous failure and have greater than the specified safe failure
fraction. These failure probabilities are calculated by performing
a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA). The actual
targets required vary depending on the likelihood of a demand,
the complexity of the device(s), and types of redundancy used.

PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand) and RRF (Risk

Reduction Factor) for different SILs as defined in IEC61508 are
as follows:
SIL PFD RRF
1 0.1-0.01 10-100
2 0.01-0.001 100-1000
3 0.001-0.0001 1000-10,000
4 0.0001-0.00001 10,000-100,000
The SIL requirements for systematic safety integrity define a set
of techniques and measures required to prevent systematic
failures (bugs) from being designed into the device or system.
These requirements can either be met by establishing a rigorous
development process, or by establishing that the device has
sufficient operating history to argue that it has been proven in
use.
Electric and electronic devices can be certified for use in
functional safety applications according to IEC 61508, providing
application developers the evidence required to demonstrate that
the application including the device is also compliant.

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SIL Methodology

The first step for assignment of Target SIL is to use your

(updated) PHA‘s or conduct new PHA‘s to screen for the
hazards. HAZOP is most commonly used methodology. If the
risk is unacceptable then it is reduced or eliminated using non-
SIS or SIS elements. You consider SIS only after all the non-SIS
protection layers has been considered. HAZOP‘s identify risks
in terms of the likelihood and the severity of the hazards. Target
SILs are assigned to SIF‘s of the SIS identified in the PHA
studies. NILAY PATEL
Various methodologies are available for assignment of target
SILs. As in the case with PHA studies, the assignment of Target
SILs must involve people with the relevant expertise and
experience. Methodologies used for determining SILs
include, but are not limited to:
 Consequence only
 Risk Graph
 Layered Risk Matrix
 Risk matrix
 Layer of protection
 Fault tree analysis
NILAY PATEL

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CHAPTER – 8 PRINCIPLES OF RELIABILITY

ENGINEERING

Q: Principals of reliability engineering or What is

reliability? Which are the methods to find out reliability or
Q: Principals of reliability engineering and its application
for plant design (5) May’18 or Q: Define reliability and
discuss various means of presenting it
PRINCIPLES OF RELIABILITY ENGINEERING
Relativity engineering
Hazard control technology mostly involves the probabilistic
methods to detect failure possibilities and accidents. Reliability
engineering is a branch concerning these aspects.
Various topics on reliability engineering include statistics,
mathematics, set theory, failure rate and analysis, unreliability,
availability, failure distribution including exponential / binomial
and lognormal distributions etc., repair & maintenance, series,
parallel and standby systems, Marcov models, Monte Carlo
simulation graphs, diagrams and flow sheets and computer
programmes.

Q: Principles of reliability engineering (5) May’18

IS: 10139 on presentation of reliability, maintainability and
availability predictions and IS: 8161 (11 parts) on guide for
equipment reliability testing are most relevant.
IS 8161 guide for equipment reliability testing, Part-1 is for
principles and procedures and out of total 11 parts, parts 6 & 7
are on test for validity of constant failure rate assumption and
meantime between failures.
Reliability is the probability that an item perform its function
adequately for the desired period of time when operated
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accordingly to specified condition, Reliability is a design para

associated with the ability or usability with the product to
perform as expected over a period of time.

Principles
 Processibility
 Performance of an intended function
 Specified interval
 Condition of use
 Failure mode
 Failure source
 Failure rate
 Mean time to failure
 Reliability production
 Availability

Reliability
It is defined as the probability that an item will perform a
required function under stated conditions for a stated period of
time.
Or
The definition of Reliability assumed a well defined mission in
terms of quality, quantity, time and so on, such that its
performance sustainability could be evaluated.
Generally equipment activity or function can continue to be used
until it becomes obsolete or until the cost of maintenance,
upkeep or administrative control exceeds the cost of its
replacement. Even if service life is known, reliability will
fluctuate uring its lifetime, owing to maintenance, tear / wear.

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Thus the reliability depends on probability, time and failure.

Failure may be due to failure in operation (e.g. equipment in
continuous service) or failure to operate on demand or failure to
operate before or after demand (e.g. equipment operating
intermittently)
Probability
Probability P of a particular event is

Thus
 If fire happens 5 times when trials (n) to cause it are made
10 times, the probability is 0.5
 If equipment fails 3 times when total operations (chance to
fail) happened 1000 times, the probability or failure rate is
said to be 0.003
 If a person falls 2 times when he climbs a particular
staircase 100 times, the probability of falling rate is said to
be of 0.02

Reliability

R(t) of an element or system can be defined as the probability

that the element or system will operate to an agreed level of
performance, for a specified period, subject to specified
conditions.
In measurement system ‗agreed level of performance‘ could
mean e.g. an accuracy of 1.5%. If measurement system is giving
error more than this, it is considered to have failed, even though
it is working normally Reliability varies with time. A system

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just checked and calibrates should have a reliability of 1 when

placed in service. After a year the reliability may be only 0.5 as
the probability of failure increases.
Unreliability
U(t) can be defined as the probability that the element or system
will fail to operate to an agreed level of performance, for a
specified period, subject to specified conditions
The sum of reliability and unreliability must be unity i.e.
R(t) + U(t) = 1

Mean Time between Failure (MTBF)

It is applicable to any type of equipment whose faulty

component or unit can be replaced or repaired Suppose N
identical elements or systems are tested for a total period T
years. Each fault recorded, the equipment repaired, put back into
service and the total number of faults during T found. Then,
MTBF=
Where, the test interval T does not include the total repair time.
Thus
If 50 faults are recorded for 100 differential pressure transducers
over 2 years, the

MTBF=100X =4 Year
Failure rate – F
It is the average number of faults per item of equipment, per unit
time. It is mostly constant over much of their working life and
therefore reciprocal of MTBF
F= =
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NILAY PATEL
The failure rate varies throughout the life of the equipment
shown as under

Three Phase
Early Failure region, lasting normally for 6 months, is due to
weak components and unfamiliarity in operating system.
Normal Life – the mature region, lasting possibly 10 years, is
characterised by a low constant failure rate, all weak
components have been removed from the system and the system
is being operated correctly.
Wear out failure region is characterised by an increasing
failure rate as components reach the end of their working life

Reliability of a system in series is shown. Here S elements of a

system are in series with failure rates F1, F2, Fi, Fs. The system
will only survive

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if each element survives If one element fails then the system

fails. Assuming that the reliability of each element is
independent of the other element, then the system reliability is
the product of the element reliabilities
i.e. Rsyst = R1 R2 .... Ri ..... Rs.
= e –F1t x e -F2t ... x .... e –Fit ... x eFst
= e –Fsyst = e –( F1 + F2 +... Fi ... + Fs) t
And Fsyst = F1 + F2 + ... Fi ... + Fs

Where,
Fsyst is the overall system failure rate and F1, F2,... Fs are
individual failure rates of S elements.

Reliability of system in Parallel is shown below. Here S

systems are in parallel with their unreliabilities U1, U2 ,Ui , Us

Reliability of ‗S‘ system in parallel

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The overall system will only fail if every individual system fails.
Assuming that unreliability of each system is independent of
unreliability of the other system, the overall unreliability is the
product of the individual system unreliability.
i.e. Uoverall = U1 x U2 x .. Ui ... x ... Us

Common mode failure

It is that failure due to fault which causes more than one element
in a system to fail. e.g. loss of air supply t a pneumatic flow
control loop causes failure of D/P transmitter, controller and
valve
Failure rate data
Failure Rate Data of various components are needed for
reliability calculations.
Following table gives some such data from international
literature

Average Failure Rates for some Mechanical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic

components

No Failure Rate%
Component per 1000 hrs Type of Fault

Seals or Valves, Gaskets,

1 Joints (pipes), Orifices, 0-05 Leakage / Blockage
Diaphragms(metal),
Bellows (metal)
0.005 Leak age Creep
2 Bourdon Tubes 0.02
3 Joints (mechanical) 0.02 Breakage
4 Nuts, Bolts, Rods, Shafts 0.002 Breakage or Loose
5 Pressure Vessel 0.3 Rupture or Leakage
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Pipelines Failure Rate per meter per year Ruptur

6
Diameter upto 3‖ 10-6
-7 10-5
Diameter 3‖ – 15‖ 10 10-6
Diameter >15‖ - 10-8
7 Failure Rate per year
Rupture Leakage-5
Pressure Vessel 10 x-45-6 10 -3x 5
Atmospheric vessel 10 10
8 Human Error Probability of Error/Task
Walk through Inspection 5-1-2
Checklist inspection 10
Non-routine operational error (start-up/maintenance) 10-1 -3
Non-critical routine task (misread temp/press data) 3 x 10

Critical routine task 10-3

Reliability
It is the probability that an item (here vessel) perform its
function adequately for the desired period of time when operated
according to specified conditions.
Reliability of an item, product and facility (service) is an
important consideration during design. Reliability is a design
parameter associated with the ability or usability with the
product to perform as expected over a period of time. Highly,
reliable means vessel (or any product) continuous to fleet user‘s
quality expectations over its intended life. Reliability should not
be confused with quality.
The quality of the vessel is poor, when it does riot meets specific
requirements at time of evaluation.
In contrast, Reliability is the projection of performance over a
period of time and is usually defined as quantifiable design
parameter.
It is expressed as fraction between 0 to I for a given failure rate
and time interval.

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Thus ideal objective is to obtain reliability as closed as 1.

Normally success is difficult to measure and hence, failure is
monitored. The term reliability has direct control on failure rate
(>).
The engineer‘s task is to ensure that the particular failure rate
associated with completed system is as low as possible. Mean
Time between Failure (MTBF) for exponential distribution is the
reciprocal of the failure rate.
MTBF= 1/> The reliability of one design can be expressed as e -
for exponential failure distribution. Where t is the time interval
and > is the failure rate.
The ease with which, maintenance can be carried out for the
design as an assembled product is known as Maintainability.
Various Definitions
Processiblity: Statistical prediction refer absolute knowledge,
about the future performance of an item is based on shortened
distribution of population of similar items.
Performance of intended function: The design can meet all
functional requirements when it is properly manufactured and no
failures have occurred.
Specified interval: Since at most everything and eventually
failed the period of time is constraint by defining the interval in
time say after 6 months number of uses, operating time, storage
life.
Condition of use: The importance of properly using the items is
very important.
Failure node: The defect that caused to failure is l as failure
node.
Failure source: Description of the parameter that caused the
failure is called the failure source.

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Failure rate: It is the average number of failures from a group

of items expected in a given period of item. It depends upon
design, manufacturing quality and level of the stresses on
the part.
Mean Time To Failure(MTTF): Is a common reliability
parameter for the items that are irreparable and have a limited
life or are subject to mechanical wear. Thus the expected
average life of an item is very important in establishing product
warranties.
MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures: It is most important
and popular reliability measure for repairable items it used for
the items that are expected to fail and be repaired prior to
wearing out. e.g. Automobile parts.
Reliability prediction: It is the process for estimating the
reliability of a design before to its actual operations. These
predictions of reliability provide measure there by designer can
assess progress and offers quantitative basis by which design
alternatives can be evaluated. It provides the basis for evolving a
reliability growth and development testing and as a planning
parameter for manufacturing, maintenance. A prediction of
reliability is usually determined by combining the reliability of
an individual item or the parts in the vessel (product). it is a
prediction of reliability based upon available design information.
Instantaneous failure rate: Is the rate of change of the failed
components quantity divided by number of survived
components at time t.
Redundancy: is the term used when all redundant units are
functioning simultaneously.
Availability: Is probability that an item is properly operational
at a given time.

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Operational availability Ao = =
Achieve readability
 Design simplification
 Appropriate part and material selection
 Design analysis to reduce the effect of stresses
 Development testing
 Active Producibility design effort
 Accurate design and manufacturing documentation
 Allocation of necessary manufacturing and test resources
 Maintenance of Quality Control at vendors‘ end
 Comprehensive tests and evolutionary programmes
Maintainability: The ease with which the maintenance is
carried out is known as maintainability.
Reducibility or manufacturability: It is defined in many ways
by many field experts but basically it is the measure of the
efficiency with which the item can be produced.
Q: Application of reliability engineering for plant design?
Application of Reliability Engineering in process industry is
very wide.
It is applicable to
 Mechanical, electrical and instrument systems
 Critical equipment and devices
 Nuclear system
 Quality control
 Analysis of fault and abnormal occurrences
 Repair and maintenance etc.
Reliability Engineering was developed during second world war
to solve the problems of reliability of the missiles and vacuum
tubes used in electronic equipment by US Army

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Main field of application of Reliability Engineering are

 Electronic equipment
 Nuclear energy
 Its application to process industries was developed at a later
stages Reliability of mechanical equipment pose less
problem. Reliability applications is also concerned with
 Availability
 Maintenance
 Failure data
 Repairs
 Repair time etc.
With the growth of instrumentation, applicability of the
reliability engineering in process plants has become wide and
more important. The need of application of Reliability
engineering is to
 Complex Distributed control system (DCS)
 Trips and alarms
 Auto-control and auto correction
 Locks and interlocks
 Variety of process control equipment for input, output,
flow, temperature, pressure measurement, recording etc.
Wok on Reliability involves assessment and improvement of the
system. The assessment may show that system is fully reliable
or less reliable and the ways and means to improve the
reliability.
Existing level of Reliability should be studied for further
improvements. Failure rates, effect on people exposed if failure
occurs and whether conditions are factors to be considered.

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Quality control improves Reliability. Decencies in specification,

design or application are cause of unreliability. Good quality
equipment, if badly designed, will remain unreliable.
Engineering concepts of critical equipment and device
Reliability analysis of critical equipment and devices like safety
valves, auto control valves or device, trip device, flow /
temperature or pressure control, alarm, measurement or
recording device, actuators for safe venting, pumps,
thermocouple, and many electronic subsystems are of more
significance and needs careful consideration of accurate data of
failure rates, availability, repair time etc.
Some concepts of reliability considerations for such critical
equipment are mentioned below
Initially three steps are required
 Assessment of system reliability itself
 Identification of critical features interrupting reliability
 Methods to improve reliability and selection of a cost
effective or safe methods form different alternatives
 For above purpose, first those subsystems should be
identified that affect the overall system reliability.
 Sometimes engineering estimates of data may be sufficient
but sometimes field data are also necessary.
o The matching of data to the application is of more
important.
 Use of logic flow diagram (Fault Tree Analysis) is widely
used method. Failure diagram for hazardous occurrences
and success diagram for trip system operation or plant
availability are utilized
 In event space method, a list of all possible events is made
and failure and success events are stored out

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 In path tracing method the paths in a system are traced

which constitute success.
o These paths are known as tie sets and the system
reliability is obtained from the minimum tie sets.
o Ensure failure.
System unreliability is obtained from the minimum cut sets.
 Bayes‘ theorem is used to select a key component which
makes it possible to decompose the system.
 Markov models are used to determine repair rates and mean
life for complex system NILAY PATEL
 Monte Carlo simulation methods are also useful to
determine reliability and / or availability of complex system
including critical equipment.
 The concept of consequence analysis i.e. effects on exposed
and vulnerable people, property and environment, if any
critical equipment or device fails, are to be considered and
depending on their gravity, the reliability of the equipment
should be selected.
NILAY

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EL CHAPTER – 9 RISK MANAGEMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT
Definition of risk and allied terminology

Risk is the likelihood of a specific undesired event occurring

within a specified period or under specified circumstances and
its severity Risk is an expression of possible loss over a
specified period or number of operation cycles. It may be
indicated by the probability of an accident times, the damage in
rupees, lives or operating units.
Risk results from hazards It may be either a frequency or a
probability depending on circumstances. It is often expressed n
mathematical terms involving both failure and consequences.
Risk is combination of a probability of occurrence and its
severity of consequence.
Thus R = P x S
Institution of Chemical Engineers [IChemE (UK)] goes on to
add that –
 Risk is a function of Probability (or frequency) and
consequence is sometimes termed ‗expected loss‘. A slight
different from ―the probability of undesired consequence‖
has been adopted by Royal Society.
 Whatever is the definition, it must be realized that a hazard
does not automatically result in to a risk.
 Frequency is normally expressed in terms of ―events per
year‖ and probability is a dimensionless number between
zero & one.
Risk related terminologies
Risk analysis: The technical process of identifying,
understanding and evaluating risk (analyzing cause and effect
wise)
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Risk assessment: It is a judgement of significance or activity

that enables the risk manager to identify, evaluate and measure
risk and uncertainty and their potential impact on the
organisation.
Risk management :A general management function that seeks
to identify, assess, address, control and review the causes and
effect of uncertainty and risk on an organisation.
Risk administration: Activities and strategies associated with
the long-term and day-to-day operation of the risk management
functions.
Risk control: All activities associated with avoiding,
preventing, reducing or otherwise controlling risks and
uncertainties.
Risk avoidance: A risk control technique whereby a risk is
proactively avoided or abandoned after rational consideration.
Risk selection: The control technique best described as the
conscious acceptance of risk in accordance with an
organisation‘s overall goals, objectives and risk taking
philosophy.

Varity of risk
Risk can occur in a number of different ways, not all of them
obvious to those exposed. Risk can thus be further broken down
as follows.

Types of Risk

Individual risk: It is the frequency at which an individual may

be expected to sustain a given level of harm form the realisation
of specific hazards.

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It is the level of risk for a specific person, usually the most

exposed employee of the unit or neighbouring area.
It can be measured in terms of probability, frequency of incident
& severity effect on him (Injury, illness / death)

Group risk
It could be defined as the risk to a group of person (e.g. a team
of operational or maintenance staff)
It is the frequency at which a group may be expected to sustain a
given level of harm form the realisation of specific hazards
It can be measured in terms of probability & frequency of
accidents of certain magnitude affecting the whole group.
This type of risk is averaged over the entire group
Societal risk: It is a measure of the chances of a number of
people being affected by a single event or set of events and is
often presented as f/n curve (i.e. frequency Vs number of people
affected)
It is the risk for the society as whole It can be measured in terms
of the frequency of accidents above a certain magnitude &
severity.
The concept of societal risk reflects the likelihood of accidents
involving multiple casualties and / or long-term detriment
including, e.g. contamination of environment.
Societal risk may be high when there are large number of
persons are exposed (e.g. Bhopal tragedy). Thus the effect on
society from accidents persists long beyond the immediate
effects on those individuals directly involved.
Voluntary risk: Voluntary risk is that undertaken willingly by a
person (e.g. adventure sport, space travel, smoking etc)

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Involuntary risk:
Involuntary risk is the one imposed on you by compulsion of
any sort (e.g. unsafe acts of others, professional commitments,
emergency rescue actions etc.)
This is the risk, usually of an immediate consequence, to the
individual member of the general public from an untoward
incident. Such a risk is both person – and location – specific and
can be defined as

Risk = Frequency of event x casualty probability x fractional

exposure
The casualty probability is the probability of the untoward
incident causing a fatality
The fractional exposure is the fraction of time for which a
person is likely to be present at the location.
NILAY PATEL
Where there are several untoward events or potentially
hazardous locations, the overall risk is the summation of the
individual events and location risks.
Others may be classified as
Unknown risk: Risks of which the consequences are either not
known or not fully understood, a good example being the risk
perceived to be associated with nuclear power and with genetic
engineering techniques.
Concealed OR Unconscious risk: Risks which are not obvious
or the hazards are not readily detected by the senses; situations
in which people may be lulled is not a false sense of security.
Ionizing radiation is an example of hazard which is not detected
by scene.

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Conscious risk:
Risks of which, people are aware; they can be detected by the
senses giving the exposed person some warning and perhaps the
ability to take mitigation action. e.g. burn injuries, falls etc.
Predictable risk
Risks of which both probability and the consequences cab be
estimated with some degree of accuracy & confidence. This can
allow some form of judgement to be made by those exposed and
those responsible for their protection.e.g. impending occurrences
of a runaway reaction once we have noticed osme serious
abnormalities or change of deviations in operation parameters in
a chemical process
Temporary risk: Risk which present not only for a short period
and may be acceptable only for that reason. e.g. Industrial – the
risk involved in some maintenance jobs Mundane – choosing a
very busy road having heavy traffic blockage
Calculated risk: Predictable Risks are which are taken
knowingly since there is large perceived gain, because of
specific circumstances such as rescue or maintenance or the risk
is a part of the attraction i.e. an adventurous sport.
Each type of risk demands different approach both in analysis
and in setting criteria for tolerance or acceptability.

Accepted & imposes risk:Before considering what is

acceptable, a distinction must be made between risk that is
willingly accepted and the one that is imposed.
Employees in hazardous industries are well aware of the risk
involved and receive specialized training and often medical
surveillance. They are prepared to accept the risk, usually for
enhanced rewards.

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Similarly, participants in dangerous sporting activities accept the

respective risk as part of the price to pay against the satisfaction,
excitement or rich / reward / recognition waiting for them.
People in both categories are prepared to accept a much higher
degree of risk than member of the general public who may be
subjected to dangers from the same activity.

Short note on: ALARP (As low as reasonable practicble)

Although not formalized through legislation, the term has
acquired meaning through many interpretations by courts in UK.
In determining what is ‗reasonable practicable‘, consideration
must be given to the benefits of the activity and to the social &
economic factors involved. Thus the cost reducing the risk must
not be grossly disproportionate to the risk.
Higher the risk, greater the spending to, reduce the same. If the
risk is consideredor estimated to be above this level, then no
further work must be done on the project. There will also be a
level below which it is clear, probably intuitively, that the
risk is negligible. Under such circumstances, no detailed risk
analysis is necessary. The region between these extremes may
be turned the ALARP region.
In this ALARP region, it is necessary to prove that everything
has been done to reduce the risk to as low a level as reasonably
practicable.
Q: RISK ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
RISK ASSESSMENT
 Risk Assessment (compare the risk with acceptable criteria
– legal, social or political – and decide whether the risk is
lesser or higher than that criteria)
 It is a quantitative evaluation of the likelihood of undesired
events and their consequences being caused together and a
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value judgement concerning the significance of the results

after comparing with set, legal or accepted values
 or standards.
 It is both Qualitative & Quantitative evaluation of the
Impact of an exposure of any type of uncontrolled hazard
encountered in any of activity one performs.
 It is a measure of potential economic loss or human injury
in terms of the probability of the loss or injury occurring
and magnitude of the loss of injury if it occurs.
 The organisation shall establish & maintain procedure for
assessment and control of risk to determine the level of
risks, injury or illness with each identified hazard for the
purpose of control.
 In a risk assessment exercise certain numerical values are
assigned
 Probability of any untoward event in selected activity
(based on own exposure in the field)
 Frequency of occurrence
 Severity of the accident
 Number of person who could be affected followed by
multiplication of all the above figures.

Steps of Risk assessment

 Three basic steps
 Hazard analysis
 Vulnerability analysis
 Risk analysis
Risk assessment comprise three distinct steps
 An identification of hazard likely to result in disaster (what
hazardous events may occur?)
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 An estimation of the risk of such event (what is the

probability of each event)
 An evaluation of the social consequences of the desired risk
(what is the loss created by each event?)
Process of assessment
 Classify work activities
 Identify hazards
 Determine risk
 Decide if risk is tolerable
 Prepare risk control action plan
 Review adequacy of action plan
Quantitative and qualitative risk analysis
As we have seen earlier that the Risk Analysis is a set of
sophisticated techniques.
The technique can be quantitative or qualitative. Broadly the
both types are complementary to each other. Without qualifying
a risk its quantification is not possible. Similarly only,
qualifying risk is somewhat of no use and hence it should be
quantified.
Simple or qualitative risk assessment
It is an identification of hazards and taking appropriate control
measures.

It is as per
 Look for the hazards
 Decide who might be harmed and how
 Evaluate the risk and decide adequate precautions
 Record your findings
 Review your assessment

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It‘s important aspect is to consider the effect of control measures

provided (in place) and to think for the ‗Residual Risk‘ and
‗Residual Control Measures‘ only.
Here quantification of Hazards and their terminal consequences
(damage distances, severity of injury or loss etc.) are not worked
out It is sufficient to think about the adequacy of existing control
measures and to adopt more safety measures if necessary
Qualitative risk analysis techniques
Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) — when risk is not quantified
1. Hazard Analysis (HAZAN) — it is purely a readymade
database
2. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) — when only tree is drawn
3. Event Tree Analysis (ETA) — when only tree is drawn
4. Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)
5. Failure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysis (FMECA)
6. Management Oversight Review Technique (MORT)
7. Accident Recall Technique (ART)
8. Process Risk Analysis (PRORA)
Q: Quantitative risk assessment (5) May’18
Here hazard potential is quantified, possible risk is also
determined if failure rate data available and then it is
compared with the ‗permissible standard‘.
This will indicate whether calculated risk is lower or higher than
the permissible limits.
Based on this, new control measures or modification in existing
control measures can be decided.
Values of the following ―Hazard potential‖ can be quantified.
 Properties of the material
 Storage parameters
 Profess parameters

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 Manual exposure
 Visible or measured hazards
 Transportation hazard
 Pollution hazard
These values give severity part of the risk.
Similar values of control measures provided can be quantified
Proper classification of good, better and best control measures,
is necessary. These values give probability part of the risk
Then by using the formula Risk = Severity x probability
The existing risk level can be identified as low, higher, or
highest risk.
Qualitative risk analysis techniques
 Accident Consequence Analysis (ACA) Maximum
Credible Accident Analysis (MCAA)
 Worst Case Scenario (WCS)
NILAY
Risk assessment techniques – Detailed and quick

While Qualitative and semi-quantitative assessments are very

valuable in identifying hazards, they may not always give
sufficient information to allow decision making on complex and
potentially hazardous processes. Under these circumstances it is
necessary to carry out a full Quantitative Risk Assessment
(QRA). It will be recalled that a risk can be expressed as a
function of the frequency or probability of an incident and the
consequences of that incident. QRA looks at both aspects and
should produce sufficient information for comparison against
acceptance criteria, and hence allow decisions to be made on a
sound basis.

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The risk analyst is concerned with the frequency / probability

and with the consequential aspects and can advice on acceptance
criteria, but at the end the decision about what is and is not
acceptable is essentially policy matter. The application of
ALARP principle and the questions of benefit – perceived or
otherwise – must also consider.
QRA is based on the construction of logic diagrams – usually
called trees – which shows how the various causes of an incident
are related. Failure data is then used to quantify the logic trees
on order to arrive at a probability or frequency of that event.
Two types of logic trees are in common use – Fault tree and
Event tree Fault tree are essentially top down logic trees, while
event tree are down top logic tree.
Fault tree analysis
 It is a method to represent the logical combinations of
various systems which lead to a particular outcome (top
event)
 It was developed in 1962 by H A Watson of Bell
Telephone Laboratories.
 It is a logical approach to identify the areas in systems that
are most critical for safe operation.
 It is a graphic model that determines various combinations
of equipment faults and failure that can result in an accident
or an initiating event.
 This is a sophisticated form of reliability assessment and it
requires considerable time and skill.
 Fault tree is a structured common sense diagram, which
traces all events which leads to undesirable events.
 Apart from identification of hazard it is widely used for
quantitative risk analysis. It is one of the most widely used

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methods of conducting a more detailed and if necessary a

quantitative hazard assessment.
 In fault tree analysis, abnormal operations are assumed in
normal operations of a plant.
 The ultimate abnormal event is shown in a rectangle at the
top. Then all combination of individual failures that can
lead to that abnormal event is shown in the logical format
of fault tree.
 By estimating the individual failure probabilities and then
using the appropriate arithmetical expressions, the
probability of the top abnormal event can be calculated or
predicted.
 This Fault Tree Analysis makes it easy to investigate the
impact of alternative preventive measures
 Fault tree is developed from top to bottom through a series
of symbols or without specific symbols a schematic
diagram can be drawn.
A Fault tree analysis involves following four basic steps
 System definition
 Fault tree construction
 Qualitative evaluation of a fault tree.
 Quantitative evaluation of a fault tree

Tree symbols that are used in construction are:

Event symbols: - Rectangle / circle / diamond
Logic symbols: - AND / OR / INHIBIT
Transfer symbols: - IN / OUT

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EVENTS

Rectangle A Fault
An independent failure of
Circle
component
Event where fault sequence
Diamond is terminated due to
lack of information
Event expected to occur
House normally

GATES

AND Output exist only if all input

exist AND
Output exist only if any one
OR input exist OR

Priority AND

Exclusive OR

Inhibit (output equals Input if

Inhibit condition input satisfied)

TRANSFER SYMBOL
Symbol used to transfer a
IN further series of events to
another tree

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Indicate a transferred sequence

OUT

Purpose:Identifying how basic events lead to accidents.

Applicability:In design and operation phase of plant to uncover
the failure modes
Data Required: Knowledge of plant / system functions, plant /
system failure modes and effect on plant / system
Results:Listing of set equipment / operator failure that can be
specific accident.
NILAY
Event tree analysis
 Event Tree Analysis is a method to illustrate the
intermediate and final outcomes which may arise after the
occurrence of a selected initial event.
 It is defined as ‗A method for illustrating the possible
outcome arising from the logical combination of selected
input event or stakes
 ETA is a systematic approach that focuses primarily on a
chain of event or occurrences.
 It identifies the sequences of events following an initiating
event that results in an accident.
 Event tree considers operator response or safety system
response to the initiating event in determining the potential
sequence.
 This technique is a complimentary to Fault Tree but in
reverse direction.

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 Whereas a fault tree starts from a final event and works

from the top down, an event tree begins with an initial
event such as a power failure and explores all
 possible outcomes by working from the bottom up.
The steps in ETA are
 Identify the factor in an emergency (e.g. hazardous
material, response personnel)
 Identify the conditions present
 Track what the actor will do under the current condition
 Visualize the effect of the activities on the outcome of the
event.
Purpose: Identifying the event sequences from initiating event
to accident scenarios.
Applicability: In design / operating plants, to access adequacy
of existing safety features.
Data Required: Knowledge of initiating events and safety
system / emergency procedure.
Results: Provides the event sequence that result in an accident
following the occurrence of mitigating event.

Q: Risk acceptability criteria

Almost all human activities involve some risk and zero risk is
not possible. Therefore the concept of Acceptable risk is
developed.
It defines it as the level which is good enough where the
advantages of increased safety are not worth the extra costs of
reducing risk.
Thus it indicates the balancing condition of accident costs Vs
preventive costs.
The risk analyst is concerned with the frequency / probability
and with the consequential aspects and can advice on acceptance
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criteria, but at the end the decision about what is and is not
acceptable is essentially policy matter.
The application of ALARP principle and the questions of benefit
– perceived or otherwise – must also consider.

Engineering feasibility

A feasibility study is an engineering study based on test work

and engineering analysis, which presents enough information to
determine whether or not the project should be advanced to the
final engineering and construction stage.
This is a ―go/no-go‖ decision point … thereby implying that
sometimes the answer is NO. Unfortunately, once a project is
advanced to the feasibility study stage, companies often have
committed considerable capital and professional reputation and
therefore assume the answer will be that the project is feasible.
The possibility that the answer could be that the project is not
feasible is often forgotten Feasibility studies offer an
independent assessment of the viability of a project and
consideration of alternate options. It examines the economic,
technical, managerial, and financial aspects of your proposed
project. While independent, the study is based, in part on
information you supply as well as some of our own resources.
Whether you are applying for a business loan, seeking funds for
expansion or plant modernization, or planning for the future, a
detailed feasibility study will give you the factual backing for
your application, help you modify your proposal for funding or
help you plan for your future growth
A feasibility study should examine three main areas:
 market issues
 technical and organizational requirements
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 financial overview

Market issues
The primary area that the feasibility study needs to address is
potential market opportunities for the cooperative. If an
adequate level of demand does not exist for the product and the
NGC does not know how to differentiate its product so that it
can compete with established industry players, then the
proposed venture should not be pursued.
 Questions that need to be answered in this area of the
feasibility study include
 What type of industry is the NGC planning to enter? What
are its primary features?
 What are the possible target markets for the NGC‘s
product? What demographic characteristics do they
possess? How large are these markets? Where are they
located? Is the market expected to grow in the future?
 Will the NGC be competing in a mature industry or a
growth industry?
 Who are the NGC‘s competitors in this market? How large
are these competitors? How established are they? How do
they price their goods? How will these competitors react to
the entrance of the NGC?
 How will the NGC differentiate its product from those of
its competitors? What are the competitors‘ strengths and
weaknesses, and how would the NGC compare against
them? How does the NGC plan on gaining market share?
 What is the projected market share for the NGC?
Data that can help to answer these questions may be found in
already-published information or through primary research
activities such as market surveys conducted on behalf of the
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NGC. Relevant information may be found through various

sources such as government statistical publications, trade
journals, industry reports, or companies such as Dun &
Bradstreet. The Internet has also opened up new routes to
obtaining information.
The answers to market-related questions should help the NGC
develop realistic estimates of the projected demand for the
NGC‘s product for the first several years of operation. Based on
this projected demand, the NGC can determine its
anticipated level of business volume, which is needed in order to
design the processing facilities. If the projected business volume
is not large enough to justify a processing facility, then the
project is not feasible.

Q: Technological and organizational requirments

This area concerns the internal set-up of the cooperative.
Questions to be answered in this area include
Plant and equipments issues
What type of equipment and technology will the business need
to produce its product? What are the costs involved? This
includes both the initial purchase and installation costs of the
equipment as well as the operationalcosts of running the
equipment.

 Who are the potential suppliers of this equipment? Where

are they located? What sort of service and warranties do
they provide? How long will it take to acquire the
equipment and begin operations?
 Based on its projected business volume, how much raw
product will be required by the NGC? What are the quality

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specifications? Will the NGC have a sufficient membership

base that can provide the raw materials?
 What are the possible locations for the NGC‘s facility?
What size of facility is needed? What are the costs of the
building? Does the proposed location have adequate access
to infrastructures and services such as major highways,
railways, and utilities? Will the NGC build its own facility,
or purchase an existing location?
 Where will the facility be located relative to the NGC‘s
customers? Who will be responsible for the transportation
of goods between the facility and the market? What are the
transportation costs involved?
Managerial and organizational issues
 Is the NGC organizational structure the right one for this
business? How important are delivery contracts and a fixed
source of supply to the success of the business?
 What qualifications are needed to manage these operations?
What are the key staff positions that need to be filled?
 What type of experience should management have? Are
there potential candidates available to fill such positions?
What will be the cost factor involved in finding and
retaining acceptable candidates?
Financial overview
 Based on the estimates that have been gathered from the
preceding sections of the study, the NGC needs to
determine its overall financial situation. Sources and uses
of financing should be listed. Questions such as the
following need to be considered:
 What is the total start-up costs required in order to begin
operations? For instance, what are the capital costs of the

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land, plant and equipment, and other start-up costs such as

legal and accounting costs?
 What are the operating costs involved? These include the
daily costs involved in running the business, such as wages,
rent, utilities, and interest payments on outstanding debt.
These will determine the cash flow requirements of the
NGC.
 Based on the estimated demand, what are the NGC‘s
revenue projections? How will the NGC determine its
pricing arrangements?
 What are the possible sources of financing for the NGC?
Who are potential lenders? What will be their required
terms and limitations of borrowing?
 Based on the estimated revenues and costs, what is the
projected profit (loss) of the NGC? What is the break-even
point?
 If the results of the feasibility study indicate that the
proposed venture is economically viable, then the NGC can
begin to develop a business plan.7

LAY PA
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CHAPTER – 10 EMISSIONS AND DISPERSION

EMISSION AND DISPERSION
Basic need of air quality sampling and work environment
monitoring and analysis is to find the level of pollution and to
work out strategy to reduce it.
Need of sampling and monitoring is statutorily suggested by
Form no. 37, Rule 12Bof the Gujarat Factories Rules.
The format calls for identification of airborne contaminants,
sampling instruments and methods, number of samples and
comparison of measured value with TWA concentration in 2nd
schedule of the Factories Act to access the working
environment and also the number of workers exposed to that.
Need of sampling and monitoring is also inferred from the type,
source and hazards of air pollutants. Monitoring is more than air
sampling or medical examination of a worker. It includes a
series of actions to assess the protection necessary.
Purpose of sampling
 to determine type and concentration of exposure due to
health hazards to workers
 To determine the types and effectiveness of the control
measures provided, any change if necessary in them and
new control measures to be provided.
 To investigate complaints
 For research purpose
Types of air sampling
Personal sampling: In personal sampling device is worn by the
worker near his breathing zone to evaluate personal or
individual exposure to him

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Q: short note on: Ambient air monitoring

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH,
USA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA, USA) have developed air sampling methods that
provides specific information on sampling media to be used
Area sampling
In area sampling air samples are taken at fixed place in a
workroom or confined space to evaluate general concentrations
of flammable, explosive or toxic material in air for the purpose
of isolation or restriction to work or to design the control
measures. It includes continuous monitors for leak detection,
ventilation failure, equipment malfunction etc.
Grab sampling
Short period (instantaneous) sampling is called grab sampling. It
is used to measure concentration at a particular time (at least two
samples within 5 minutes). E.g. peak value of NH3 or Cl2 at a
particular time.
Integrated sampling
Long period sampling is called integrated sampling. It is carried
out by direct instruments (e.g. gas detector tubes or digital
meters) to measure STEL value for 15 minutes and TLV for 8
hours TWA limits.
Types of monitoring
Monitoring i.e. continuing program of observation,
measurement and judgement, of four types is possible
 Personal
 Environmental
 Biological
 Medical

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Work place or area monitoring Air monitoring is done for the

determination of concentration in the workplace area or in the
breathing zone of the employee. Air monitoring can be done for
8 hours, 15 minutes or instantaneous. The results are then
compared with exposure indices such as TLV, STEL and ceiling
limits.

The purpose of area air monitoring is

 To determine concentration of the contaminants present
in the workplace area
 To identify airborne concentration of the contaminant in
worst case situation.
 To determine background level of contaminants in a
work room.
Area air monitoring is often conducted by placing sampling
device near contaminant emission areas. Continuous area air
monitoring is used to detect
 Fugitive emission
 Leaks
 Ventilation failures
 Equipment malfunctions etc,
First, the permissible exposure limits – prescribed by law or
standard or reasonably tolerable – should be found and kept as
target. Then the actual level (existing level) of all parameters of
the working environment should be measured and compared
with the target i.e. permissible level and if the measure level is
higher than the permissible, the effects should be continued to
bring down them down to the permissible level.
Form no. 37, Rule 12B, GFR is a statutory format in this regard,
but as it should not include all work environment (other than air-

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borne contaminants), it should be enlarged to include other work

parameters like
 Level of noise
 Vibration
 Radiation illumination
 Temperature
 Air change
 Waste disposal (pollution parameter) etc.
Here the device is placed at targeted work place or the area to be
monitored.

Personal exposure monitoring The concentration of the

contaminants present in the breathing zone of a potentially
exposed employee is quantified by personal air monitoring.
The purpose of personal air monitoring is
 To identify individual exposure
 To ensure regulatory compliance with exposure indices
 Personal air monitoring involves the collection of an air-
sample by a sampling device worn by the worker
 The sampling device is positioned as close as possible to
the breathing zone of the worker (e.g. dosimeter is kept in
the breathing zone by attaching it to the collar. To monitor
noise, the device should be placed close to the ear) so the
data collected closely approximates the concentration
inhaled.
 As the persons are directly affected by the health hazard,
their personal exposure monitoring is most essential.
 After personal air monitoring is completed the sampling
media is analysed in a laboratory using analytical methods
such as
 Gas chromatography
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 Atomic absorption
 High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) etc.
 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH, USA) and Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA, USA) have developed air sampling
methods that provide specific information on sampling
media to be used.
Biological monitoring
Biological monitoring is defined as the respective and regular
measurement and assessment of agents or their metabolites
either blood, urine, secreta, expired air or combination of these
to evaluate exposure and health risk compared to an appropriate
reference.
Biological monitoring has distinct advantages over air
measurement, mainly because it is the absorbed chemical, and /
or its biomarker, is measured.
Biological or biochemical samples are the blood, urine, faeces,
breath (expired air), plasma, body fluid, sweat, tissues, hair,
nails, saliva etc.
o They are analysed to measure any change, deformation or
damage due to absorption of a toxic material.
o Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) are applying to biological
monitoring and TLVs to air monitoring.
Biological monitoring is not a replacement of any other form of
monitoring. It is complimentary.
Analysis of biological samples obtained from exposed workers
provides information of body burden of the substances, the
amount circulating in the bold, or the amount being excreted.
Biological indicators are determined from the biological samples
– and their biological analysis. For correct result time of

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collection of sample is most important because, different

chemicals show their significant effects at different time.
o Thus after taking biological samples at the correct time after
allowing biotransformation biological analysis of these samples
is carried out to study the biological indicators, determinants or
markers. These indicators are
 The substance itself
 Zetabolite formed if any
 The metabolic effect (change) produced.
Above indicators provide some useful information which cannot
otherwise available. The usefulness of biological monitoring are
 Long term effect of exposure / absorption
 Amount absorbed in body
 Routes of absorption
 Evaluation of total exposure due to workplace and outside
environment amount absorbed due to workplace effect,
climatic factors, age, sex, genetic characteristic, physical
effect, condition of the organs etc.
 Type and time of risk (exposure) which cannot be proved in
any other way.
Medical monitoring
It means medical examination of the workers exposed to health
hazards by the occupational health doctors u/r 68U. Pre,
periodical and post medical examination or monitoring gives
better judgment.
It is useful in early detection of any occupational or non-
occupational disease or any mal-adjustment of the man-job
relationship.
Other purpose of industrial medical monitoring
 Identifying the hazards
 Preventing or minimizing the hazards
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 Curative treatment in case of exposure

 Determining the compensation for damages
 Section 11 of the Environmental (protection) Act 1986
prescribes procedure to take samples of air quality. They
are to be analyzed by environmental laboratories u/s 12 and
by government analysts‘ u/s 13.
 Section 7 puts responsibility on operator of facility to take
air samples and to keep them within the prescribed limit.

Q: short note: Stack monitoring (5) June ‘19

NILAY PATEL
 Rule 6 of the Environmental (protection) Act 1986
prescribes procedures for taking samples.
 Schedule 1, 6 and 7 prescribes standards of air quality also
in terms of temperature, particulate matter, suspended
solids, SOX, NOX, CO and concentrations of many gases
in the air
 Section 22 of the Air (prevention and control of pollution)
Act, 1981 requires that the air pollution standards should
not be exceeded.
 Board officers can take samples of air or emission and sent
them to laboratory for analysis. Board can prescribe stack
height and air sampling point.
 The stack monitoring is compulsory to measure SOX, NOX
and particulate matter and other gaseous emission for the
compliance of law.
Risk counter is an iso-risk line on the map at which hypothetical
individual staying there unprotected for 24 hours per day would
be subjected to a defined probability of fatal harm due to
exposure to hazards induced by the industrial activity. The risk

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indicator is most frequently used to quantify the off-site risk to

the public and is expressed on a pre year basis.
Risk counters are calculated by determining the consequence
form a number of scenarios. By adapting certain criteria for
death form toxic substances, radiation heat load form fire and
explosion over pressure, effect and damage distances can be
determined.
Risk transects are like risk counters, but are used for the risk
form transportation by road, rail, pipeline etc.
Risk counters or ‗foot prints‘ are plotted on the map of the
premises and its vicinity (area) to see the effect of damage
distances reaching to the public or surrounding environment. On
each periphery of a counter, risk level should be mentioned.
Counters may indicate risk zones like low, medium, high,
highest etc.
Effect
In case of toxic dispersion, normally three zones are considered
The inner most or zone-1 contains the highest concentrations of
leaking gas wherein maximum fatality /
Risk counter
NILAY
Injury can be predicted. No entry or rescue operations may be
possible there In intermediate or zone-2, evacuation becomes
most necessary and must be carried out at the earliest possible
otherwise great fatalities or / and injuries may result. This is the
target area of emergency planning and rescue activities. But in
doing so, use of necessary personal protective equipment and
vehicle is to be done very carefully.
The outermost or zone-3 is a safe zone but it can be affected also
if dispersion aggravates or lasts for a longer time. Therefore
alert and warning action is required in this zone. People must be
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advised to go away by their own arrangement and should be

helped if necessary.
USE
Use of risk counters is useful in on-site and off-site emergency
lans for the judgement of area likely to be affected and
emergency preparedness for evacuation and other emergency
activities.
Population density is the density of the population (number of
the persons) living in the vulnerable zone. Normally it is number
of persons per square kilometre area.
Numbers of persons are taken in thousands, lacs or millions.
It is in the terms of density and types (residents, workers,
sensitive population – hospitals, schools, nursing or care centres,
old men‘s shelter, prisons, spectators in auditoriums or
stadiums), Private and public property (homes, offices,
businesses) that may be damaged, including essential support
system (water, milk, food, fuel, power, medical) and transport
centres, living within the vulnerable zone
To get information on above following steps are useful
 Survey of the area ( first hand information by driving
through the area)
 Interviews of fire, police, emergency and planning
department
 personnel.
 Review of planning department document and statistics on
land use, population, highway usage and the area‘s
infrastructure
Population density NILAY PATEL
Higher the population the higher the risk involved. Hence,
hazardous installation should be set up keeping the sufficient
separation distance from the dense population.
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Population density is the key factor of vulnerability analysis

Probit analysis is a method (calculation) to assess probability of
injury or damage due to serious or lethal dispersion. It is a
mathematical equation in the form of probit function as under

P= K1 + K2 + log C and for toxic release P= K1 + K2 log (Cnt)

Where P = Probit measure of the vulnerable resource (human or
property) which gets injury or damage
C = measure of the intensity of the causative factor which harms
the resources
Iog C = the logarithmic term (logeC) in above equation arises
because in any population, some people can tolerate high
intensity of harmful causative factor than others.
K1 & K2 = the constants can be calculated from the relationship
between the intensity of causative factor and the degree of
harmful response.
In case of fire, K1 & K2 depends on effective time durations,
radiation intensity (W/m2), duration of pool burning and
radiation intensity from pool burning (W/m2).
In case of explosion, they depend on peak over-pressure (N/m2)
and impulse (Ns/m2) and In case of toxic release, they depend
on concentration (ppm) and time interval (min)
The values of K1 & K2 are mostly derived from experiments
with animals.
However, human toxicity factors have been derived from past
accidents.
Response versus dose curves can be drawn for a wide variety of
exposures, including exposure to heat, pressure, radiation,
impact and sound, to name a few 1.
For computational purpose, the response versus dose curve is
not convenient; an analytical equation is preferred as under.
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PROBIT equation
NILAY PATEL
Many methods exist for representing the response-dose curve.
For single exposures, the PROBIT (Probability unit) method is
particularly suited, providing a straight-line equivalent of the
response-dose curve. The probit is a random variable with a
mean of 5 and variance of standard deviation of 1. The probit
variable Y is related to the probability P as under.
Probit = probability unit Equation (I) provides a relationship
between the probability P and the probit variable Y. This
relationship is plotted in graph PROBIT-2 and tabulated in
Table-I. In the table, the usually probability range 0 to 1 has
been replaced by a percentage 0 to 100.
Second equation is a general form of probit function.
 The logarithmic term arises from the fact that in most
populations these are some subjects who can tolerate a
rather high level of the harmful causative factor. The
distribution obtained is therefore skew. It is commonly
found, however, that the logarithm of the causative factor
fits a normal distribution. The effect of the probit
transformation is shown in Table-3 expresses the intensity
of the causative function of the normal distribution is
transformed into a straight line.
 As has been stated above, the variable V expresses the
intensity of the causative factor. In some cases it is a single
variable while in others it is a function of one or more
variables.
 It is a critical examination of all part, of a total operating
system with relevance to safety and to suggest
improvements and up gradation.

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 Safety audit means a systematic critical examination of an

individual operation to identify potential hazards and level
of risk.
 A process which provides an overall comprehensive study
of the management and operational safety system, practices
and policies and their effectiveness against identified
hazards, it ensures that the basic safety philosophy and
management systems are incorporated throughout the
project design. This
 subsequently reflected in the operational procedure, process
engineering drawing and maintenance of the plant and
machinery is called ‗Safety Audit‘ After statutory
requirement (GFR 1995 & MSIHC Rules 2000), audit
frequency has been increased. Looking to its needs, BIS
also published an Indian Standard –

Q: short note on: Safety audit (10) May ‘18

NILAY PATEL
IS:14489 in 1998 as standard guideline for practice on
occupational safety and health audit.
This IS does not include rating (points) system like British
Standard. Therefore, it gives qualitative analysis and not the
quantitative.
 Annexure C of IS: 14489 are good guidelines for safety
audit.
 It should be used as a whole or with necessary modification
deem fit by the auditors.
 Points may be decreased or increased depending upon the
size, status, content, materials, processes, procedures and
systems of works and experience of the auditor

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 It includes many items (elements) of safety audit including

safety policy, organization, training, general working
conditions, hazard identification and control, technical
aspect, work permit system, PPE, fire protection,
emergency preparedness, hazard area identification /
classification, static electricity, vessels and equipments,
storage safety, communication system, transport, pipelines
etc. there is no end to such items, only experience can
specify and classify them. Therefore audit by duly qualified
and experienced auditors is more useful.
 A safety audit is intended to measure the effectiveness of a
company‘s
 safety programs in every respect
The word ‗safety audit‘ is also used for ‗safety inspection‘
intended for
 Identification of possible loss situations
 Measurement of the potential losses associated with these
risks.
 Selection of methods to minimize the losses.
 Implementation of the selected methods within the
company
 Monitoring of the result and suggesting further
improvement based on review
Objectives of audit
Following objectives can be decided for the audit
 To carry out a systematic, critical appraisal of all potential
hazards involving personnel, plant, services, methods etc.
 To ensure that company‘s OS&H system and safety
policies, objectives etc. satisfy the legal requirements.
 To find out strength and weakness of safety programmes

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 To identify area of high risk & recommend them for more

detailed risk analysis
 Find out potential hazard in existing & proposed plant
 Ensuring operation & maintenance are carried out
according to plant manual without any serious deviation
 Check facility for plant training, fire fighting, plant
emergencies and first aid.
 Personal attitude of employees of public relation with
inside and outside factory
 Study existing system, procedure and measures for
controlling hazards.
Audit frequency
Normally an external audit or third party audit should be
conducted once in two years and an internal audit may be
organized once in every year.
Audit procedure
 Constitution of Audit team (at least two members)
 Constitution of Auditee representatives
 Recording identification and brief history of the auditee
industry
 Deciding audit goals, objectives and scope
 Drawing audit plan with time schedule
 Holding opening meeting with the auditee
 Study of process and applicability of safety laws and
standards
 Taking plant round and noting observations
 Examining records and documents
 Filling checklists of audit points
 Holding of closing meeting and discussing findings
 Preparation and submission of Audit report
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 Report distribution for compliance

 Compliance audit if required by the auditee or client
 Visit of compliance audit and its report
Types of safety audit
External audit: Audit done by a third party called external audit
and usually carried out by independent agencies like
 external experts
 professional institutions
 accredited auditors
 management appointed external bodies
 Government officials
 Statutory departments
 Central and Regional labour Institute, EIL, Public sector
undertaking etc.
NILAY PATEL
Internal audit It is the type of audit that is carried out by the
auditors nominated from the company premises by the
management and is carried out by
 Officials of the same section in a group
 Cross functionally by other sections of same group
 Other group in the same organisation having similar type of
process /equipment (Intra group)
 Other group in the same organization having different type
of processes /equipment (Inter unit)
 Jointly of independently by service departments of the
same Organisation (Safety, Fire, Technical. Engineering
services etc.)Top executives
 Management committees
 Other Internal audit core group such ISO 14001, OSHAS
18001 etc.
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 Sister unit of the same company in case of multi located

corporate sectors
 Corporate – By headquarter or a technical personnel form
safety
 department or other units of the same industry or services
functioning at the corporate level.
In-house audit
In house by the plant personnel may be HOD, manager or safety
representative
Need of safety audit
Safety audit is mainly required for two reasons
Safety requirement
It is utmost necessary for the purpose of maintaining safety in
industry that all systems of work should be thoroughly checked
form safety point of view at regular interval and deficiencies
identified should be removed by due compliance of safety
recommendations.
A pre-determined checklist is useful for a fixed class of industry
but, however, audit points are variable and should be best
suitable to the type of industry to be audited.

Legal requirement
Rule 12C & 68O of the Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 and Rule
10 & 12 of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemical Rules 1989 need submission of safety audit reports to
the concerned authorities within prescribed time.
NILAY
Use of safety audit
 It is a critical examination of all or part, of a total operating
system with relevance to safety and to suggest
improvements and up gradation.
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 A safety audit is intended to measure the effectiveness of a

company‘s safety programme in every respect.
 The word safety audit is also used for ‗safety inspection‘
intended for
a) Identification of possible loss situations
b) Measurement of the potential losses associated with these
risks.
c) Selection of methods to minimize the losses.
d) Implementation of the selected methods within the
company
e) Ponitoring of the results and suggesting further
improvement based on review
Applicability
In all phase of plant & periodically of review depending on the
level of hazards.
Data required
Applicable codes, guides, flow sheet, P & I diagram, start-up,
shutdown procedures, emergency control, injury report, testing
& inspection reports, material properties.
Results
Qualitative, the inspection teams report deviation from design &
planned procedure & recommendations on additional safety
measures.
Advantages of safety audit
 Strengthen safety standard & programme of an organisation
 Improves skills and performance of managers
 Helps to create group and self awareness and provides
motivation
 Identifies specific weakness in safety programme
 Provides timely information before any loss producing
incident occurs
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 Increase management participation in safety programme

 Identify potential areas of risk giving necessary suggestions
and modification for overall improvement of plant\
 Helps in operating instructions, manual and procedure
 Motivation
Elements of safety audit
 Occupational safety & health policy
 OS&H organizational setup
 Educational training
 Employee participative management NILAY PATEL
 Motivational & promotional measures
 Safety manuals & rules
 Compliances of statutory requirements
 New equipment review / inspections
 Accident reporting / investigation / analysis & compliance
of recommendations
 Hazard identification & risk assessment
 Safety inspection
 Health & safety improvement plans / targets
 First aid facility & occupational health centre
 Personal protective equipment
 Good housekeeping
 Machine and general area guarding
 Material handling equipment
 Electrical & personal safeguarding
 Ventilation, illumination and noise
 Work environment monitoring system
 Machine and general area guarding
 Process plant modification
 Transportation of hazardous chemicals
 Hazardous waste treatment & disposal
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 Safety in ware housing and storage

 Contractor safety system
 Customer safety – material safety data sheets.

Suggested documents
 OH&S policy
 Safety organizational chart
 Training records
 Records of inspection
 Accident investigation reports
 Dangerous occurrences reports / analysis
 Record of tests / examinations of equipment & structure as
per statutes
 Safe operation procedures
 Record of work permits
 Work environment monitoring record
 Records checking / testing / certification of Fire / smoke
detection /communication equipment & extinguishers
 Health records of employees
 Industrial hygiene surveys
 Material safety data sheets
 Onsite emergency plans / mock drills
 Waste disposal (all types of consents / approvals)
 Quality of effluent discharges
 Housekeeping rounds / evaluation
 Minutes of safety committee meetings
 All statutory approvals
 Plant modifications

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 Condition monitoring, predictive / preventive maintenance

plan compliance
 Calibration & testing records
 Shut down maintenance procedures
 In service inspection manuals, records including that of
material handling
 Safety budget
 Factory inspection books and other statutory records
 Transportation safety for hazardous chemicals
 Records of previous audits
Statutory information required in a safety report is given in
schedule 8, Rule 10(1) of MSIHC Rules 1989.
Before 90 days of any modification (having material effect) an
updated safety report shall be submitted to the authority
As per GFR no 68J (9) an occupier shall not undertake any
industrial activity to which this sub rule applies, unless he has
prepared safety report on that industrial activity containing
information specified in schedule 8 and has sent a copy to the
Directorate of Industrial Safety & Health (DISH).
In case new industrial activity which an occupier commences, or
by virtue of clauses (2)(a)(ii) of sub rule no. (5) is deemed to
commence, within 6 months after coming into force of these
rules, it shall be sufficient compliance.
In the case of an existing industrial activity, until five years from
the date of commencement these rules, it shall be a sufficient
compliance to clause (1) of this sub rule, if the occupier sends
the information to the DISH on or before 3 months from the date
of commencement of the rules.
Report should be well documented by the auditors, audit
certificate should be singed (with date) by the lead auditor and

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enclosed with the audit report and it should be sent to the auditee
or client as soon as possible.
If it cannot be sent within agreed time limit, reasons of delay
should be communicated.
The auditee should send acknowledge receipt of audit report to
the auditors and client and final report of compliance when it is
over.
Q: write Safety report (10) May’18
The auditee will collect the reports of compliance, will verify
and arrange in chronological order against each point of
recommendation. Auditee should retain the audit report along
with its compliance report and should show them to the
authorities on demand Information to be furnished in Safety
Report
1. Name and address of the person furnishing the information
2. Description of the industrial activity
2.1. Site
2.2. Construction design
2.3. Protection zones (explosion protection, separation distances
etc.)
2.4. Plant accessibility details
2.5. Maximum number of persons who could be available at any
point of time especially at the specific hazard location
3. Description of process activity
3.1. Technical purpose
3.2. Basic principles of the process technology
3.3. Process safety related data covering all stages of operation
3.4. Safety relevant utility services
4. Description of hazardous chemicals

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4.1. Chemicals (quantity, data or physical / chemical properties,

flash point, flammable limits, toxicological information,
threshold limit values etc.)
4.2. The transformation stage of the material into unsafe
conditions during any abnormalities
4.3. The degree of purity of hazardous chemicals
5. Information on preliminary hazard analysis such as
5.1. Nature of accidents
5.2. System elements of probable event scenarios that may lead
to a major accident
5.3. Hazards
5.4. Safety – relevant components
6. Description of safety – relevant units among others
6.1. Special design criteria
6.2. Controls / alarms
6.3. Pressure relief systems
6.4. Quick relief facilities
6.5. Dump / collection tanks
6.6. Fire water sprinklers
6.7. Other fire protection arrangements
7. Information on hazard assessment like
7.1. Identification
7.2. Accident causation factors
7.3. Specific hazard assessment based on frequency / severity
7.4. Safety systems
7.5. Known accident history
8. Description of information on organizational system for
safety
8.1. Maintenance / inspection schedules
8.2. Guidelines for employee training

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8.3. Delegation of safety responsibility with reference to plant

safety
8.4. Compliance level of safety procedures
9. Information on assessment of the consequences of major
accident
9.1. Probable release of hazardous chemical energy
9.2. Probable dispersion pattern of releases (range and area,
health effect, property damage, environmental impact etc.)
10. Information on mitigation of major accidents
10.1. Fire brigade
10.2. Alarms & communications
10.3. Emergency preparedness & response plan (indication the
organizational set up to tackle emergency situations including
listing of probable accident scenarios)
10.4. Co-ordination system with local administrative authorities
or District level emergency control officials inclusive of the off-
site plans
10.5. Notification methodology regarding the nature and scope
of the hazard in the event of an accident
10.6. Information regarding the availability of antidotes that
could be administered at the time of any major toxic release.
OR
Safety audit report:
Safety Audit is a critical and systematic examination of safety
systems against the set safety standards.
Features of Safety Audit:
 It is a critical appraisal and hence examines all
aspects/elements in details. It is a systematic examination.
 The set standards are must because the deviations are
examined with reference to these standards.
The Standards:
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There are basically three levels of standards are available as

under.
 Tier I: Must Standards or Statutory Requirements or Laws
of the Land
 Tier II: Recommended Standards (IS, ISO, DIN, BS ANSI
etc.)
 Tier III: Own Standards (Own system procedures)
Rule 68-O Health and Policy has following provision.
The Policy shall specify - Relevant techniques and methods such
as safety audit and risk assessment for periodical assessment at
least once in every two years of the status on health, safety and
environment and taking all the remedial measures.
IS 14489 — 1998 Code of Practice on Occupational Safety and
Health Audit is detailed in paragraph 5.4.8.
Safety report:
The Rule 68J (9) and Rule 10 of the Manufacture, Storage and
Import Hazardous Chemicals Rules 1989 have following
provisions. The latest edition of 2000 has been referred for the
purpose.
Safety Reports and Safety Audit Reports: Subjects to the
following paragraphs of this rule, an occupier shall not
undertake any industrial activity to which this rule applies,
unless he has prepared a safety report on that industrial activity
containing the information specified in Schedule 8 and has sent
a copy of that report to the concerned authority at least ninety
days before commencing that activity.
In the case of a new industrial activity which an occupier
commences, or by virtue of sub-rule (2) (a)(ii) of rule 6 is
deemed to commence, within 6 months after coming into
operation of these rules, it shall be sufficient compliance with
sub rule (1) of this rule if the occupier sends to the concerned
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authority a copy of the report required in accordance with that

sub-rule within ninety days after the date of coming into
operation of these rules.
3. In case of an existing industrial activity, the occupier shall
prepare a safety report consultation with the concerned authority
and submit the same within one year from the date of
commencement of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of
Hazardous Chemicals (Amendment) Rules, 1994, to the
concerned Authority.] After the commencement of the
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals
(Amendment) Rules, 1994, the occupiers of both the new and
the existing industrial activities shall carry out an independent
safety audit of the respective industrial activities with the help of
an expert not associated with such industrial activities.
The occupier shall forward a copy of the auditor‘s report along
with his comments to the concerned Authority within 30 days
after the completion of such Audit.
The occupier shall update the safety audit report once a year by
conducting a fresh safety audit and forward a copy of it with his
comments thereon
The concerned authority may if it deems fir, issue improvement
notice under rule 19 within 45 days of the submission of the said
report. Rule 11: Updating of reports under Rule 10:
1. Where an occupier has made a safety report in accordance
with sub rule (1) of rule 10 he shall not make any modification
to the industrial activity to which that safety report relates which
could materially affect the particulars in that report, unless he
has made a further report to take account of those modifications
and has sent a copy of that report to the concerned authority at
least 90 days before making those modifications.

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2. Where an occupier has made a report in accordance with rule

10 and subrule (1) of this rule and that industrial activity is
continuing the occupier shall within three years of the date of
the last such report, make a further report which shall have
regard in particular to new technical knowledge which has
affected the particulars in the previous report relating to safety
and hazard assessment and shall within 30 days send a copy of
the report to concerned authority.

SCHEDULE -8: Information to be furnished in a safety report

The name and address of the person furnishing the information.
a) Description of the industrial activity, namely —
b) Site,
c) Construction design,
d) Protection zones explosion protection, separation distances,
e) Accessibility of the plant,
f) Maximum number of persons working on the site and
particularly of those persons exposed to be hazard.
Description of the processes, namely-
a) Technical purpose of the industrial activity,
b) Basic principles of the technological process,
c) Process and safety-related data for the individual process
stages,
d) Process description,
e) Safety-related types of utilities.
4. Description of the hazardous chemicals, namely- Chemicals
(quantities, substance data, safety related data, toxicological
data and threshold values)
a) The form in which the chemical may occur on or into
which they may betransformed in the event of abnormal
conditions,
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b) The degree of purity of the hazardous chemical.

5. Information on the preliminary hazard analysis, namely-

(a) Types of accident
(b) System elements or events that can lead to a major accident,
(c) Hazards,
(d) Safety-relevant components.
6. Description of safety relevant units, among others:
(a) Special design criteria,
(b) Controls and alarms,
(c) Special relief systems,
(d) Quick - acting valves,
(e) Collecting tanks / dump tank
(1) Sprinkler system,
(f) Fire-fighting etc.
7. Information on the hazard assessment, namely-
(a) Identification of hazards,
(b) The cause of major accidents,
(c) Assessment of hazards according to their occurrences
frequency,
(d) Assessment of accident consequences,
(e) Safety systems,
(f) Known accident history.
8. Description of information on organizational systems used to
carry on the industrial activity safety, namely-
(a) Maintenance and inspection schedules,
(b) Guidelines for the training of personnel,
(c) Allocation and delegation of responsibility for plant safety,
(d) Implementation of safety procedures.
9. Information on assessment of the consequences of major
accidents, namely-
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(a) Assessment of the possible release of hazardous chemicals or

of energy,
(b) Assessment of the effects of the releases (size of the affected
area, health effects, property damage).
10. Information on the mitigation of major accidents, namely —
(a) Fire brigade,
(b) Alarm systems,
(c) Emergency plan containing system of organization used to
fight emergency, the alarm and the communication rules,
guidelines for fighting the emergency, information about
hazardous chemicals, examples of possible accident sequences.
(d) Coordination with the District Emergency authority and its -
off-site emergency plan,
(e) Notification of the nature and scope of the hazard in the
event of an accident,
(f) Antidotes in the event of a release of a hazardous chemical.
Emergency
 Emergency could be defined as any situation, which
presents a threat to safety of person or / and property. It
may require outside help also
 As defined in clause 2(j) of Schedule 19 of Chemical
Works u/r 102 of the Gujarat Factories Rules (GFR),
emergency means a situation leading to a circumstance or
set of circumstances in which there is a danger to the life
and health of persons or which could result in big fire or
explosion or pollution to the work and outside
environment, affecting the workers or neighbourhood in a
serious manner, demanding immediate action.
 It is also defined as ‗a dynamic incident in which there is
continuing potentialfor major injury, ill health, and damage
to property, to the process or to the environment
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 Emergency is a situation arising out of an event, action or

decision with adverse consequential effects similar to any
accident. However, it differs from normal accident
scenarios.

Emergency plan
It is a formal written plan, which on the basis of identified
potential hazards at the installation together with their
consequences, describes how such hazards and their
consequences should be handled either on-site or off-site.
As compared to accidents, the frequencies of emergency
situation are less since most of the cases an efficient handling of
accident prevents it from manifesting as ‗Emergency of
Disastrous situations‘
Minor accidents do not cause much damage, but major accidents
due to emergency or disaster cause extensive damage to person,
property and environment.
Emergency situation arises all of a sudden and contains high
potential to cause havoc. Therefore such situations and risks
should be thought in advance and it should be planned
beforehand to tackle them immediately and to control them
within the shortest possible time.
Advance emergency planning and proper training of every
employee in the emergency function is very essential to make
emergency control measures more effective. It is not possible to
completely eliminate emergency situations, but it is definitely
possible to control them. An emergency, if uncontrolled may
cause a disaster which in turn may create a catastrophe.

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Assessment and utility of emergency planning

☺NILAY PATEL
Reasons for emergency planning
 To foresee emergency situation and to plan for total loss
prevention and control
 No alternative to emergency planning
 Planning reduces the thinking time for necessary steps at
the time of accidents
 It is easy to set in motion all machinery already planned
and trained in advance to meet the situation
 Prevention is better than cure. Planning intends first
prevention and if it fails subsequent control to cure the
situation. Emergency needs such planning
 Planning helps to contain the incident and to minimize the
loss
 It is our moral, social and legal obligation to serve the
society for safety, health and welfare. Emergency
preparedness or planning is the best step in this direction
 Many companies, organisation and nations have succeeded
in above goal by planning and follow-up only. This
suggests the need for planning.
Important similarities / difference between accident and
emergency Similarity
 Both are the results of unexpected & undesirable events
 Both have the potential to cause mishaps, injuries, deaths,
disabilities, business interruption, damages and losses
 Both can be prevented, controlled, or mitigated through
appropriate preparedness planning and execution
 Both offer lessons to motivate and improve upon the
existing safety systems, practices and procedures

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 Both call for pooling & effective utilization of resources

and infrastructure
 Both require effective individual and team effort in
handling of situations
 Both can be analyzed to find out root cause and preventive
steps
Diffrences
 As compared to accidents all emergencies are the off shoots
of accidents.
 However accidents need not end up as emergencies
 Emergency handling needs additional preparedness and
planning
 Response time to handle emergencies is shorter
 Emergencies call for pooling additional resources and
outside help
 Emergency steps call for prioritization of requirements
 Consequences of emergency could be on a larger scale and
far fetched
 Decision making process becomes tougher
 Leadership, team work, discipline & behavioural aspects
are more pertinent in
 mitigating emergencies
 Chances of panic situations are more
 Positive response & feedback to the training / education on
emergency handling is more difficult to achieve as
compared to accident prevention & control
 Losses, damages could be worse during emergencies.
Types of emergency
There are three basic types of Emergencies

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Operating emergency
It is an emergency that can be locally handled by unit personnel
alone without help e.g. small fire, air failure, power failure,
cooling water failure, steam failure, gas leaks etc.
Fire emergency
It is a fire which is beyond the control of operating staff or the
unit. It requires the assistance of the other fire fighting force.
Disaster
A disaster is a catastrophic situation in which the day-to-day
patterns of life are, in many instances, suddenly disrupted and
people are plunged into helpless and suffering and as a result
need protection, clothing, shelter, medical, and social care and
other necessities of life such as
 Disasters resulting from natural phenomenon (e.g.
earthquakes, volcanic eruption, storm, landslides, cyclones
etc)
 Disastrous events occasioned by man or by man‘s impact
upon the environment, such as armed conflict, industrial
accidents, factory fires, explosions and escape of toxic
release in air, water or land etc
Types of emergency plans
There are two types of emergency plans
On-Site emergency plan: it is to be prepared by an industrial
unit under the guidance of the government and local authority
Off-site emergency plan: It is to be prepared by the local
authority or the government itself with the help of the
government machinery and resources including the concerned
industrial units also.
NILAY PATEL

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Statutory provisions
Section 41B(4) of the Factories Act, 1948 requires an on-site
emergency plan and detailed disaster control measures for the
safety of the factory workers and the general public living in the
vicinity of the factory.
The occupier is required to inform the workers and the public
about the safety measures to be taken in the event of the accident
Rule 13, 14 and Schedule 11 & 12 of the Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rule 1989 and Rule 5, 7, 9
and 10 of the Chemical Accidents (EPPR) Rules, 1996 also
provide for on-site and off-site emergency plans

Major aspects to be considered while initiating emergency

control plans
 Company safety policy & commitement towards
emergency preparedness
 Major hazard potential present at site
 Scaling up
 Probable accident / incident scenarios
 Maximum credibility analysis
 Idntification of key prsonnel, their roles and responsibilities
 Mapping of an emergency management folw sheet
 Tie ups with others (both inside and outside) who are
concerned
 Training, education of personnel (both within and outside
organisation)
 Execution of mock-up exercise and evaluation of the same
On –Site emergency plan
Basically this is an event where in the consequential impacts or
effects are restricetd to the premises of factory, site or
establishment and the control, combact & mitigation are
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accomplished by utilizing the resources already available within

the organization.
The primary purpose of the on-site emergency plan is to control
and contain the incident and so to prevent in from spreading to
near by plant. It is not possible to cover every evantuality in the
plant and the successful handling of the emergency will depend
on appropriate action decisions being taken on the spot.
It deals with measures to prevent and control emergencies
affecting workers and others within the factory and not affecting
outisde public or environment. It is controlled mostly by the
plant personnel, resources and equipment. Factory management
makes and operates this plan.
Scope: An important element of it is emergency planning i.e.
recognizing the accidents are possible, a meaning the
consequences of such accident and deciding on the emergency
procedure, on-site that would be needed to be implemented on
the event of an emergency to control.
Objective: The overall objectives of an emergency plan are
 To localize the emergency & if possible eliminate it
 To minimize the effects of the accidents on people and
property
The purpose and policy: To protect persons and property of
factory in case of all kinds of accidents, dangerous occurrences,
emergencies and disaster happening
 To inform people and surrounding about above happening
if it is likely to adversely affect them
 To inform authorities including helping agencies (doctors,
hospitals, fire, police, transport etc.) in advance
 To identify, assess, foresee and workout various kinds of
possible hazards, their places, potential and damaging
capacity and area in case of above happening
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 Review, revise, redesign, replace or reconstruct the process,

plant, vessel and control measures if so assessed.
 To work out plan with detailed instructions to cope with
disastrous happenings, based on your personnel, equipment
and records
 Level of hazardous substances shall be minimized to the
extent possible
 Establish machinery for rescue and recuperation operations,
total loss control and prevention of harms and recurrence of
the above happenings
 Ensure that absolute safety is achieved within the shortest
time
Requirements
Each factory shall have to prepare its own plan depending upon
own hazards, probable emergencies, personnel, equipment,
resources, nearby outside agencies and new requirements if any.
Prepare a plan of the factory premises and surroundings showing
therein the areas of various hazards e.g. Fire, explosion, toxic
release etc. and also location of assembly points, fire station,
personal protective equipment room, telephone room, first aid
and ambulance room etc., Emergency control room, main gate,
emergency gate, normal wind direction, north direction.
Outside fire station, police station, hospital and other services.
Mention their distance also. Describe the types of emergencies
and how it can arise in or near your plant Fire, explosion, toxic
exposure, strike, storm, flood and other hazardous possible
situations shall be described
Source of hazards from outside or neighbouring plants, tanks,
structure etc. shall be mentioned.
Effect of prevailing wind and population density likely to be
affected shall also be considered.
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Give detail of assessment of in-plant hazards and control

measures provided Prescribe the constitutions and duties of
 Alarm raiser
 Incident controller
 Site main controller
 Emergency team including engineers and experts
 Fire fighting team
 Gas control team
 First-aid and health care team
 Ambulance and evacuation team
 Safety officer
 Security officer
 Fix names and designation of Head, deputy and members
of each of above team in all shifts of working days and on
holidays displayed on notice board with the main telephone
operator and chief executive on duty
 Members of above team shall be available during all shifts
and holidays.
 Protective equipments, lifting gears, fire control points etc
shall be sufficient in numbers and their locations shall be
well informed
 Necessary vehicles shall be kept ready to shift persons in
case of emergency
 Tabulate all internal telephone number and outside
emergency number for information and help
 The telephone operator shall give exact information of the
place, nature and severity of the emergency
 Looking to the gravity of emergency, if it seems necessary
to shut down the process or plant, detailed instructions shall
be laid down for plant / area

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 To deal with the emergencies outside the factory premises

and affecting neighbouring area, off-site emergency control
procedure and public warning procedure shall be laid down
and followed.
 Information required by the Government authorities shall
be furnished to make and update the off-site emergency
plan.
 Antidotes, medicines and remedial measures shall be
conveyed to
 surrounding doctors and hospitals who will verify them
before use.
 When any affected person will be sent, information
regarding type, time and duration of exposure and antidote
shall also be sent.
The on-site emergency plan so prepared shall be documented in
a typed or printed form in sufficient copies to give to all
concerned for kowledge, study and easy follow-up. Written
notice shall be displayed at necessary points. Other important
aspects needed to be considered including the following
 Evacuation / discharge
 Accounting for personnel
 Access to records
 Public relations
 Rehabilitation
 Public information
 Assessment
 The emergency co-ordinating officer
 Role of the major hazards works manager
 Role of the local authorities
 Role of the police
 Role of the fire authorities
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 Role of the health authorities

 Role of the government authorities
Elements
The elements of On-Site Emergency Plan are:
 Hazardous substances and Zones (Maps I Charts)
 Appointment of key persons and their role
 Assigning responsibilities to the personnel
 During normal working hours of the factory
 Outside the normal working hours of the factory
 Infrastructure
 Emergency Control Centre
 Assembly Points
 Operational Systems during Emergency
 Communication system
 Warning system
 Emergency services
 Mutual aid
 Declaration of off-site emergency

Rehearsal

Merely understanding the plan will not be useful; safety is an

acquired talent which needs regular exercise. Therefore, the
emergency plan shall be rehearsed (practiced for actions during
emergency / mock drill) and practiced by probable & identified
scenarios at regular intervals followed by evaluation of response
to test efficiency of personnel, equipment, and co-ordinated
efforts and to increase the confidence and experience to operate
such plan successfully.
The personnel shall be properly trained for this purpose.
Frequency of Mock-up exercise as required by factory Rules
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1. On-site – twice in year

2. Off –site – once in year
However it is desirable to organize more drills as a motivational
technique and evaluate them each time for further improvement
After each exercise, the plan should be thoroughly reviewed to
take account, emergency plans, particular for complex sites, are
subject to continual updating / improvement

Off-site emergency plan

The off-site emergency plan is an integral part of any major
hazard control system.
It should be based on those accidents identified by works
management which could affect people and the environment
outside the works.
It deals with measures to prevent and control emergencies
affecting public and the environment outside the factory
premises. The manufacturer should provide the necessary
information on the nature, extent and likely effects of such
incidents to the Government authorities that make and operate
the plan.
Thus the off-site plan follows logically from the analysis that
tool place to provide the basis for on-site plan & two plan should
therefore complemented each other
Objective
 To save lives and injuries
 To prevent or reduce property losses
 To prevent or to reduce damage to environment
 To provide for quick resumption of normal situation or
operation

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The purpose and policy

 To protect persons and properties of the factories in general
and the affected community as a whole
 To identify, assess, foresee and workout various kinds of
possible hazards, their places, potential and damaging
capacity and area in case of all accidents, dangerous
occurrences, emergencies and disaster happening in or
affecting the jurisdiction at any time. NILAY PATEL
 To inform people and surrounding about above happening
if it is likely toadversely affect them
 To make explicit the inter related set of actions to be
undertaken in the eventof an industrial accident posing
hazards to the community
 To plan for rescue and recuperation of causalities and
injuries
 To plan for relief and rehabilitation
 To plan for evacuation, safe assembly points and
transportation required
 To pan for prevention of harms, total loss control and
recurrence of disaster
 To contain, limit, localise and minimise the loss and
damage to person,
 property and environment arised from the happenings
 To plan to decrease the potential levels of risk
 To prevent the spread and re-happening of the disaster
 To plan for review, rectification or modification of this
disaster plan on the ground of actual experience
 To plan for communication meeting with industries,
authorities, experts,
 institutions, doctors, hospitals etc.

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 To prepare a site plan, identifying industries, hazardous

points, control points, assembly points, hospitals,
dispensaries, fire stations, police stations, railway stations,
transport points, roads, bus stations and all other requisite
details
 To verify the information given by the industries to
comprehend dangers
 To arrange for adequate personal protective, fire fighting
and emergency equipment
 To establish command structure
 To identify the respective roles of the senior personnel of
various service groups (viz. Police commandos, experts-
groups, Para medical groups, toxicity control and
decontamination squads and various authorities of water,
power, gas, health, labour, environment, revenue,
explosive, pollution control etc. necessary representatives
of employers and employees shall be incorporated)
 Plan to carry out training programmes in safety, health and
environmental protection
 To maintain full liaison between all parties to this plan,
industries, emergency services etc.
 To plan for antidotes, medicines and remedial measures
and equipments in the hospitals to carry out research and
for latest effective measures
 To provide for continuous monitoring system for essential
parameters of pollution
 To appoint a record keeper, historian and staff to collect
information on thecause of disaster
 To carry out mock implementation and rehearsal of this
plan to ensure its efficacy, test and response, interaction

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and co-ordination of operators of various service

organisations.
 Like on-site emergency plan a map or plan of the
jurisdiction with locational detailsshall be prepared and all
necessary points shall be shown for guidance
 Risk assessment is most essential before designing any off-
site emergency plan As the off-site emergency plan is to be
prepared by the Government, a Central Control Committee
or Group shall be formed under the championship of the
area head.
Elements
The Elements of off-site emergency plan are:
 Plan pre-requisites
 Quantification.
 Hazard Analysis
 Scenario developments
 Assessment of capabilities
 Plan development
 incidental information
 Authority for responding
 Basic assumption
 Operation of the plan
 Emergency Assistance
 Name and address of key personnel
 Communication details
 Response functions
Rehearsal
Extensive experience in chemical factor with on-site emergency
plan has proved need and value of emergency procedure

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The organization responsible for producing the plan should test

its arrangements in conjunction with onsite exercise Table top
rehearsals have proved extremely useful in such cases, although
needing close control to maintain a sufficient element of realism
in the exercise
An essential component of any trial is that of testing fully the
various communication links necessary, together the information
need for overall confirmation (e.g. between works & emergency
services and between works & emergency control centre
Management of major hazard work are well placed to advice on
the setting up of rehearsal, & particularly to advice on scope for
an escalation in degree of emergency

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NILAY PATEL
CHAPTER – 11 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

The term "sick building syndrome" (SBS) is used to describe

situations in which building occupants experience acute health
and comfort effects that appear to be linked to time spent in a
building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified.
The complaints may be localized in a particular room or zone, or
may be widespread throughout the building. In contrast, the term
"building related illness" (BRI) is used when symptoms of
diagnosable illness are identified and can be attributed directly
to airborne building contaminants.
Indicators of SBS include
Building occupants complain of symptoms associated with acute
discomfort, e.g., headache; eye, nose, or throat irritation; dry
cough; dry or itchy skin; dizziness and nausea; difficulty in
concentrating; fatigue; and sensitivity to odours.
The cause of the symptoms is not known.
Most of the complainants report relief soon after leaving the
building.
Indicators of BRI includes
 Building occupants complain of symptoms such as cough;
chest tightness; fever, chills; and muscle aches
 The symptoms can be clinically defined and have clearly
identifiable causes.
 Complainants may require prolonged recovery times after
leaving thebuilding.
Cause of sick building syndrome Inadequate ventilation
 Chemical contamination from indoor sources
 Chemical contamination from outdoor sources

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 Biological contamination
Q: sick building syndrome (5) May’18
NILAY
The contributing factors often relate to the design of the built
environment, and may include combinations of some or all of
the following:
 Indoor air quality (including smoking where not prohibited)
 Toxic mold
 Artificial fragrance, such as dryer sheets
 Poor or inappropriate lighting (including absence of or only
limited access to natural sunlight)
 Poor heating or ventilation
 Microbial or mite contamination of HVAC systems.
 Bad acoustics or infrasound
 Poorly designed furnishings, furniture and equipment (e.g.
computer monitors, photocopiers, etc.).
 Poor ergonomics.
 Chemical contamination.
 Biological contamination.
To the owner or operator of a "sick building", the symptoms
may include high levels of employee sickness or absenteeism,
lower productivity, low job satisfaction and high employee
turnover.
Solution to sick building syndrome
 Increasing ventilation rate
 Air cleaning
 Pollutant source removal or modification
 Education and communication
Prevention

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 Pollutant source removal or modification to storage of

sources.
 Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting.
 Institution of smoking restrictions.
 Use paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well-
ventilated areas, and use of these pollutant sources during
periods of non-occupancy.
 Increase the number of air exchanges, The American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning
Engineers recommend a minimum of 8.4 air exchanges per
24 hour period.
 Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems
 Fitting easy to clean air supply diffusers and ductwork like
a textile diffuser
NILAY
There are several types of work that may involve the potential
for exposure to biological hazards, i.e., ―biological materials‖
that pose a hazard to human health and/ or safety.
Biological agents are living things, or substances produced by
living things, that can cause illness or disease in humans.
Biological agents have many uses in the workplace, but some of
them can be hazardous. They include bacteria, viruses, and fungi
as well as larger organisms such as parasites and plants.
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms. They are
found in the air, water and soil and in living or dead animals and
plants. Viruses are micro-organisms that can reproduce only by
coming into contact with living cells. They are found only in
living animal and plant matter.
Fungi are simple plants that feed on the living or dead tissues of
animals or plants.

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Mould, yeast and mushrooms are fungi. Yeasts are used in the
manufacture of bread, beer and wine.
Parasites live in the bodies of plants and animals, including, in
some cases, the human digestive system. They reproduce by
laying eggs.
Some plants produce substances that cause an allergic response
in humans.
Biohazard symbol
Routes of entry and transmission
Biological agents enter the body by inhalation, by ingestion or
by absorption through the skin. The possible routes of entry are
limited by the characteristics of the agent.
For example, AIDS and hepatitis B are blood borne and are not
transmitted through the air. But in general, inhalation is the most
common route of entry. Once inside the body, infectious agents
can multiply and be passed from one person to another.
Biological agents and sources: Some can survive outside the
body for a considerable length of time in an intermediate
breeding ground such as water or food. Others die quickly
without the protection of the body. The route they follow is
referred to as the route of transmission.
Dirrect transmission of infectious agents
The route of transmission may be direct or indirect. Direct
transmission takes place when there is physical contact between
an infected and a non-infected person.
Direct transmission can also occur if there is a projection of
droplets into the mucous membranes of the eye, nose or mouth.
This might happen during a cough or sneeze. Direct
transmission might also occur if a person is injected or
punctured with an infected needle or other sharp object which is
infected.
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Indrect transmission of infectious agents

Indirect transmission may occur when infectious agents attach
themselves to materials or objects such as food and water or
cooking and eating utensils.
An infectious agent may also be transmitted by an insect. The
insect may carry the infectious agent from the source to an
uninfected person.
Some infectious agents may be transmitted through the air and
are hazardous if inhaled
Health hazards
Biological agents that are capable of causing disease are known
as pathogens.
Some of them are infectious and can multiply in the body.
Persons who are most at risk from biological hazards include
those who work with animals or plants or in health and child
care. People who handle animals include those who work in
zoos, animal breeding facilities and veterinary services.
Agriculture and food industry workers handle both animal and
plant products. Others who may be affected include those who
work with cutting oils or ventilation systems or work in
municipal sanitation or sewage operations.
Diseases caused by infectious agents
Bacterial diseases include tuberculosis, tetanus and food
poisoning. Infection through the skin can cause boils or blood
poisoning.
Common fungal diseases are ringworm, which is a skin
infection, and thrush, which infects the skin and mucous
membranes.
Viral diseases include hepatitis, mumps, German measles and
rabies. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which is

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believed to be the principal cause of AIDS, is discussed in

Chapter 6.
Diseases caused by biological agents
Parasitic worms enter the body when their eggs are ingested.
They can also enter when their larvae in the soil penetrate the
skin or through insect bites. The most common are roundworms
and flatworms.
Biological hazards may be recognized by examining the
materials used in the workplace or by a history of illness in
workers. Some materials present in the workplace may not be
bio-hazards themselves, but they may encourage the growth of
bacteria or fungi.
Q: Control of biological hazard (5) May’18
Biological hazards may be controlled at the source of the hazard,
along the path from the source to the worker, and at the worker.
Controls at the source involve eliminating or reducing exposure
through elimination, isolation or containment of the hazard. This
may be done through the proper design of equipment.
Equipment - especially ventilation systems, which might
harbour biohazards - must be regularly maintained, cleaned and
sterilized. Where the hazard cannot be contained, steps can be
taken to ensure that the hazard does not spread.
Those inside the area must follow safe work practices and use
protective equipment. Measures must be taken to ensure that
contaminated protective equipment does not pose a threat.
Biological safety cabinets protect against exposure by forcing
the surrounding air into a system that filters or captures the
hazard.
Controls along the path include cleaning and disinfecting as well
as the safe disposal of waste. It is important that all bio-

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hazardous materials, including waste, are labelled, handled and

disposed of in a manner that avoids contamination of the handler
or the environment. In health care facilities, all blood and other
body fluids should be treated as potentially infectious.
Control at the worker may involve personal protective
equipment such as gloves and masks. Immunization programs
may be appropriate in some circumstances.
For example, some health care institutions offer voluntary
immunization against hepatitis B. Adequate hygiene facilities
and good personal hygiene are the most important components
of a control program.
NILAY PATEL
Safe work procedures and training
Workplaces where biological hazards are present should have
written safe work procedures and training to ensure that all
workers know how to protect themselves:
 All contaminated equipment or material should be
contained, labeled and isolated.
 Spills should be cleaned up immediately.
 No one should eat, drink or smoke in a potentially
hazardous work area.
 Showers, lockers and laundry facilities should be used to
prevent hazards from leaving the workplace.
 Safe procedures should be designed to deal with the
specific hazards of each workplace.
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CHAPTER – 12 ADVANCED FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS

5ER – 12DVANCED FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM
HALON
 It seemed too good to be true... and perhaps it was...But the
advent of both Halon 1211 (bromochlorod ifluoromethane)
and Halon 1301 (bromotrifluoromethane) opened a new era
in the industrial fire protection.
 Halon as a, "clean agent" which effectively attacked certain
fire situations with astonishing success. Perhaps even more
remarkable were the unique capabilities of halon which
allowed the fire to be extinguished without harming the
surrounding area.
 Halon is used in place of CO2 extinguishers but it‘s lighter
in comparison.
 It is suitable for class B and C fires
 Halon is a fast extinguishing agent and ideal for intense and
rapid fires.
 It is non-conductive and leaves no traces when applied.
 Therefore it is also suitable for electrical fires, computer
rooms etc.
 Halon interrupts the chain reaction at the flame zone of fire.
 It is two times as effective as CI2 on a weight basis and
five times as effective as CO2 on volume basis.

Q: Halon alternative(5) May’18

The United States, is offering Inergen fire suppression systems
as an alternative to halon-based fire protection systems.
Inergen is environmentally friendly, has no global warming
potential, does not deplete ozone and has zero atmospheric
lifetimes. This high pressure agent is stored in cylinders similar
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to CO2. The new agent comprises three naturally occurring

gases – nitrogen, argon and CO2.
Inergen is an ideal halon-1301 replacement and especially useful
where it is important to have a non-residue producing,
electrically non-conductive fire protection system. It can be used
in normally occupied/unoccupied areas with sensitive electronic
equipment.
A few typical installations often protected against fire by
Inergen include:
 Computer rooms;
 Data centres;
 Telecommunication facilities;
 Telephone switching systems;
 Tape storage systems;
 Switch-gear systems;
 Vaults; and
 Process equipments.
FM-200 is a new halon alternative, which is safe to use in
normally occupied areas.
FE-13 (trifluoromethane) is the newest clean agent. It is the
safest of the three most commonly used clean agents (FE-13,
FM-200 and Inergen)
Advantages of halon alternative
In response to the ban on Halon 1301 manufacture, the fire
suppression industry has responded with the development of
alternative clean agents that pose less of a threat to the ozone
layer
 Although the Halon 1301 alternatives are only
approximately 70% as effective as Halon 1301 at

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extinguishing fires, the alternatives have similar

characteristics.
 Like Halon 1301, the new agents are clean (i.e., they leave
no residues following extinguishment).
 As a result, no cleanup is required after discharge of the
agents.
 Because the agents form no corrosive or abrasive residues
they are suitable
 for use on delicate, expensive assets that might otherwise
be destroyed by non-clean agents such as foam or water
(e.g. books, paintings, cultural heritage items).
 The clean agents are non-corrosive and non-conductive,
and hence can be employed for the protection of sensitive
electrical and electronic equipment.
 Most of the new agents are nontoxic at their typical design
levels, and hence are acceptable for use in occupied areas.
 The clean agents are gases, and can thoroughly flood a
protected area, affording rapid extinguishment of even
obscured or hard to reach fires.
 The clean agent systems are applicable to Class A, B and C
fires.
 When coupled with an early detection system, clean agent
systems providerapid extinguishment, reducing equipment
damage and ensuring the safety of personnel within the fire
area.
 Because it's not a chemical agent, Inergen will not produce
a heavy fog the way other extinguishing agents do, so
escape routes remain visible.
NILAY PATEL

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Disadvantages of halon & alternatives

Halon has one of the higher ozone depletion potentials of any
compound, and thus its production and use are being curtailed
and eventually eliminated
o Halon 1301 alternatives are only approximately 70% as
effective as Halon 1301 at extinguishing fires
o Appearance-wise, clean agent systems are similar in many
aspects to Halon 1301 systems, although, in general, none
of the clean agents can serve as a complete drop-in
replacement for Halon 1301:
o All require modification to the piping systems and or
nozzles and system cylinders. Halocarbon agents are stored
as compressed liquefied gases, and systems are typically
super pressurized to 25 or 40 bar with nitrogen, with the
exception of FE-13, which does not require super
pressurization.
o Inert gas agents are supplied in high-pressure gas cylinders,
typically pressurized to 200 or 300 bars.
o For both halocarbon and inert gas systems, additional
system components include the usual collection of selector
valves, piping, and nozzles.
o The Inergen discharges through specially designed nozzles.
To minimize turbulence in the protected area Inergen
nozzles are fitted with discharge deflectors
Under the Clean Air Act (CAA), the U.S. banned the production
of halon and import of virgin halons 1211, 1301, and 2402
beginning January 1, 1994 in compliance with the Montreal
Protocol. It is legal to continue to use your existing halon
system.
It is even legal to purchase recycled halon and halon produced
before the phase out to recharge your system.
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However, due to the fact that halons deplete the ozone layer,
halon users are encouraged to consider replacing their halon
system and making their halon stock available for users with
more critical needs.
EPA's final rule published March 5, 1998 (63 FR 11084)
prohibits the intentional release of Halon 1211, Halon 1301, and
Halon 2402 during the testing, repairing, maintaining, servicing
or disposal of halon-containing equipment or during the use of
halon equipment for technician training. The rule also requires
appropriate training of technicians regarding halon emissions
reduction and proper disposal of halon and halon-containing
equipment
☺
Q: fire and gas detection system (5)May’18
Automatic or manual
The fire and gas detection system provides early and reliable
detection of fire or gas, where such events are likely to occur,
alerts personnel and initiates protective actions automatically or
manually upon operator activation
Functionality
Basically the system consists of field mounted detection
equipment and manual alarm stations, a system logic unit for
processing of incoming signals, alarm and HMI units. The
system is able to process all input signals in accordance with the
applicable Fire Protection Data Sheets or Cause & Effect charts.
Typical actions from afire and gas detection system
 Alert personnel
 Release fire fighting systems
 Emergency ventilation control

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 Stop flow of minor hydrocarbon sources such as diesel

distribution to consumers
 Isolate local electrical equipment (may be done by ESD)
 Initiating ESD and PSD actions
 Isolate electrical equipment
 Close watertight doors and fire doors
Q: Liner heat detection system(5) June’19
DIGITAL" Linear Heat Detection - A heat sensing cable which
monitors and detects changes in temperature at ANY and ALL
points along its length. Project design length requirements are
not altered or affected by high ambient temperatures.
Multiple alarm temperatures possible from a single sensor cable
run.
By "point of risk" installation, there is no reliance on favourable
airflows for early detection of overheat (no visible flame)
conditions and system offers possible prevention of [Link]
As a "point of risk" detection device - monitoring temperature
changes at ANY and ALL points along its length - the systems
supplied by PROLINE are able to monitor, detect and signal
even the smallest adverse temperature rise (depending on
selection of DIGITAL or FIBRE OPTIC linear detection
system), indicate a precombustion/ pre-smoke alarm status, its
location and progression....regardless of local environmental
conditions. For clean, office type environments - paper fire risks
- point type smoke detection may be specified The "DIGITAL"
TH linear heat detection adopts a 3.5 mm (0.138in) external
diameter single pair (two conductors) heat sensitive cable as the
basis for its overheat/fire detection system.
At a pre-selected temperature, the thermal sensitive polymer
(extruded around BOTH the sensor cables inner tinplated copper

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coated steel conductors) softens, allowing the signalling

cores/conductors - that are twisted together to form a spring
like pressure between them - to move into contact with each
other producing an alarm signal.
A mechanical tension is constantly and uniformly maintained
along the entire length of the detector. If conductor continuity is
broken – with inner insulation maintained (i.e. non alarm state),
an open circuit fault condition will be signalled.
An outer extrusion of corrosion and abrasion resistant polymer
maintains the conductor twisting over the full length of sensor
cable installed and allows for its installation in external weather
conditions and its application within more severe local
environments
Features
 Easy and cost effective installation
 Good sensitivity with adjustable alarm threshold
 Open and short circuit monitoring
 Suited for outdoor and indoor applications
 Can be used in hazardous areas
 Mechanical protection is provided for cables in areas where
 damage may occur
 It Can be integrate the Linear detection system with my
central fire alarm control panel
Briefing(It is)
 Point of risk detection or area protection within any
environment (incl. Sub Zero temperature risks and
Hazardous Environments)
 Cable and detector combined
 Multiple Alarm temperatures possible on single zone -if
required
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 Detection at ALL and ANY point along its length (multi

kms/zone capability)
 No special tooling required
 Tested to all appropriate electrical standards
 FM Approved AND UL listed
 Installation within ambient temperature range -40C to +
90C
 Alarm temperature NOT related to sensor cable length
exposed
 Fire damaged section replacement only
 Design length NOT restricted in high ambient temperatures
 11C minimum to be allowed between maximum ambient
and minimum alarm
 Extrusion option provides resistance to chemical corrosion
and mechanical abrasion
 Stainless Steel Braid option for maximum mechanical
protection where required
 Ease of Installation, Commissioning and on-site testing
 Compatible with end user installed central control panel -
Fire Alarm or Building Management
 ZI Interface unit range available.

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CHAPTER – 13 CHARTER OF NATIONAL &

INTERNATIONAL SAFETY ORGANIZATIONS

Q: ILO (INTERNATIONAL LABOUR

ORGANIZATION)(10) May’18
RGANIZATIONS
The ILO, is a specialized agency associated with UN, was
created by the ―Treaty of Versailles‖ in 1919 as a part of the
―League of Nations‖.
Its purpose is to improve the labour conditions, raise living
conditions / standards and promote economical / social stability
as the foundation for lasting peace throughout the world.
One of the ILO function is the ―protection of the worker‖
against sickness, diseases and injury arising out of his
employment.
Standard settings, is the ILO‘s oldest activity and it remains its
fundamental task between 1919 and 2006.
The ILO adopted 186 conventions and 195 recommendations,
out of these about 83 conventions and 85 recommendations
relate directly or indirectly to Safety, Health and working
environment.
The main activities of the ILO in the field of Safety, Health and
welfare can be broadly classified as under
 Conventions and recommendations
 Standard and code of practices
 Exchange of technical information and research
 Technical co-operation activities.

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Convention & recommendation convention

A convention is a legal document regulating some aspects of
labour administration, social welfare or human rights.
A convention creates binding obligations by virtue of its
ratification by the member country concerned
☺AY PATE
Recommendation
A recommendation is complementary to a convention except
that it is not subject to ratification Conventions and
recommendations reflect the current practices and development
in the field of safety.
Standards and code practices
These are the Model of regulations for industrial establishment
for the guidance of governments, applicable to the majority of
industrial undertakings and covering all matters concerning
occupational hygiene, welfare and health
Exchange of technical information and resources
This covers the issue of various publications such as, studies,
reports or inquiries, monographs, collection of laws, manuals,
guides etc.
The essential aim of the centre is to make information available
rapidly & systematically to interested quarters on all aspects of
occupational safety and health in every type of industrial
activity.
Technical co-operation activities :The main forms of such
technical assistance is the assignment of experts to evaluate
conditions of Safety and Health obtaining in a given country and
advising Governments and industry on the best means and ways
of developing & strengthening the measures to prevent accidents
& occupational diseases and imposing the conditions at
workplace
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NSC (National safety council) INDIA

Objectives
The overall objective of NSC is to generate, develop and
sustains a voluntary movement of health, Safety and
environment at the national level
Structure: NSC is managed by 51 members independent Board
of Governors headed by the chairman who is nominated by
Government of India. The board comprises

 16 members elected by the general body of NSC

 2 members elected by the NSC
 2 experts nominated by the board
 The immediate past chairman
 The director general who is the Chief Executive of NSC
and the secretary to the Board of Governors appointed by
the Government of India (GOI) on the recommendation of
Board
 The NSC has 13 chapters covering 16 states 1 union
tertiary and 23 action centres.
 It has over 5300 members all over India comprising
industrial organizations, trade unions educational &
research institutions & professionals.
 The NSC maintains active liaison with international
institutions and agencies in the field of Safety, Health and
Environment

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NSC (National safety council) USA

The year 1912 proved to be landmark for accident prevention. In

previous year, the association of Iron & steel Electrical
engineers had called for a general industrial safety conference
on a National scale.
The result was the ―First Co-operative Safety Congress
(FCSC)‖.
The following years, at a second National meet the delegates
formed the ―National Council of Industrial Safety (NCIS)‖,
shortly afterwards members changed the organization name to
―National Safety Council‖
NSC broadened its programmes to include all the aspects of
accident prevention.
The programme also includes occupational health.
NSC composed of safety professionals, management leaders,
public officials and insurance specialists.
NSC decides to formulate Safety standards under the auspicious
and procedures of the American Engineering Standards
Committee (AESC).

OSHA
1
Objectives
To assure safe and healthful working conditions to working men
& women

Values: Treating everyone with respect recognizing each other‘s

differences and valuing their contributions currying out
responsibilities with integrity, acting with honest and

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accountability committed to protecting the lives & health of all

working men & women
Mission
Implementing an effective safety & health management system
in every work place in America .
OSHA is the government regulatory body for occupational
safety, Industrial Health and Environmental protection of USA
similar to the factory inspectorates or Directorates Industrial
safety & health (DISH) in India, Health & safety executives in
UK etc.

Q: NFPA (National fire protection association)(5) June’19,

may’18

Missoion
The mission of the non-profit organization, NFPA, established
in 1896, is to reduce the world wide burden of fire & other
hazards on the quality of life by providing and advocating
consensus codes, standards, research, training and education.
NFPA develops, publishes and disseminates more than 500
consensus standards and codes indented to minimize the cause,
possibility and effects of fire and other risks.
NILAY
NFPA is an internationally recognized body and their standards,
codes and manuals are followed by not only by American
Government and industries but also by other countries in the
world.
The NFPA is the clearinghouse for information on the subject of
Fire prevention, Protection & Fire fighting. It is non-profit
technical and educational organization with a membership
network of around 68,000 companies and individuals
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The technical standards issued as a result of NFPA committee

work are widely accepted by federal, state and municipal
governments as the basis of legislation and used as a guideline
of good practices.
More than 50 serve as OSHA regulations. More than 300 codes
and standards are currently issued by NFPA which are
constantly reviewed and updated
The code indicates
 Relative risk to health
 Flammability
 Instability
 Possible specific hazards (symbol)
The first three aspects are assigned a value in range 0-4, the
higher the value the higher the risk.
 Representative subject include
 Air conditioning and Ventilation system
 Brigades
 Flammable Chemicals data
 Industrial Fire Loss Prevention
 Life safety code handbook
 National electric code handbook
 Portable fire extinguishers
 Powered industrial trucks
 Prevention of dust explosion in industries
 Protection of records
 Safeguarding building construction operations
 Sprinkler system
 Organization and training private fire brigades
 Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases

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 Truck fire protection

Other publications of interest to safety professionals concern
hazardous materials, fire safety to health care facilities, and
public fire safety.
In addition the fire protection handbook is an authoritative
encyclopaedia of fire loss control
☺L PATEL
NFPA DIAMOND

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NFPA Diamond
Blue – Health
Red – Flammability
Yellow – reactivity
White – Special Hazard (e.g. oxidising,
water reactive etc.)
NILAY PATEL
BLUE - HEALTH
4. Very short exposure could cause death or major residual
injury (e.g., hydrogen cyanide).
3. Short exposure could cause serious temporary or moderate
residual injury (e.g., chlorine gas).
2. Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause
temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury (e.g.,
chloroform).
1. Exposure would cause irritation with only minor residual
injury (e.g., turpentine).
0. Poses no health hazard, no precautions necessary. (e.g.,
lanolin).
RED - FLAMMABILITY
4. Will rapidly or completely vaporize at normal atmospheric
pressure and temperature, or is readily dispersed in air and will
burn readily (e.g., propane). Flash point below 23°C (73°F).
3. Liquids and solids that can be ignited under almost all
ambient temperature conditions (e.g., gasoline). Flash point
below 38°C (100°F) bu t above 23°C (73°F).
2. Must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high
ambient temperature before ignition can occur (e.g., diesel fuel).
Flash point between 38°C (100°F) and 93°C (200°F).
1. Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur (e.g., canola
oil). Flash point over 93°C (200°F).
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0. Will not burn (e.g., argon).

YELLOW - INSTABILITY/REACTIVITY
4. Readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition at
normal temperatures and pressures (e.g., nitroglycerine, RDX).
3. Capable of detonation or explosive decomposition but
requires a strong initiating source, must be heated under
confinement before initiation, reacts explosively with water, or
will detonate if severely shocked (e.g., fluorine).
2. Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures
and pressures, reacts violently with water, or may form
explosive mixtures with water (e.g., phosphorus, potassium
compounds, and sodium compounds).
1. Normally stable, but can become unstable at elevated
temperatures and pressures (e.g., acetylene (ethylene)).
0. Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is
not reactive with water (e.g., helium).
NILAY PATEL
White – Special
The white "banda" area can contain several symbols:
W - reacts with Water in an unusual or dangerous manner (e.g.
cesium, sodium)
OX or OXY - Oxidizer (e.g. potassium perchlorate, ammonium
nitrate)
COR - Corrosive; strong acid or base (e.g. sulfuric acid,
potassium hydroxide)
ACID and ALK to be more specific.
BIO - Biological hazard (e.g. smallpox virus)
POI - Poisonous (e.g. Spider Venom)
The Radioactive trefoil () - is radioactive (e.g. plutonium,
uranium)
CRY or CRYO - Cryogenic
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Special hazard
 OXY=Oxidizer
 COR=Corrosive
 ACID=Acid
 BIO=Biohazard
 RAD=Radioactive
 ALK=Alkaline
For Example
NFPA Diamond for Chlorine Gas Ethylene Oxide
Q: EPA (Environment protection agency)
EPA established in 1970 in Washington DC to protect
environment. EPA was established to consolidate in one agency
a variety of federal research, monitoring, standard-setting, and
environmental activities to ensure environmental protection.
MISSION
To protect human health to safeguard the natural environment –
air, water and land upon which life depends.
P
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CHAPTER – 14 LESSONS FROM THE Disaster

Q: FLIXBOROUGH EXPLOSION (10)May’18 June 19 (5)

CHAPTER – 14
At @ 4:53 PM on June 1, 1974, a huge Cyclohexane vapour
cloud of about 200 m diameter and around 100 m high rose from
the Nypro chemical plant in Flixborough, England.
The base of cloud extended into the furnace area of adjacent
Hydrogen plant where it probably ignited suddenly.
There was a devasting explosion of the vapours, heard 27 miles
away, 28 persons were killed and over 36 injured. The $72
million Nypro plant was totally destructed and varying degrees
of damage to 2,488 surrounding homes, shops and factories
within an eight mile radius also resulted

CAUSE
 The cause of the disaster was found by Court of Inquiry to
be the failure of 20inch bypass pipe.
 The failure was a very noisy event, specially the release of
the Cyclohexane from the stub pipes and rumbling of
Cyclohexane boiling in the reactor.
 The vapour cloud that formed exploded after 45 seconds of
the leak.
 The 20 inch assembly failed in one step because of weak
points in its own design.
 The Court of Inquiry felt that the omission in design
consideration of the temporary modification destroyed the
integrity of a well designed and constructed plant.
 The Court of Inquiry concluded that ―There was no
mechanical engineer on the site of sufficient qualification,
status or authority‖
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CONCLUSION: The primary cause of Flixborough disaster

was an attempt to bypass reactor No. 5.

The manner of bypassing revealed serious shortcomings in

management procedures
 The plant integrity was destroyed
 Other weakness were
 No detailed drawings
 No stress analysis of the bypass line, not following BS
3351
 The bellows and bypass assembly were not pressure tested
before it was fitted and the testing of the bypass at a
pressure lower than the safety valve release pressure (11
bar) which was the sheer foolishness.
LESSONS
The three main lessons of Flexi borough disaster are
 Management system deficiencies i.e. no skilled and
qualified engineer, no standard modification, no clearly
defined role of safety officer etc.
 Need of notify hazards on site to the local authorities and
their guidance to the industry
 Restriction (licensing) on storage of hazardous chemicals
on site

Q: Toxic release at SEVASO (10)May ‘18

Thirty years ago, on Saturday 10 July 1976, at around 7:30 AM
in the Milan suburb of Seveso, a reactor safety valve vented to
the atmosphere 2, 3, 7, 8 – Tetra Chloro Dibenzo Para Dioxin
(TCDD) a toxic gas and the air was filled with a toxic cloud.
The cloud drifted over the adjacent town and come down to
earth due to heavy rain
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The management tried to inform the local authority but they face
a communication problem. Key persons in the local authority
could not be reached due to weekend and they were on holiday.
One of the plant reactors had overheated, causing the release
into the atmosphere of one of the most toxic chemicals known to
man, dioxins. The area in the vicinity of the plant was severely
contaminated, but it was not until two weeks later that 736
people living near the factory were evacuated. In the following
days and weeks,
over 3,300 animals died or were slaughtered because they were
dying; 78,000 more were slaughtered as a precaution. The
contamination of the area was not cleared even after the
expenditure of some US $ 200 million The first detectable
human health effect was chloracne, a pustular skin eruption
resulting from exposure to dioxins, which appeared in a number
of individuals, including 193 schoolchildren.

The full public health impacts have yet to be quantified, as the

effects of dioxin contamination, including on the next
generation, can only be properly evaluated over the long term.
Even so, several studies have shown that people living in
contaminated areas at the time of the accident have suffered
significantly elevated rates of blood, liver and bone cancers, and
higher death rates from circulatory, respiratory and digestive
diseases, diabetes and hypertension
The sevaso accident proved a landmark for the chemical
industries world-wide. The accident make it clear that the
manufacturers shold not be reluctant or publicise what they are
doing and assess their process very carefully to ensure that there
are no similar hidden hazards

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Q: Chernobyl nuclear disaster

On April 26, 1986, a major accident, determined to have been a

reactivity (power increase) accident, occurred at Unit 4 of the
nuclear power station at Chernobyl, Ukraine, in the former
USSR.
The accident destroyed the Chernobyl-4 reactor and killed 30
people, including 28 from radiation exposure. A further 209 on
site and involved with the clean-up were treated for acute
radiation poisoning and among these, 134 cases were confirmed
(all of whom apparently recovered). Nevertheless 19 of these
subsequently died from effects attributable to the accident.
Nobody off-site suffered from acute radiation effects. However,
large areas of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia and beyond were
contaminated in varying degrees. Approximately 135,000 people
were evacuated
The soviet scientists analysed a total population of 74.5 millions
in 11 different regions, the most heavily populated being the
urban areas of southern and eastern Ukraine for long-term
impact of the radiation release.
The Chernobyl disaster was a unique event and the only accident
in the history of commercial nuclear power where radiation-
related fatalities occurred.
Cause
On 25 April, prior to a routine shut-down, the reactor crew at
Chernobyl-4 began preparing for a test to determine how long
turbines would spin and supply power following a loss of main
electrical power supply. Similar tests had already been carried
out at Chernobyl and other plants, despite the fact that these
reactors were known to be very unstable at low power settings

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A series of operator actions, including the disabling of automatic

shutdown mechanisms, preceded the attempted test early on 26
April. As flow of coolant water diminished, power output
increased. When the operator moved to shut down the reactor
from its unstable condition arising from previous errors, a
peculiarity of the design caused a dramatic power surge.
The fuel elements ruptured and the resultant explosive force of
steam lifted off the cover plate of the reactor, releasing fission
products to the atmosphere.
A second explosion threw out fragments of burning fuel and
graphite from the core and allowed air to rush in, causing the
graphite moderator to burst into flames. The steam in the reactor
would have reacted with the zirconium enclosing the fuel
element and the graphite moderator of the reactor, generating
large quantities of hydrogen, which exploded when mixed with
air
The two explosions sent hot radioactive fragments high into the
atmosphere. The debris from the explosions eventually set off
about 30 fires in the plant.
Conclusion
The cause of tragedy was not the absence of safety systems. The
accident was due to the fact that most of these protective
systems were turned off by the plant operators as they conducted
a fatal experiment an April 25-26, 1986.
Lessons / Preventive measures
These seems to be
 The written and approved procedure to carry out any new
experiments
 No isolation or bypassing of safety devices
 Presence in the plant instead of leaving it in the hands of
operators
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 HAZOP and Consequence analysis of new experiments on

such radiation system
 Following safe close down procedure in case of any
abnormality.

Chernobyl today
The Chernobyl unit 4 is now enclosed in a large concrete shelter
which was erected quickly to allow continuing operation of the
other reactors at the plant. However, the structure is neither
strong nor durable. The international Shelter Implementation.
Plan in the 1990s involved raising money for remedial work
including removal of the fuel-containing materials. Some major
work on the shelter was carried out in 1998 and 1999. Some 200
tonnes of highly radioactive material remains deep within it, and
this poses an environmental hazard until it is better contained.
A New Safe Confinement structure will be built by the end of
2011, and then will be moved into place on rails. It is to be an
18,000 tonne metal arch 105 metres high, 200 metres long and
spanning 257 metres, to cover both unit 4 and the hastily-built
1986 structure.

Q: Lesson Learned from world disaster Bhopal gas disaster(5)

june’19 (10) ‘17

Introduction
In the early morning hours of December 3, 1984, a poisonous
grey cloud (forty tons of toxic gases) from Union Carbide India
Limited (UCIL‘s)1 pesticide plant at Bhopal spread throughout
the city. Water carrying catalytic material had entered Methyl
Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank No. 610. What followed was a
nightmare.
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The killer gas spread through the city, sending residents

scurrying through the dark streets. No alarm ever sounded a
warning and no evacuation plan was prepared.
When victims arrived at hospitals breathless and blind, doctors
did not know how to treat them, as UCIL had not provided
emergency information.
It was only when the sun rose the next morning that the
magnitude of the devastation was clear. Dead bodies of humans
and animals blocked the streets, leaves turned black, the smell of
burning chilli peppers lingered in the air.
Estimates suggested that as many as 10,000 may have died
immediately and 30,000 to 50,000 were too ill to ever return to
their jobs.
Cause
During the night of December 2–3, 1984, large amounts of water
entered tank 610, containing 42 tonnes of methyl isocyanate.(
Theories of how the water entered the tank differ. At the time,
workers were cleaning out pipes with water, and some claim that
owing to bad maintenance and leaking valves, it was possible
for the water to leak into tank 610) The resulting reaction
increased the temperature inside the tank to over 200 °C (392
°F), raising the pressure to a level the tank was not designed to
withstand. This forced the emergency venting of pressure from
the MIC holding tank, releasing a large volume of toxic gases.
The reaction sped up because of the presence of iron in
corroding non-stainless steel pipelines. A mixture of poisonous
gases flooded the city of Bhopal, causing great panic as people
woke up with a burning sensation in their lungs. Thousands
died immediately from the effects of the gas and many were
trampled in the panic.
Unsafe condition
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 The refrigeration system to keep the gas cool was closed

since long
 The vent gas scrubber was under designed, not repaired and
not connected
 The corroded flared tower pipe not replaced and not
connected
 The water curtain jets were under designed to reach the
maximum height
 All the three tanks were filled in while one ought to have
kept empty to use as emergency bypass.
 The computerized pressure / temperature sensing system, a
warning device to give alarm and to control the situation at
the time of abnormal condition was not installed.
 The wind direction and velocity indicator was not installed.
 The neighbouring community was not told about
significance of the danger control instruments at the plant
were faulty
 Under qualified workers were running the factory.
 At the time of accident, in MIC control room, only one
operator was present who was not capable to check the odd
panels, indicators and controllers

Unsafe action
 The leak was not attended as soon as it was reported. Initial
critical time passed in tea break
 The first information of five-fold pressure rise was
dismissed in the belief that the pressure gauge could be
faulty

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 A newly recruited supervisor had asked a novice operator

to clean pipe and the blind disc was not inserted while
doing so.
 The public siren was put on around 1 am nearly an hour
after the gas leakage and that too for a few minutes
 The correct antidote and medical treatments were not
suggested to surrounding doctors.
Detail
 It was night of 2nd December 1984 when the night shift
staff of the Union Carbide Factory, Bhopal, took a round at
@11.00 PM
 There were three double walled, partly buried [Link] (no.
601, 611 and 619) each 6o tonnes capacity and containing
the poisonous gas MIC (methyl isocyanate) to be used to
produced deadly pesticide Carbaryl.
 At @ 11.30 PM workers in the plant realised that there was
a MIC leaksomewhere, - a few of them went to the MIC
structure and noticed a drip ofliquid with yellowish – white
gas, about 50 feet of the ground.
 They told supervisor who, however, decided to deal with
the leak after the tea break which ended at 12.40 night
 Meanwhile the events had moved very fast
 The temperature of the tank610 had reached 25°C th e top
of its scale and the pressure was increased 20 times rushing
towards 40 psi at which the emergency safety valve was to
open
 Soon the pressure gauge showed 55 psi, the top of the scale
and the safety valve had opened releasing MIC with a loud
hissing sound and the tremendous heat.
 A white cloud drifting over the plant was moving towards
the sleeping neighbourhood.
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 The operator tried to operate the safety devices, but nothing

seemed to work.
 The water jet failed to reach the top of the 120 feet stack
from which MIC was escaping.
 The vent gas scrubber to neutralise the escaping gas did not
work, because the scrubber was under maintenance.
 The flare tower to burn off the gas could not be used
because its piping was corroded and not replaced and hence
it was bypassed.
 The refrigeration system, of 30 tonnes capacity, to keep the
MIC in liquid state at 0°C was closed down since June
1984 as an economy drive and the gas was at 15-20°C
which was unsafe.
 For approximately 2 hours the safety valve remained
opened releasing over 50000 pound of MIC out of 90000
pounds stored in tank no. 610 at the time of the incident.
 Sometimes between 1.30 to 2.30 am the safety valve
reseated as the tank pressure vent below 40 psi
 Briefing the factors contributing the case
 The use of hazardous chemicals (MIC) instead of less
dangerous ones
 Storing these chemicals in large tanks instead of over 200
steel drums.
 Possible corroding material in pipelines
 Poor maintenance after the plant ceased production in the
early 1980s
 Failure of several safety systems (due to poor maintenance
and regulations).
 Safety systems shut down to save money - including the
MIC tank refrigeration system which alone would have
prevented the disaster.
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 The deficiencies in the Bhopal plant design can be

summarized as: choosing a dangerous method of
manufacturing pesticides; large scale storage of MIC before
processing; location close to a densely populated area;
under dimensioning of the safety features; dependence on
manual operations.
 Deficiencies in the management of UCIL can be
summarized: lack ofskilled operators due to the staffing
policy; reduction of safety management due to reducing the
staff; insufficient maintenance of the plant; lack of
emergency response plans
Timeline summery
At the plant
 21.00 Water cleaning of pipes starts.
 22.00 Water enters tank 610, reaction starts.
 22.30 Gases are emitted from the vent gas scrubber tower.
 00.30 The large siren sounds and is turned off.
 00.50 The siren is heard within the plant area. The workers
escape
Outside
 22.30 First sensations due to the gases are felt —
suffocation, cough, burning eyes and vomiting.
 1.00 Police are alerted. Residents of the area evacuate.
Union Carbide director denies any leak.
 2.00 The first people reached Hamidia hospital. Symptoms
include visual impairment and blindness, respiratory
difficulties, frothing at the mouth, and vomiting.
 2.10 The alarm is heard outside the plant.
 4.00 The gases are brought under control.

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 6.00 A police loudspeaker broadcasts: "Everything is

normal
Lesson
 Many lessons could be learnt comprising of
 Occupational Health and Safety
 Proper sitting of production facilities
 Science and technology
 Access to information
 Trade secrecy
 Cover ups about double standards
 Medical and legal remedies
 Responsibilities of corporations, governments and
international
 agencies
 Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
 Training to staff and workers, emergency preparedness,
standards for plant operation, importance of safety
equipments etc.

Best of Luck
****************************************************

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