VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

BELAGAVI

BLDEA’s V P Dr P G HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY VIJAYAPUR – 586103

“A Internship report on

“EMBEDDED SYSTEMS”
Bachelor of Engineering
In
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

“INTERNSHIP PROGRAM”

SUBMITTED BY

SIDDARAM SHRIMANT VAGDURAGI

USN
2BL21EC093

Under the Guidance of

Prof. ABID .H. SAYED

2024-25
 B.L.D.E. Association’s

V.P Dr. P.G HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, VIJAYAPUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

INTERNSHIP CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Internship has been successfully carried out by SIDDARAM
SHRIMANT VAGDURAGI bearing USN 2BL21EC093, bonafide student of (V.P Dr P.G
Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Vijayapura) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of (Electronics and Communication Engineering) of
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during (2024-2025). It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the
report. The Internship report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in
respect of Internship for the said degree.

Prof. ABID .H. SAYED Dr. [Link] Dr. V. G. Sangam

Internship Guide HOD Principal

 B.L.D.E. Association’s

V.P Dr. P.G HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, VIJAYAPUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

I, SIDDARAM SHRIMANT VAGDURAGI bearing the USN: 2BL21EC093, student

of Bachelor of Engineering, (Electronics and Communication Engineering ,V.P Dr P.G
Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Vijayapura), hereby declare that the
INTERNSHIP work has been carried out by me under the supervision and guidance of
Department Staff Coordinators submitted by me as a partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering degree in (Electronics and Communication Engineering) from
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during (2024-2025).

I hereby declared that the INTERNSHIP work has been carried out at following partner
organizations :
1. TRIOX technologies

SIGNATURE
SIDDARAM SHRIMANT VAGDURAGI
2BL21EC093
 ACKNOWLEDGEMNT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without the mention of people who made it possible, whose consistent guidance and
encouragement crowned our efforts with success. We consider it as our privilege to express the
gratitude to all those who guided in the completion of our Internship.

First and foremost, we wish to express our profound gratitude to our respected Principal Dr. V.G.
Sangam, B.L.D.E. Association’s VACHANA PITAMAHA Dr. P.G. HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, Vijayapura, for providing us with a congenial environment to
work in.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. U D Dixit, the HOD of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, B.L.D.E. Association’s VACHANA PITAMAHA Dr. P.G.
HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, Vijayapura, for his continuous
support and encouragement.

We are greatly indebted to our guide [Link], Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering, B.L.D.E. Association’s VACHANA PITAMAHA Dr. P.G.
HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, Vijayapura, who took great
interest in our work. He motivated us and guided us throughout the accomplishment of this goal. We
express our profound thanks for his meticulous guidance.

SIDDARAM SHRIMANT VAGDURAGI

2BL21EC093
CERTIFICATE:
 ABSTRACT

This report explores the fundamentals, architecture, and applications of embedded

systems, with a particular focus on the PIC microcontroller and the Arduino UNO
development board. Embedded systems are specialized computing units designed to
perform specific tasks with high reliability and efficiency. They form the backbone of
modern automation and control systems, playing a critical role in sectors like industrial
automation, home automation, healthcare, and consumer electronics.

The PIC microcontroller, developed by Microchip Technology, is widely used for real-
time control applications due to its robustness, low power consumption, and wide range
of built-in peripherals. On the other hand, the Arduino UNO, based on the ATmega328P
microcontroller, is known for its open-source nature, ease of programming, and
extensive community support, making it ideal for prototyping and educational purposes.

This report presents a comparative study of these technologies, examining their

architecture, features, advantages, and practical use cases. The combination of
theoretical analysis and application-driven discussion provides a comprehensive
understanding of how these tools contribute to the growing field of embedded system
design and development
 INDEX

SL NO CONTENTS PAGE

NO

1 INTRODUCTION 1-9

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 10-11

3 METHODOLOGY 12-36

4 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS 37-39

5 MINI PROJECT 40-43

6 CONCLUSION 44-45

7 REFERENCES 46-47
 INTRODUCTION

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 1

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

It is a control system, combination of hardware and software with additional mechanical or other parts are
designed to perform specific task.

Fig 1.1-Block diagram of Embedded Systems

Special Characteristics:

1. Real time processing.

2. Dedicated fuctionality.
3. Lower power consumption.
4. Small size.
5. Low cost.
6. High reliability.

Applications:

Consumer electronics: Smartphones, digital cameras, and other consumer electronics.

• Household appliances: Dishwashers, TVs, microwaves, washing machines, and fridges.
• Home automation and security: Air conditioning, intruder detection alarms, CCTV cameras, and fire
alarms.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 2

 • Automotive: Engine management systems, climate control, brakes, anti-lock braking systems (ABS),
cruise control systems, airbags, and more.

• Telecommunications: Telephone switches and cell phones.

• Medical: Image processing systems in medical imaging equipment.
• Aerospace: Fly-by-wire control systems in aircraft.
• Military: Embedded in military technology.
• Electric vehicle charging stations: Provide processing for graphics displays, report issues, and alert
technicians.
• GPS navigation: Embedded in the receiver or device that receives the data.
• Embedded banking: Integrates banking capabilities into non-banking digital environments.

Needs for Embedded Development Hardware and Software:

Hardware:

• Microcontroller or microprocessor

Software:

• Programming language.
• IDE(Integrated Development Environment).
• Programmer.

1.1 Microcontroller and its types:

A microcontroller (MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit that is designed to control specific
tasks within electronic systems. It combines the functions of a central processing unit (CPU), memory, and
input/output interfaces, all on a single chip.

Types of Microcontroller:

1. 8-bit Microcontrollers: These are the most basic type of microcontrollers, typically used in simple
applications such as toys, small appliances, and remote controls. They have a limited processing power
and memory capacity, but they are easy to use and cost-effective.
2. 16-bit Microcontrollers: These are more advanced than 8-bit microcontrollers and are capable of
performing more complex tasks. They are commonly used in applications such as medical devices,
automotive systems, and industrial control systems.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 3

 3. 32-bit Microcontrollers: These are the most powerful and feature-rich microcontrollers, capable of
handling large amounts of data and performing high-speed processing. They are used in applications
such as gaming systems, multimedia devices, and high-end industrial automation.
4. ARM Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers are based on the ARM architecture and are widely
used in a variety of applications, including mobile devices, automotive systems, and industrial control
systems.

5. PIC Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers are manufactured by Microchip Technology and are
commonly used in a wide range of applications, including home appliances, automotive systems, and
medical devices[6].

1.2 8051 MICROCONTROLLER:

Features of 8051 Microcontroller:

There are some key features of 8051 that work as a foundation for students to learn microcontrollers.
8051 μc family member – 8051 μc have some family members 8052 microcontroller & 8031 microcontroller.
8052μc has 8K bytes of on-chip program ROM instead of 4K bytes, and 128 bytes of RAM. And 8031μc has
0K bytes of on-chip program ROM, and 128 bytes of RAM.
Block Diagram of 8051 μc:

Fig 1.2-8051 mic peripherals

1. Oscillator and Timing

Oscillator: This circuit provides the microcontroller with a clock signal. All of the microcontroller’s actions
are synchronized by means of the clock signal.
Timing: In order to control the timing of activities within the microcontroller and guarantee that each instruction
is performed at the appropriate moment, the timing circuit collaborates with the oscillator.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 4

2.4096 Byte Program Memory
Program Memory (ROM): The program code is kept in this type of non-volatile memory. Typically, the on-
chip ROM of an 8051 microcontroller is 4KB (4096 bytes).

1. 128 Byte RAM

While the microcontroller is in operation, temporary data is stored in Random Access Memory (RAM), a form
of volatile memory. The 8051 has 128 bytes of inbuilt RAM.

2. Two 16-bit Timers

Timers: Timer 0 and Timer 1 are the two 16-bit timers on the 8051. These clocks may be used for counting
events, monitoring time intervals, and creating time delays, among other things.

3. 64 Byte Bus Expansion Control

The microcontroller may interact with external memory or peripherals thanks to bus expansion control. It
facilitates the extension of control signals for external devices and the accessible memory area.

4. Programmable I/O

Programmable Input/Output Ports: The four I/O ports (Ports 0 through 3) of the 8051 microcontroller may be
configured to carry out a range of input and output operations.

5. Programmable Serial Port

Serial Port (UART): Serial communication is made possible via the Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART). It can send and receive data concurrently while operating in full duplex mode.

6. Synchronous Shifter

Data is shifted in and out of the microcontroller in synchrony using a synchronous shifter. It is frequently
employed in communication protocols when exact time is necessary.

7. 8051 CPU

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The microcontroller’s central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for carrying
out instructions read from program memory. It controls the other parts, handles data flow inside the
microcontroller, and executes arithmetic and logic operations[2].

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 5

1.3 PIC Microcontroller:

PIC is an abbreviation of Peripheral Interface Controller. It is the smallest microcontroller and are
programmed to execute large number of operations.

Salient features of PIC 18:

• It has RISC Architecture.

• It contains ROM of size 2 Megabytes.
• It has on chip program(Code) ROM in the form of flash memory.
• It contains RAM between 256 bytes to 4096 bytes.
• It has data EEPROM.
• It includes timers.
• It has ADC.
• It includes USART Protocol for PC communication.
• It contains I/O port between 16 to 72 pins.

PIC microcontroller peripherals:

The peripherals of the PICI8 microcontrollers are

• ADC (analog-to-digital converter),
• Timers, and
• USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) .

The ADC is 10- bit and the number of ADC channels in each PIC chip varies from 5 to 16, depending on
the number of pins in the package. The PIC 18 can have up to 4 timers besides the watchdog timer. The
USART peripheral allows us to connect the PIC 18-based system to serial ports such as the COM port of
the IBM PC [2].

Fig 1.3-PIC mic peripherals

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 6

1.4 BASIC COMPONENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Resistors

Resistor is defined as. A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for either limiting or
regulating the flow of electric current in electrical circuits. The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current
flow and to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the circuit.

Fig 1.4

Capacitors

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an electric charge. It consists
of two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance. The space between the conductors may be filled
by vacuum or with an insulating material known as a dielectric.

Types of Capacitors:

• Ceramic capacitor

A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It is
constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes. The
composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behavior and therefore applications.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 7

 Fig 1.5

Electrolytic capacitor

An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an oxide film made of aluminum, tantalum or other oxidizable
metal as a dielectric. Because of its potential for large capacitance, this type of capacitor is used extensively
in power supply circuits and similar applications.

Fig 1.6

Transistor

A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage flow in addition to
amplifying and generating these electrical signals and acting as a switch or gate for them.

Fig 1.7

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 8

Regulator
A voltage regulator is a circuit that creates and maintains a fixed output voltage, irrespective of changes to the
input voltage or load conditions.

Fig 1.8

Op-amp

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit (IC) that amplifies the difference in voltage between
two inputs. It is so named because it was developed for perform arithmetic operations. Amplifiers, buffers,
comparators, filters, etc.

Diode : A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one direction, while restricting it in the other

Fig 1.9

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 9

 LITERATURE SURVEY

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 10

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

1. Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are specialized computing systems designed to perform dedicated functions within a larger
system. Over the years, their applications have grown rapidly across domains like industrial automation,
consumer electronics, automotive systems, and healthcare devices.
• Raj Kamal (2003) in Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design defines embedded
systems as hardware-software co-designed systems, emphasizing their importance in real-time
applications.
• David E. Simon (1999) in An Embedded Software Primer highlighted the need for efficient design
techniques and introduced key concepts such as real-time constraints, memory management, and I/O
interfacing.
• Recent research has shown embedded systems evolving into smart and networked systems, driven by
IoT and AI integration[1].

2. PIC Microcontroller
PIC (Peripheral Interface Controller) microcontrollers by Microchip Technology have been widely used in
industrial and academic projects due to their simplicity, efficiency, and wide range of features.
• Muhammad Ali Mazidi et al. in PIC Microcontroller and Embedded Systems provide a detailed
understanding of PIC architecture and assembly/C programming techniques.
• Studies show that PIC microcontrollers are particularly useful in real-time control applications, due to
built-in peripherals such as ADCs, timers, and UARTs.
• According to various IEEE papers, PIC16F877A has been a favorite for educational automation projects
because of its balance between features and ease of use.[2]

3. Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO is a popular open-source microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It is widely adopted
in education, prototyping, and hobbyist electronics due to its user-friendly nature and vast community support.
• Banzi & Shiloh (2014) in Getting Started with Arduino describe Arduino as a tool for creativity, allowing
users without a technical background to build interactive projects.
• Research shows Arduino UNO’s use in rapid prototyping, IoT systems, and DIY automation. Its plug-
and-play approach, combined with accessible programming (via Arduino IDE), makes it ideal for
beginners.
• Various case studies demonstrate its role in low-cost automation, including home automation,[2][3]

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 11

 METHODOLOGY

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 12

CHAPTER 3:

METHODLOGY

I. ANALOG CIRCUITS
3.1 POWER REGULATOR SUPPLY

Fig 3.11 Power regulator supply

Components:

1. Bridge Rectifier (4 diodes or an integrated bridge rectifier IC)

2. Transformer (optional, depends on input AC voltage)/vsine

3. Capacitor (for smoothing out the DC after rectification)

4. Voltage Regulator (e.g., 7805 for 5V output)

5. Resistors and Diodes (as needed for protection)

1. Bridge Rectifier Stage:

• If your input is AC, pass it through a bridge rectifier to convert the AC voltage to pulsating DC.

• The bridge rectifier consists of four diodes arranged in such a way that they allow both halves of the
AC wave to pass through but in the same direction (i.e., as DC).

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 13

 Fig 3.1 a-Bridge Rectifier ckts

3.2 USING LDR GLOW THE LED

Fig 3.2-LDR ckt

Components:

1 LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

2 NPN Transistor (e.g., BC547 or 2N2222)

3 LED (any color)

4 Resistors (various values)

5 Power Supply (e.g., 9V battery or 5V supply)

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 14

Working Principle:

• The resistance of the LDR changes with the amount of light falling on it. In bright light, the resistance
of the LDR decreases, and in darkness, the resistance increases.

• By using an LDR in a voltage divider circuit, we can control the base of a transistor, which in turn will
switch the LED ON or OFF.

Circuit Design:

1. Voltage Divider Circuit (LDR and a fixed resistor):

• Connect the LDR in series with a fixed resistor to form a voltage divider. This will convert the varying
resistance of the LDR into a varying voltage.

• The voltage at the junction of the LDR and the fixed resistor will control the transistor.

2. Transistor as a Switch:

• The transistor is used as a switch. When the base of the transistor receives enough voltage (from the
voltage divider), it allows current to flow from the collector to the emitter, turning the LED ON.

• If the base voltage is low (in bright light conditions), the transistor remains OFF, and the LED stays
OFF.

3. Resistor for LED:

• A current-limiting resistor should be placed in series with the LED to prevent it from drawing too much
current.

Circuit Connections:

1. LDR is connected in series with a fixed resistor (e.g., 10kΩ).

o One end of the LDR connects to VCC (positive supply), and one end of the resistor is
connected to ground (GND).

o The junction between the LDR and the resistor is connected to the base of the NPN transistor
through a current-limiting resistor (e.g., 1kΩ).

2. The collector of the NPN transistor is connected to the negative terminal of the LED.

3. The positive terminal of the LED is connected to VCC through a current-limiting resistor (typically
220Ω to 470Ω).

4. The emitter of the transistor is connected to ground (GND).

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 15

How It Works:
• In bright light, the LDR's resistance is low, which causes the voltage at the base of the transistor to
be insufficient to turn it ON. As a result, the transistor remains OFF, and the LED stays OFF.

• In low light or darkness, the LDR's resistance increases, causing a higher voltage at the base of the
transistor. This turns the transistor ON, allowing current to flow through the LED, turning it ON.

Example Circuit Values:

• LDR: Typical 5mm or 3mm LDR.

• Resistor: 10kΩ for the voltage divider, 1kΩ for the base of the transistor, and 220Ω for the LED.

• Transistor: NPN (BC547, 2N2222, etc.).

• Power Supply: 9V or 5V.

Circuit Diagram:

1. LDR + 10kΩ Resistor → Voltage Divider.

2. Voltage Divider Output → Transistor Base (through 1kΩ resistor).

3. LED → Transistor Collector (through 220Ω resistor). Transistor Emitter → Ground. This simple
circuit will turn the LED ON when the LDR detects low light (or darkness) and turn it OFF when the
light level is high.

3.3 USING THERMISTER LDR GLOW

Fig 3.3-Thermister ckt

Components:

1. NTC Thermistor (e.g., 10kΩ at room temperature)

2. NPN Transistor (e.g., BC547 or 2N2222)

3. LED (any color)

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 16

 4. Resistors (various values, e.g., 10kΩ and 220Ω)

5. Power Supply (e.g., 9V or 5V)

6. Capacitor (optional for stabilization)

Working Principle:

• The resistance of an NTC thermistor decreases as the temperature increases.

• By connecting the thermistor in a voltage divider configuration, we can convert the change in resistance
to a change in voltage.

• This varying voltage can be used to control the base of a transistor, which in turn switches the LED ON
or OFF based on the temperature.

How It Works:
• At low temperatures, the NTC thermistor has high resistance, so the voltage at the transistor's base is
too low to turn it on. As a result, the transistor remains OFF, and the LED stays OFF.
• At high temperatures, the NTC thermistor’s resistance decreases, causing the voltage at the base of
the transistor to increase. When the voltage is high enough, it turns the transistor ON, allowing current
to flow through the LED, turning it ON.

3.4 USING OP-AMP(LM358) AND LDR TUNE VOLTAGE FROM 0 TO 5V USING

NOT GATE(7404)

Fig 3.4-Tuning voltage from 0 to 5v Using Op amp and NOT gate in proteus

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 17

To design a temperature-controlled circuit that outputs a voltage between 0V and 5V using a
comparator (LM358), a thermistor, and a NOT gate (7404), we can follow this process:

• LM358 will act as a comparator, comparing the voltage from the thermistor with a reference voltage.

• The 7404 NOT gate will invert the output of the comparator, allowing us to control the output
behaviour.

• The thermistor will change resistance with temperature, allowing us to tune the temperature threshold
where the output changes between 0V and 5V.

Components:

1. LM358 Op-Amp (used as a comparator)

2. NTC Thermistor (e.g., 10kΩ at room temperature)

3. Resistors (various values, typically 10kΩ, 1kΩ)

4. 7404 IC (Hex Inverter/NOT gate)

5. Power Supply (5V)

6. LED (optional for testing)

7. Potentiometer (optional for adjustable threshold)

Working Principle:

1. The thermistor's resistance changes with temperature. We'll create a voltage divider using the
thermistor and a fixed resistor to convert the changing resistance into a voltage that depends on the
temperature.

2. The LM358 comparator compares the thermistor voltage with a fixed reference voltage. When the
thermistor voltage crosses the reference threshold, the comparator output will change.

3. The NOT gate (7404) inverts the output of the comparator, giving us a 0V or 5V output based on the
temperature.

Circuit Design:

1. Voltage Divider for Thermistor:

• Connect the thermistor in series with a fixed resistor (e.g., 10kΩ) to create a voltage divider.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 18

 • One end of the thermistor is connected to Vcc (5V), and the other end is connected to a resistor, which
is grounded. The voltage at the junction between the thermistor and the resistor is fed into the non-
inverting input (+) of the LM358 comparator.

2. Reference Voltage:

• Set a reference voltage using a simple voltage divider (two resistors or a potentiometer) connected to
the inverting input (-) of the LM358 comparator.

• This reference voltage sets the threshold for the temperature. For instance, when the thermistor voltage
is higher than the reference voltage, the comparator output will change.

3. Comparator (LM358) Connections:

• The LM358 compares the voltage at its non-inverting input (+) (from the thermistor) with the
reference voltage at its inverting input (-).

• When the thermistor voltage exceeds the reference voltage (indicating a certain temperature threshold),
the comparator output will go high (5V).

• When the thermistor voltage is lower than the reference voltage, the comparator output will go
low (0V).

4. NOT Gate (7404) Inversion:

• The output of the comparator is connected to the input of a 7404 NOT gate.

• The NOT gate inverts the output from the LM358. This means that:

• When the LM358 comparator output is high (5V), the NOT gate output will be low (0V).

• When the comparator output is low (0V), the NOT gate output will be high (5V).

• This allows us to invert the control logic of the circuit. For example, you might want the LED or output
device to turn ON when the temperature falls below a threshold, rather than above it.

5. LED (Optional):

• Connect an LED with a current-limiting resistor (e.g., 220Ω) to the output of the NOT gate to visually
indicate when the output is high (5V).

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 19

Circuit Connections:

1. Thermistor Voltage Divider:

o One end of the thermistor is connected to 5V, and the other end is connected to a fixed resistor
(10kΩ).

o The other end of the fixed resistor is connected to ground (GND).

o The junction of the thermistor and resistor is connected to the non-inverting input (+)
of the LM358.

2. Reference Voltage Divider:

o Use a voltage divider made from two resistors (e.g., two 10kΩ resistors) or a
potentiometer to create the reference voltage at the inverting input (-) of the LM358.

3. LM358 Output to NOT Gate (7404):

o The output of the LM358 is connected to the input of a 7404 NOT gate.

o The output of the 7404 NOT gate is your final 0V/5V output.

4. Power Supply:

o Connect both the LM358 and the 7404 to a 5V power supply.

o The ground of the power supply is shared between all components.

Output Logic:

The output of the NOT gate will be 5V when the temperature is below the set threshold. The output
of the NOT gate will be 0V when the temperature is above the set threshold.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 20

II DIGITAL CIRCUITS
3.5 BASIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR SENSOR

Fig 3.5-IR sensor ckt

Basic Overview:

• IR Transmitter: Sends out infrared (IR) light (invisible to the human eye).

• IR Receiver: Detects the IR light sent by the transmitter and outputs a signal.

• LED: Lights up when the receiver detects the IR signal.

• Transmitting and Receiving Logic: The transmitter sends a pulse or signal, and when the receiver
detects this, it triggers the LED.

Components:

1. IR LED (Infrared LED for transmission)

2. IR Receiver Module (such as TSOP1738, or any general IR receiver)

3. NPN Transistor (optional for driving the LED)

4. LED (for visual indication when the signal is received)

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 21

 5. Resistors (appropriate values for current limiting, typically 220Ω to 1kΩ)

6. Capacitors (optional for noise reduction)

7. Power Supply (5V or 3.3V, depending on your components)

Working Principle:

• IR Transmitter: The IR LED will emit an infrared light signal when powered. This signal can be
modulated (pulsed) to ensure that only the correct IR frequency is detected by the receiver, avoiding
interference from ambient light.

• IR Receiver: The receiver module (like TSOP1738) will detect the modulated IR signal and output a
low signal (0V) when IR is detected.

• LED Control: The output of the receiver is used to drive an NPN transistor or directly control an LED.
When the receiver detects the signal, the output pin will go low, turning on the LED.

Circuit Design:

1. IR Transmitter Circuit:
o IR LED: One side of the IR LED is connected to a current-limiting resistor (typically 220Ω or 330Ω).
The other side of the resistor is connected to VCC (5V).
o The cathode of the IR LED is connected to ground.
o To modulate the signal, you can pulse the IR LED using a 555 timer in astable mode or a
microcontroller (such as Arduino) that generates a modulated 38kHz signal, which matches the
frequency of most IR receivers like the TSOP1738.

2. IR Receiver Circuit:

• The IR receiver has 3 pins: VCC, GND, and OUT.

• Connect the VCC pin of the receiver to 5V and the GND pin to ground.
• The OUT pin goes low (0V) when the receiver detects the IR signal and high (5V) when no signal is
detected.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 22

3. LED Indicator:

• The OUT pin of the receiver module is connected to the base of the transistor through a current- limiting
resistor (1kΩ).

• The emitter of the transistor is connected to ground, and the collector is connected to one side of the
LED.
• The other side of the LED is connected to VCC (5V) through a current-limiting resistor (typically
220Ω).

Circuit Connections:

IR Transmitter:

▪ IR LED Anode → Resistor (220Ω) → VCC (5V)

▪ IR LED Cathode → GND

Optional: 555 Timer (or microcontroller) to modulate the signal at 38kHz, connected to the IR LED. IR
Receiver:
▪ VCC pin of the receiver → 5V
▪ GND pin of the receiver → Ground
▪ OUT pin of the receiver → Resistor (1kΩ) → Base of NPN transistor LED
Indicator:
▪ Collector of NPN transistor → Cathode of the LED
▪ Anode of the LED → Resistor (220Ω) → VCC (5V)
▪ Emitter of NPN transistor → Ground
Operation:

• When the IR LED (transmitter) is powered, it sends an infrared signal.

• The IR receiver (such as TSOP1738) detects the IR signal if it's within range and outputs a low signal

• This low signal turns ON the NPN transistor, which completes the circuit for the LED, causing it to
light up.

• When the transmitter stops sending the IR signal or the receiver doesn’t detect it, the output goes high
(5V), and the LED turns OFF.

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3.6 RELAY SWITCHING

Fig 3.6- 12V Relay switching ckt

Step-by-Step Instructions Connect the Battery:

1. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to one terminal of the relay coil.
2. Connect the other terminal of the relay coil to the collector (C) of the BC547 transistor.
• Transistor Connections: Connect the emitter (E) of the BC547 transistor to the ground (GND) of the
battery. Connect the base (B) of the BC547 transistor to one terminal of the resistor (1kΩ). Connect the
other terminal of the resistor to one terminal of the switch.
• Connect the Lamp: Connect one terminal of the lamp to the Common (COM) terminal of the relay.
Connect the Normally Open (NO) terminal of the relay to the positive terminal of the battery. Connect
the other terminal of the lamp to the ground.

Powering the Circuit:

When you connect the battery, the circuit is powered, but the relay is not activated because there is no
current flowing to the base of the transistor.

1 Activating the Relay: When the switch is closed (pressed), current flows through the resistor into the base
of the BC547 transistor. This turns the transistor on, allowing current to flow from the collector to the
emitter. This action energizes the relay coil, which closes the relay contacts, allowing current to flow
through the lamp.

2 Lamp Operation: The lamp turns on when the relay is activated. When the switch is released, the current
to the base of the transistor stops, turning it off, which de-energizes the relay and turns off the lamp.

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3.7 SWITCHING USING DRIVERS

Fig 3.7a-Turning on led using drivers ckt Fig 3.7b -Driving motor and LED ckt using relays of 12V

To create a relay driver circuit using the ULN2003A, you can utilize its capability to drive relays based on logic
states (from microcontrollers or logic circuits) while also allowing you to control LEDs. The ULN2003A is a
Darlington transistor array commonly used for driving high-current loads, including relays.

Components Required:

1 ULN2003A: Darlington transistor array. Relay: Suitable for the lamp or device you want to control.
LED: For indication (optional).
2 Resistor: Typically a 1kΩ resistor for the LED.
3 Power Supply: According to the relay and LED specifications (e.g., 5V, 12V).
4 Microcontroller or Logic Circuit: To control the relay (like Arduino).
5 Connecting Wires: For connections.

Step-by-Step Instructions:

• Connect the Microcontroller: Connect the control pin (logic HIGH or LOW) from your microcontroller
to one of the input pins of the ULN2003A (let’s say IN1).

• Connect the ULN2003A: Connect the corresponding output pin (OUT1) of the ULN2003A to one end
of the relay coil.

• Connect the other end of the relay coil to the positive voltage supply (Vcc) according to the relay's
specifications.

• Connect the LED (optional): Connect the LED in series with a resistor (e.g., 1kΩ) from the control
signal to the ground. This will turn on the LED when the control signal is HIGH, indicating the relay
is activated.

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 • Power Connections: Connect the GND of the microcontroller, ULN2003A, and the relay to a common
ground. Make sure the ULN2003A is powered according to its specifications (usually 5V).

• Enable the Relay: When the microcontroller outputs a HIGH signal, the corresponding input on the
ULN2003A activates, allowing current to flow through the relay coil and energizing it. The relay will
then close its contacts and allow current to flow to the connected lamp or device.

Operation:

When the microcontroller sends a HIGH signal to the ULN2003A input pin, the corresponding output pin goes
LOW, allowing current to flow through the relay coil, activating the relay. If an LED is connected, it will light
up, indicating the relay is active. When the signal is LOW, the relay deactivates, and the connected device or
lamp turns off.

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III ARDUINO UNO

Fig 3.8 Arduino UNO

The Arduino UNO R3 is an open source microcontroller board based on the Microchip ATmega328P
microcontroller and developed by [Link]. The hound is equipped with sets of digital and analog input
(VO) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards(shield) and other circuit.

The board has 14 digital LO pins (six capable of PWM output), 6 analog VO pins, and is programmable with
the Arduino IDE (loegrated Development Environment, via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the
USB cable or by an external 9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is similar to
the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Archanwebsite Layout and production files for
some versions of the hardware are also available.

The word "UNO" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark the initial release of Arduino Software. The
Uno board is the first in a series of USB-based Arduino boards; and version 1.0 of the Arduino IDE were the
reference versions of Arduino, which have now evolved to newer releases. The ATmega328 on the board comes
preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows uploading new code to it without the use of an external
programme[1][8].

➢ SENSORS MOTORS & RELAYS

SENSORS

The main purpose of sensors is to collect data from the surrounding environment. Sensors, or 'things' of the
IoT system, form the front end These are connected directly or indirectly to loT networks after signal
conversion and processing. But all sensors are not the same and different IoT applications require different
types of seasons. For instance, digital sensors are straightforward and easy to interface with a microcontroller
using Serial Peripheral Interface (SPD) bus. But for analogue sensors, either analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC) or Sigma- Delta modulator is used to convert the data into SPI output.

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 ➢ TYPES OF SENSORS
• INFRARED (IR) SENSORS

An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared radiation init samunding
environment. Infrared radiation was accidentally discovered by an astronomer med William Herschel in 1800,
While measuring the temperature of each colour of light (separated by a prism), he noticed that the temperature
beyond the red light was highest. It is invisible so the human eye, as its wavelength is longer than that of
visible light (though it is still on the same electmmagnetic spectrum) Anything that emits heat everything that
has a temperature above around five degrees Kelvin) gives off infrared radiation[8].

Fig 3.8a Infrared IR sensor

There are two types of infrared sensors: active and passive. Active infrared sensors both emit and detect
infrared radiation. Active IR sensors have two parts: a light emitting diode (LED) and a receiver. When an
object comes close to the sensor, the infrared light from the LED reflects off of the object and is detected by
the receiver. Active IR sensors act as proximity sensors, and they are commonly used in obstacle detection
systems (such as in robot).

• DHT11
The DHT11 is a basic and inexpensive digital temperature and humidity sensor module. It's commonly used in
various DIY electronics projects and is relatively easy to interface with microcontrollers like Arduino and
Raspberry Pi. Here's a basic introduction to the DHT11 sensor.

Fig 3.8b DHT11

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 • 5V RELAY
A 5V relay is an electromechanical switch that uses a small voltage (typically 5 volts) to control the switching
of a higher voltage or current circuit. It consists of an electromagnetic coil and one or more sets of contacts.
When you apply 5 volts to the coil, it generates a magnetic field, causing the contacts to open or close, depending
on the relay type (normally open or normally closed) [12].

Fig 3.8c 5V Relay

• DC MOTOR
A DC motor, or direct current motor, is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical
motion. It operates using direct current, where the flow of electric charge is in one direction. DC motors are
commonly used in various applications, including robotics, manufacturing machinery, and electric vehicles, due
to their controllability and efficiency. They come in various types, such as brushed and brushless DC motors
[12].

Fig 3.8d DC Motor

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ARDUINO IDE

The Arduino software is provided to you “as is” and we make no express or implied warranties whatsoever
with respect to its functionality, operability, or use, including, without limitation, any implied warranties of
merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or infringement. We expressly disclaim any liability
whatsoever for any direct, indirect, consequential, incidental or special damages, including, without
limitation, lost revenues, lost profits, losses resulting from business interruption or loss of data, regardless
of the form of action or legal theory under which the liability may be asserted, even if advised of the
possibility or likelihood of such damages It can be powered by the USB cable or by an external 9-volt battery,
though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The
hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and
is available on the Archanwebsite Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also
available[8].

Fig 3.8e-Arduino IDE

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3.9 TRAFFIC LIGHTS

Fig 3.9-Traffic light switching using Arduino uno

Introduction

This project simulates a basic traffic light control system using an Arduino UNO. It demonstrates how
embedded systems can be used to manage traffic flow efficiently at road intersections.

Components Used

• Arduino UNO

• Red, Yellow, and Green LEDs

• 220-ohm resistors

• Breadboard and jumper wires

Working Principle

The Arduino controls the traffic light sequence by turning LEDs on and off in a timed loop:

• Green light for go

• Yellow light for caution

• Red light for stop

Each LED stays on for a few seconds before switching to the next in the sequence.

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 Arduino Uno Circuits:

Fig 3.10-Display light intensity in LCD Fig 3.11-Turn on LED ckt using BC547

Fig 3.12-Tuning Servo motor using Arduino Fig 3.13- Display light intensity and temperature in LCD

and turn on motor

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 IV PIC MICROCONTROLLER

Fig 3.14- PIC microcontroller Pin Diagram

PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. It is a family of microcontrollers made by Microchip
Technology, widely used in embedded systems due to their low cost, flexibility, and ease of use[2].

Key Features

• Harvard Architecture (separate instruction and data buses)

• Available in 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit versions

• Wide range of built-in peripherals (timers, ADCs, UART, PWM, etc.)

• Low power consumption

• Programmable using assembly, C (using MPLAB IDE or XC compiler)

Common Applications

• Home automation

• Industrial control systems

• Robotics

• Consumer electronics

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 Why Use PIC?

• Reliable for real-time embedded tasks

• Extensive documentation and community support

• Ideal for both beginners and advanced developers

PIC IDE

➢ TRIOX

TriOX is a third-party software tool often used for simulating and programming microcontrollers, particularly
PIC microcontrollers. It's not as widely used or documented as MPLAB, but it provides a user-friendly
interface for beginners to test microcontroller programs and circuits virtually[9].

➢ MPLAB

MPLAB IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is the official software provided by Microchip
Technology for programming and debugging PIC and dsPIC microcontrollers.

Key Features

• Full support for Microchip microcontrollers

• Integrated with compilers like XC8, XC16, and XC32

• Real-time debugging with hardware tools (e.g., PICkit)

• GUI-based project management

• Code editor, simulator, and debugger in one platform

Why Use MPLAB IDE?

• Official and well-supported

• Extensive documentation and examples

• Suitable for both beginners and professionals[5].

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3.91 PIC MICROCONTROLLER CIRCUITS:

Fig 3.15-Tuning Servo motor using relay ckt Fig 3.16-Turning on buzzers using relay through PIC mic

Fig 3.17-Home automation Layout ckt

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 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 36

CHAPTER 4
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
1. Embedded Systems
Advantages:
• Compact and Efficient: Small size and low power consumption.
• Real-Time Operation: Suitable for time-critical applications.
• Low Cost: Cost-effective for mass production.
• Dedicated Functionality: Designed for specific tasks, making them highly efficient.
• Reliability: Long operational life and minimal maintenance.

Applications:
• Home Automation (smart thermostats, security systems)
• Automotive Systems (airbags, ABS, engine control)
• Consumer Electronics (washing machines, microwaves, smart TVs)
• Industrial Control (robotics, CNC machines)
• Medical Devices (heart rate monitors, infusion pumps)

2. Arduino

Advantages:
• Open Source: Wide community support and free resources.
• User-Friendly: Easy to program, ideal for beginners.
• Flexible: Works with a variety of sensors and modules.
• Cost-Effective: Affordable for students and hobbyists.
• Quick Prototyping: Rapid development for DIY and small-scale projects.

Applications:
• IoT Projects (home automation, weather stations)
• Educational Tools (robotics kits, electronics learning boards)
• Wearables (fitness trackers, health monitoring)
• Art Installations (interactive lights and sound)
• DIY Projects (smart plant watering, garage door control)

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 37

 3. PIC Microcontrollers

Advantages:
• High Performance: Efficient for real-time applications.
• Low Power Consumption: Suitable for battery-operated systems.
• Wide Variety: Available in multiple versions to suit different needs.
• Reliable and Robust: Proven in industrial and automotive applications.
• Peripheral Integration: Comes with built-in timers, ADCs, UARTs, etc.

Applications:
• Industrial Automation (sensor-based controls, machine interfaces)
• Home Appliances (microwaves, air conditioners)
• Medical Equipment (pulse oximeters, glucose meters)
• Consumer Electronics (remote controls, alarms)
• Automotive Electronics (dashboard systems, lighting control)[13].

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 MINI PROJECT

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 39

CHAPTER 5
MINI PROJECT

• 1. Introduction
Q̇
Home automation refers to the control of household appliances automatically or remotely. This project
demonstrates a simple automation system using a PIC microcontroller and an Infrared (IR) sensor, which detects
motion and activates appliances such as lights or fans accordingly. The goal is to enhance energy efficiency,
comfort, and convenience within a home environment.[10]

☼
◦ 2. System Components
O
• PIC Microcontroller (e.g., PIC16F877A) – Central control unit for processing sensor data.
• IR Sensor – Detects the presence or movement of a person.
• Relay Module – Acts as a switch to control high-voltage appliances.
• Power Supply – Provides power to the microcontroller and other components.
• Home Appliance – Any electrical device (e.g., light, fan) controlled by the system.[11][12]

* 3. Working Principle
C
˛
The IR sensor continuously monitors for motion or presence. When it detects a person:
1. It sends a signal to the PIC microcontroller.
2. The microcontroller processes the signal and activates a relay.
3. The relay switches on the appliance connected to it.
4. If no motion is detected for a specific duration, the microcontroller switches off the appliance to save
energy.
This creates a hands-free, automated control system for home appliances.[13]

➢ Block Diagram:

PIC RELAY
IR SENSOR MICROCONTROLLER

POWER APPLIANCES
SUPPLY

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 40

’⬛ Simple Flow:
1. Motion Detected? → YES
2. → Send Signal to PIC
3. → PIC Activates Relay
4. → Appliance Turns ON

SNAPSHOTS:

Fig 5.1-Home automation ckt in Proteus using IR sensor

Fig 5.2-Code execution in MPLAB using TRIOX library

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 41

 Fig 5.3_Hardware design of Home automation using PIC microcontroller

Fig 5.4 -Dumping the code to Arduino uno for LCD display Fig 5.5-Diplaying text in LCD using 5v supply

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 42

 CONCLUSION

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 43

CHAPTER 6:

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, embedded systems are specialized computing systems designed to perform dedicated tasks
within larger systems. They are characterized by their efficiency, real-time operation, and specific
functionalities tailored to meet the requirements of the application. These systems are found in a wide range
of devices, from simple household appliances to complex industrial machinery and automotive systems.

The key aspects of embedded systems include:

1. Real-time operation: They often need to respond to inputs or events within strict timing constraints.

2. Resource constraints: Embedded systems typically operate with limited memory, processing power,
and energy resources.

3. Reliability: Many embedded systems are designed for high reliability, especially in critical
applications like medical devices and aerospace systems.

4. Customization: They are optimized for specific tasks, which can make them highly efficient but less
versatile than general-purpose computers.

Both analog and digital circuits complement each other in electronic systems. Analog circuits (like LDRs,
thermistors, and regulators) are vital for sensing, monitoring, and conditioning physical parameters, while
digital circuits (like relay switching and op-amps) excel in processing, controlling, and automating operations.
Together, they form the foundation of modern electronic devices and systems, enabling interaction between
the digital world and real-world phenomena [12].

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 1

 REFERENCES

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 2

CHAPTER 7
REFERENCES
[1] D. W. Smith, PIC Microcontroller Projects in C: Basic to Advanced, 2nd ed. Oxford, U.K.: Newnes, 2013.

[2] J. B. Peatman, Design with PIC Microcontrollers, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall, 1997.

[3] K. V. Shibu, Introduction to Embedded Systems, 1st ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Education,
2009.
[4] Microchip Technology Inc., PIC16F877A Datasheet, DS39582C, 2003. [Online]. Available:
[Link]

[5] Microchip Technology Inc., MPLAB® X IDE User’s Guide, DS50002027D, 2018. [Online]. Available:
[Link]

[6] R. Kamal, Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design, 3rd ed. New Delhi, India: McGraw-
Hill, 2017.

[7] T. Noergaard, Embedded Systems Architecture: A Comprehensive Guide for Engineers and Programmers,
2nd ed. Burlington, MA, USA: Newnes, 2012.

[8] Arduino, IR Sensor Tutorial: Basics, Circuit, Working, 2021. [Online]. Available:
[Link]

[9] TRIOX Technologies, TRIOX Simulation Software Documentation, v2.4, 2021. [Online].

[10] F. Mazidi, R. McKinlay, and D. Causey, PIC Microcontroller and Embedded Systems: Using Assembly
and C for PIC18, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson, 2008.

[11] M. A. Mazidi and J. G. Mazidi, The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C,
2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall, 2008.

[12] R. Piyare and M. Tazil, "Bluetooth based home automation system using cell phone," Proc. IEEE 15th Int.
Symp. Consumer Electronics (ISCE), Singapore, 2011, pp. 192–195, doi: 10.1109/ISCE.2011.5973811

[13] A. F. Z. Abidin, M. H. Jusoh, E. James, S. A. M. Al Junid, and A. I. M. Yassin, “Real-time remote

monitoring with data acquisition system,” in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.

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EMBEDDED SYSTEMS INTERNSHIP 4