UGRC 150

CRITICAL THINKING &

PRACTICAL REASONING
Unit 2 - DEFINITIONS

Instructor: Dr. Richmond Kwesi

Dept. of Philosophy & Classics, UG
Contact Information: rkwesi@[Link]
 Session Overview

• Contrary to what many students might suppose before their

exposure to this course, there are different types of definition. The
type of definition found in the dictionary which is also the one with
which students are familiar, is just one of the six definitions that
will be discussed. In this session, a distinction will be made between
connotation and denotation of a word, after which the different
types of definitions will be discussed. The session will end by
identifying some problems with definitions

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 Goals and Objectives
At the end the session, students should
1. Understand when the connotation or denotation of a word is
implied in a definition
2. Be able to write good examples of connation and denotation of a
word.
3. Be able to identify the different types of definitions
4. Be able to recognize when a definition is vague, circular, too narrow
and too broad.

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 Outline and Reading
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
• What are Definitions?
• Connotation and Denotation of a word
• Types Of Definitions:
(a) lexical definition
(b) Ostensive definition
(c) Operational definition
(d) theoretical definition
(e) stipulative definition.
(f) real definition.
• Diagnosing problems with Definitions
READ UNIT 2 OF THE TEXTBOOK
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 What is a Definition?

• A Definition is a declarative sentence that conveys or presents the

meaning of a word.

• Examples:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a
remainder.
2. Culture is the way of life of a people, their norms, values, music,
and beliefs that are transmitted from one generation to the
other.
3. Bank is a place where money is kept or borrowed.

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 Why Definitions?

1. To achieve Clarity and relevance of concepts and terms

2. To Avoid obscurity
3. So that our statements and arguments are not misconstrued
4. To avoid ambiguity and equivocation

5. To Avoid verbal disputes

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 Parts of a Definition

• Every standard definition must have two parts: the

definiendum and the definiens.

• DEFINIENDUM:- The word to be defined which is the

subject of the definition(statement)
Examples:
1 Even number is any number that is divisible by two
without a remainder.
[Link] is a plane figure with three sides and has all the
interior angles summing up to 180 degrees.
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 Parts of a Definition...

• DEFINIENS:- The rest of the definition that conveys

the meaning of the word. It gives the word’s
connotation.
• Example:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by
two without a remainder.
[Link] is a plane figure with three side and has
all the interior angles summing up to 180 degrees.
3. Widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

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 Parts of a Definition...

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 Connotation and Denotation
• In conveying the meaning of a word, there are two ways
that we can do that. We can either convey the meaning of a
word by its CONNOTATION or DENOTATION.
• CONNOTATION:- This is when the meaning of a word gives
a description of the features or attributes or properties of
range of objects in the world to which the word may be
applied.
• Examples. ( head, mobile phone, )
1. Head is the upper part of a human body or an animal’s
body that contains the brain and the face.
2. Mobile phone is an electronic device for receiving and making
calls. Slide 10
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 Connotation and Denotation....
• DENOTATION: (also called the extension of the word) This
refers to the collection of all the things in the world that
are correctly picked out by a word’s connotation. It refers
to the definition that conveys the meaning of a word by
giving examples.
• Examples:
• The meaning of mobile phone for example are Samsung phone,
Nokia lumia phone, Motorola phone, LG Phone.
• The meaning of even number for example are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, .
• NB: It is the connotation of a word that is spelt out as its
definition
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 Connotation and Denotation

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 Connotation and Denotation

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 Connotation and Denotation
• The relationship that exists between the connotation and the
denotation is that, given the connotation of word, we can
identify or determine it’s denotation.

• For instance;
If the word ‘Head’ is defined as “the upper part of the
human body or an animal’s body that contains the brain and
the face”, then its denotations will be the head of every
human being on earth as well as that of any animal.

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 Connotation and Denotation
• But the same word ‘Head’ can also be defined as referring to
“someone who is in charge of an operation or institution.” In this
instance the denotations will be all persons that are in charge of
specific operations or particular institutions.

• Thus depending on the connotation of a word we will be able to

determine its denotations.

• NB. IF a word has several connotations, each connotation will

have their respective denotations.

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 TYPES OF DEFINITIONS
• When we talk about the “types of definitions” we mean the
different sources of, and methods for, creating or deriving
definitions or meaning of words.
• In this course we will be discussing only six different types of
definition.
• The Six Types Are As Follows.
1. LEXICAL DEFINITION
2. OSTENSIVE DEFINITION
3. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
4. THEORETICAL DEFINITION
5. STIPULATIVE DEFINITION
6. REAL DEFINITION
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 1. LEXICAL DEFINITION
• LEXICAL DEFINITION is also called dictionary definition. It refers to
the definition of words that are taken from the dictionary. Dictionary
definitions mostly describe the connotation of words.
• Merit: It describes the connotations of a word as it is understood in
everyday or popular discourse within a language community
• Demerit: It may be vague for particular purposes, or too narrow or
too broad, or it may be flawed or inadequate

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 2. OSTENSIVE DEFINITION
• Sometimes it becomes difficult to use words to convey the
meaning of certain words such that it becomes more appropriate
to show or point to an object to convey the meaning of the word.
Thus ostensive definition is when you give an example or point to
an object or demonstrate it to convey the meaning of a word.
• Examples:
1. Using blood to covey what color red is.
2. listing the set of numbers to convey what an even number is.
3. Pointing to someone dancing an azonto to show a friend who does not know
what dance is AZONTO.
Demerit: Not all words can be demonstrated, e.g. eternity, democracy
NB: Ostensive definition gives us the denotation of a word.
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 3. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
• Operational definition is when a series of step by step procedure is
required to be followed in order to arrive at the meaning of a word.
Following the instructions in the definition will let you understand
what the word means.
• Examples:
1. To understand what an even number is, do the following: Take any number between 1
and 10, divide that number by two. Then check to see for a remainder . If there is no
remainder then that number is an even number.
2. ‘water soluble’: 1. Take a clean beaker 2. Add 50cc of unsaturated water at room
temperature 3. Add ¼ teaspoon of the substance to the beaker 4. Stir five to ten times 5. If
the substance dissolves, then it is called water soluble
• This type of definition is helpful when meaning of words need to
be made precise and exact. However, there are many words where
operational definition is impossible
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 4. THEORETICAL DEFINITION
• Theoretical definition refers to the meaning of words that come
from theories that have gained acceptance in specific fields of
scientific knowledge, social studies, and the humanities.
• Examples:
1. ‘Water is H2O’. (To understand this definition you must have been
thought chemistry or be a chemist.)
2. The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard
Model of particle physics; It is the quantum excitation of the Higgs
field, a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle
physics theory first suspected to exist in the 1960s.
3. In microeconomic theory, the opportunity cost, also known
as alternative cost, is the value (not a benefit) of the choice of a best
alternative cost while making a decision.
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 5. STIPULATIVE DEFINITION
• When the meaning of a word is agreed on for the purposes of a
debate or a discussion or a project then we say a stipulative
definition has been established.
• A definition in which a new or currently-existing term is given a new
meaning for the purposes of argument or discussion in a given
context.
• A declaration of a meaning that is intended to be attached by the
speaker to a word, expression, or symbol and that usually does not
already have an established use in the sense intended
• Examples:
[Link] some one says that to love someone is to be willing to die for that person.
2. Take "human" to mean any member of the species Homo sapiens.
3. "MBA" to mean married but available.
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 6. REAL DEFINITION
• This is also called ideal, or eliminative, or essential definition
achieved by fixing the conditions that are both necessary and
sufficient in the correct use of a word
• A real definition is a definition that provides the core meaning or
the essential meaning of a word. That is to say a definition of what
a word appropriately stands for.
• Such a definition provides all the features and only those features
that appropriately belong to a word.

• Example:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a
remainder.
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 6. REAL DEFINITION....

• Real definition is a well-defined definition

• When a term is well-defined, it means that the definition

makes it completely clear all the things or objects in the
world that are correctly called or picked out by the word.

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 6. REAL DEFINITION....
• For any eliminative definition, the definiendum could be
eliminated and replaced by the definiens in every context
where the word which is being defined is used. This is because
the definition provides the necessary and sufficient conditions
for using the word correctly.
• Illustration:
• Lets consider the definition of an even number as an
eliminative definition.
• Even number is any whole number that is divisible by two
without a remainder.

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 6. REAL DEFINITION....

• Definiendum – even number

• Definiens – any whole number divisible by two
without a remainder.
Now lets consider the statement “all multiples of two
are even numbers” for the illustration.
[Link] multiples of two are even numbers.
Results are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,………..
2. All multiples of two are whole numbers divisible by
two without any remainders.
Results are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10………..
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 6. REAL DEFINITION....
• We can see from the above illustration that when the
definiendum was replaced with the definiens, the same
meaning was obtained from the statement. The truth of the
statement “all multiples of two are even numbers” remains
the same.
• This is what it means to say a definition is eliminative.

• NB: achieving the essential meaning of words enables us to

avoid vagueness and ambiguity in the construction of the
meanings of words.

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 WELL-DEFINED TERM VERSUS
OPEN-TEXTURED WORD
• A term or word is said to be a well-defined term if we can
successfully achieve its essential definition. That is if we
can provide a definition that makes it completely clear
devoid of vagueness and ambiguity which objects or
individuals or properties are correctly called by that word.
• Examples of terms whose definitions are well- defined are
terms from the field of mathematics and pure science.
Words like even number, Set, Square, Triangle etc are all
well defined terms. Their definitions are ideal or real or
essential definitions.

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 WELL-DEFINED TERM VERSUS
OPEN-TEXTURED WORD
• The definition of an even number says that for any number to
be called an even number then that number must be divisible
by two without a remainder. So with this definition one would
be able to perform the necessary operation to determine
which numbers are even and which are not.

• The same goes for triangle, circle, a set, and all the other
terms in mathematics.

• NB. WELL-DEFINED TERMS HAVE ONLY ONE MEANING.

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 WELL-DEFINED TERM VERSUS
OPEN-TEXTURED WORD
• However, a term is said to be an open class concept when it is
difficult for the core meaning or the essential meaning to be
achieved. Thus in an attempt to derive the essential meaning
or real meaning we end up with many interpretations for such
a word.
• Open class concepts are concepts that are open to several
interpretations. They are also called essentially contestable
concepts or open textured words.
• Subject areas like Psychology, History and Economics contain
many key terms that are open class concepts(that is, cannot
be well defined).

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 WELL-DEFINED TERM VERSUS
OPEN-TEXTURED WORD
• Examples of open class concepts are;

• Family , justice, intelligence, equality, democratic

process, life, love, wisdom, modernity, fidelity etc.
• THESE WORDS HAVE A LOT OF DIFFERENT MEANINGS
OR INTERPRETATIONS BY DIFFERENT PEOPLE.

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 PROBLEMS OF DEFINITIONS
• In this final part of the session on definitions, we look at the
problems that can be identified in the definitions we provide for
words. The purpose is to warn ourselves against such problems
and to avoid making them in our essays and projects as well as in
our speeches.
• The problems or flaws arising with definitions: Definitions can be…
1. Too narrow
2. Too broad
3. Vague
4. Circular (also called begging the question)
5. Pseudo-Definition
6. Multiply-flawed Definition (flawed in more ways than one)
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 1. TOO NARROW
• A definition is too narrow when the definiens does not cover all
the things in the world that correctly belong in the denotation
of the word. In other words, the definition does not cover all
the denotations of the word.
• Examples:
[Link] is wooden object for one person to sit on with a back
support and has only four legs. This means that benches, wheel
chairs, sofas and other examples of chairs will not be called
chairs. The definition leaves them out of the things correctly
called chairs.
2. A watch is a device that is worn on the wrist for telling time.
Clocks, and other time telling devices are left out and only those
worn on wrists are included Slide 32
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 2. TOO BROAD
• A definition is too broad when the definiens covers things
that do not belong in the denotations of the word. That is,
the definition covers things that are not correctly called by
that word.
• Example:
1. Student is an individual in uniform. Thus police, nurses,
doctors, cooks, and other professions that wear uniforms are
all students.( The definition is can also too narrow, and hence
multiply-flawed)
2. Antelope is an animal with four legs that lives in the forest.
Tigers, elephants, lions, and zebras will all be called antelopes

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 3. VAGUE
• A definition is vague when the definiens does not specify
adequately to determine what belongs to the word’s
denotation. That is the definition is not clear or precise enough
for one to be able to identify the things or objects or individuals
in the world that the word refers to.
• Example:
1. A factual statement is a statement that describes. The
question then is what does it describe. Toys? numbers? human
beings? insects? Ghosts?
2. A president is the head of a country. The next question is
what does “head of a country” mean?

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 ARE THESE ALL ‘BALD’?

What does it mean to be bald?

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4. CIRCULAR OR BEGGING THE QUESTION

• A definition is circular or begs the question when the

definiens repeats or restates the definiendum. Or, when it
contains words that are just as obscure as the one being
defined.

• Examples:
1. Computer is an electronic device for computing.
2. Humility is being humble.
3. A driver is someone who knows how to drive and drives.

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 5. PSEUDO-DEFINITION
• A good definition is supposed to be devoid of our personal
feelings or judgements. A definition is a pseudo-definition
(not a definition or a false definition) when the definiens
convey an emotive expression or a value judgement.

• Examples:
1. ‘homosexuality’ is the evil act where two people of the
same sex have sex
2. ‘abortion’ is the sinful practice where a mother kills her baby
before it is born and which automatically makes the mother a
candidate of hell.

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 6. MULTIPLY-FLAWED DEFINITION
• This is the case where a definition is flawed in more than one of
the mistakes identified above; that is, for instance, the definition
can be both too narrow and too broad, or too broad and vague, or
vague and circular, etc.
• Example:

• ‘Spirituality’ is a characteristic exhibited by a person who attends

with sincerity and faithfulness some form of church service on a
regular basis.
• This definition is too narrow because some spiritual people go to mosques; it is
too broad because it makes almost every church goer spiritual; it is vague
because it is not clear what is meant by attendance with ‘sincerity and
faithfulness’
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 END OF SESSION

Dr. Richmond Kwesi