Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of organisms (e.g. bacteria) or biological processes to

improve the quality of human life, for example, in DNA profiling, genetic engineering,
stem cell technology and cloning.

DNA Profiling
DNA profiling was dealt with in Chapter 1. It is a form of biotechnology used for
paternity testing, the identification of individuals, and for many other purposes.

Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is used to alter the genome of a living cell for medical,
industrial or agricultural purposes. This results in a genetically modified
organism (GMO) or transgenic animal (animal with DNA from more than one
species).
GMO’s are used …
 to breed more productive crops or animals so that more food can be made
 to produce drugs or hormones (e.g. insulin) which have fewer side-effects and
is cheaper
 to ‘infect’ cells to cure diseases (gene therapy) such as brain tumours and
cystic fibrosis

What is meant by biotechnology? (2)

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What is meant by Genetic Engineering? (2)

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 One process used to produce a GMO is recombinant DNA technology. It can
be used to manufacture human insulin using E. coli bacteria. The process can
be summarised as follows:

Briefly write step-by-step how this is done by using he diagram below. (4)
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Advantages of Genetic Engineered Plants

 Pest resistance – the plants no longer taste good to insects.

 Herbicide tolerance – the crop plant is immune to poison, so large amounts can
be used to kill the weeds.
 Disease resistance – these plants are hardy and do not get affected by
diseases.
 Improved food quality – do not have damage due to pests or diseases so look
good.
 Cold tolerance – rice and tobacco have been engineered to be unaffected by
sudden drops in temperature.
 Drought or salinity tolerance – this helps plants grow in areas previously
unsuitable for agriculture.
 Nutritionally enhanced – for example adding vitamin A to rice (a staple food in
Asian countries) by introducing a gene from a daffodil.
 Incorporating vaccines into bananas/potatoes – this means that vaccines are
made by the plant which can then be transported to countries easily without
having to be refrigerated.

Disadvantages of GMO’s

 GMO’s contain glyphosate due to extensive spraying of herbicide.

 They are expensive so only ‘rich’ countries can benefit.
 The possibility of error is great as the process is complex.
 There has been no long-term safety testing as it is a relatively new technology.
 People may be allergic to the inserted gene e.g. brazil nut gene in soya beans.
 Widespread use of GMO crops may lead to a loss of biodiversity.
 New pathogens could be made for biological warfare.
 Ethically there is a fine line between what can be done and what should be
done.
Only time will tell whether GMO’s would solve the food security issues. Theoretically
the potential benefits are huge, but there are significant risks. This also applies to the
medical field and development of new drugs or ways to administer the drugs.

Name some benefits that genetic modification has for humans. (4)

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Stem Cell Technology

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to grow into any tissue in
the body. They may be harvested from embryos left over after IVF treatment, from
bone marrow and from blood in the umbilical cord. Skin and cartilage stem cells have
also been used.

Notes about stem cells technology

 Embryonic stem cells are the most versatile as they have the ability to form any
tissue. However, as the human embryos are killed, this is a controversial
technology.
 Adult stem cells are much less controversial. Bone marrow has been used for a
long time to treat cancers of the blood e.g. leukaemia, but other types of stem cell
treatments are constantly being explored. Some of the procedures have involved:
o replacing dead cells in the heart after a heart attack
o growing skin tissue to treat burn victims
o growing nerve cells to treat spinal cord injuries and Parkinson’s disease

However, a great deal more research is needed before these procedures are
perfected. Parents who believe that there will be success in the future, are able to
 collect umbilical cord blood from their babies at birth. This blood can now be
frozen and stored for future use. Although such facilities are available in South
Africa, it is an expensive option.

1. What are stem cells? (2)

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2. Name some sources of stem cells (4)

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3. What are some uses of stem cells? (Briefly state various uses) (4)

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Cloning

Cloning is the natural or artificial process of creating a genetically identical copy of

an organism or biological material (e.g. tissue). The organism produced in this way
is called a clone.
Cloning happens naturally when asexual reproduction takes place or a plant is self-
pollinated or when identical twins are formed from a single zygote. These
processes all give rise to individuals with DNA identical to that of the parent.
Biotechnology has enabled cloning to produce a new individual that is an exact
copy of the organism from which the body cell was taken.
 In July 1996, Dolly the sheep, was the first cloned mammal using an adult cell,
in this case a mammary gland cell.
 In April 2003, Futhi the cow, was the first cloned animal in South Africa and in
this case a cell from the ear of a prize-winning dairy cow was used.

Advantages of cloning
 Therapeutic cloning can replace damaged tissue e.g. skin, heart cells and bone
marrow, so helping to save human lives.
 Genetic diseases could be prevented.
 Superior animals may be bred to improve food supply and quality.
 Research in any form improves skills and could open other avenues due to spin-
off technologies which could help mankind in the future.

The process of cloning

The description of the cloning process that follows is related to figure below.
 Sheep A is the superior animal to be cloned. Sheep B is inferior, but
hardy, so it can survive the harvesting of eggs

 An egg cell from sheep B is taken and the nucleus is removed.

 A body (somatic) cell from the genetically superior sheep (sheep A) is
collected.
 The nucleus with DNA from cell A is removed and placed into the “empty”
egg cell B.
 The egg cell is stimulated with a shock so that it starts dividing by mitosis.
 The egg cell now has DNA from the superior grow into an embryo.
 The embryo is then placed into the uterus of a surrogate or foster
mother (sheep C) and should develop to full term.
 The baby (lamb) is clone of sheep A meaning it will be an exact copy of
sheep A.
1. What is cloning? (2)

2. Explain step-by step how cloning is done. Use diagram to help you. (7)

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3. Give some advantages of cloning (4)

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4. Give some advantages of cloning (4)

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ACTIVITY 8: Biotechnology
Read the section of an article below taken from [Link].
In the 1950’s, the media were full of information about the great new
scientific miracle that was going to kill all harmful insects in the world,
wipe out insect-borne diseases and feed the world's starving masses.
That was DDT.
There are claims that genetic engineering will feed the starving and
help eliminate disease. The question is the price tag. As has been with
most technologies, such as DDT and nuclear energy, the promise of
benefit in the short-term is overwhelmed by long-term disasters.
As more human genes are being inserted into non-human organisms to
create new forms of life that are genetically partly human, new ethical
questions arise.
What percent of human genes does an organism have to contain before
it is considered human?
The Chinese are now putting human genes into tomatoes and peppers
to make them grow faster. You can now be a vegetarian and a cannibal
at the same time!
What about the mice that have been genetically engineered to produce

1. What do present day scientists possibly learn from using DDT in the 1950s?
(2)
2. Explain what is meant by “the question is the price tag”. (2)
3. Explain two short term benefits and one long term disaster of GMO food.
(6)
4. What is meant by “you can now be a vegetarian and a cannibal”? (2)
5. What method could be used to insert human genes into mice? (1)
6. How would YOU feel if you father was a genetically engineered mouse?
(2)
Mitochondrial DNA and tracing genetic links

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is important for an understanding of evolution.

 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is found in mitochondria and contains 37 genes
which are needed to make the proteins involved in cellular respiration.
 As there is no crossing over involving mtDNA, the only changes that occur are
due to mutations.
 mtDNA mutates at a regular rate so scientists are able to analyse these
mutations to work out a timeline of genetic ancestry.
 Only the mother’s mtDNA is passed on to her offspring (male and female). This
is because the father’s mtDNA is found in the cytoplasm of the sperm cell which
 is discarded, together with the tail, at the time of fertilisation.
 So, by analysing the mtDNA, the scientists can compare the mutations of
different people to see how closely related they are.

Furthermore, the more mutations that are found, the older that race is believed to be.
This research has found that our common female ancestor most likely lived about
150 000 years ago in East Africa. She has been named “Mitochondrial Eve”. The
map (Figure 16) shows early human migrations. This evidence supports the theory
that the human race evolved in Africa and then migrated to other parts of the world
where they evolved into the various races. This will be covered in the chapter on
Human Evolution.

Movement of early Hominins (Out of Africa Hypothesis)

Enrichment
Crossing over: [Link] Independent
Assortment: [Link] Gametes
(fertilisation): [Link] Mendel’s work
(terminology): [Link]
Monohybrid crosses using a Punnett square: [Link]
v=9AiE9ADkhNM
Past Paper Questions:

MARCH 2017