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Basic Instruments

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

At sea level:

Temperature: 15°C 

Pressure: 1013.25hP a, 29.92inH g 

Density: 1225g/m3 

Lapse rate:

−1.98°C /1000f t 

From 36000ft to 66000ft is constant at −56.5°C 

−1hP a/30f t 

In reality the rate of decrease slows down as you get higher

Conversion Factors
1NM /hr(kts) = 1.85km/h = 1.15mph

1m = 3.28f t

1m/s = 196.8f t/min ≈ 200f t/min

1bar = 100, 000P a(pascals) = 100kP a

Pressure Formulas
1
2
dynamic pressure, pd = ​ ​
ρv
2

pt = ps + pd
​ ​ ​

V-Speeds
VS 0 : stalling speed in landing configuration
​

VS 1 : stalling speed in a specified configuration

​

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 VFE : maximum speed permitted with flaps extended
​

VRA : maximum speed to fly in turbulence

​

VNO : maximum normal operating speed (mostly for piston and GA aircraft)
​

VNE : never exceed speed

​

VY SE : the best rate of climb speed in a twin engine aeroplane with one engine
​

inoperative

VLO : maximum speed at which the undercarriage (landing gear) may be safely
​

extended or retracted

VLE : maximum speed with the landing gear extended

​

VMO /MMO ​ : maximum operating speed (or mach number) which must not be
​

deliberately exceeded in any flight condition (mostly for jets and high speed aircraft)

ASI Colour Coding

White arc: flap operating speed range

Lower limit: VS 0  ​

Upper limit: VFE  ​

Green arc: Normal operating speed range

Lower limit: VS 1  ​

Upper limit: VNO /VRA  ​ ​

Yellow arc: Cautionary speed range

Lower limit: VNO VRA /

​

​

Upper limit: VNE 

​

Red line: VNE 

​

Blue line: VY SE 
​

Speed Definitions
Indicated Airspeed (IAS): indicated air speed is the airspeed on the ASI

Calibrated airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for instrument error and predictable pressure
errors

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): CAS corrected for compressibility

True Airspeed (TAS): EAS corrected for density

The only airspeed indication, the rest are all pressures

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 Altimeter Temperature Error
4
T rue altitude = indicated altitude + (I S A deviation × ​
× indicated altitude)
1000

Mach Calculations
T rue Airspeed
M ach N umber = ​

Local Speed of S ound

Local Speed of S ound (LSS ) = 38.95 T emperature in Kelvin ​

💡 T empin Kelvin ​ = T empin C elsius ​ + 273 

Dynamic P ressure
M ach N umber ∝ ​
=
Static P ressure
​

P itot P ressure − Static P ressure

​

Static P ressure

CAS, TAS, Mach

ISA Conditions

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 💡 Pick the graph for the speed you want to hold constant, then see the speed trend
as you climb/descend

Chicken Tikka Masala

CAS TAS MACH

Inversion Layer

💡 CAS MACH TAS

Temperature Calculations
T AT = S AT + 100% Ram Rise

The percentage of the “Ram Rise” that is sensed and recovered by an air temperature
probe is termed the Recovery Factor (Kr )​

S AT + (Kr )(T otal Ram Rise) = RAT

​

If Kr is 100%, then the above equation would give TAT, otherwise, it is considered RAT
​

Air Temperature Measurement

T otal Air T emp, TT ​

Static Air T emp, TS = ​ ​

2
1 + (0.2 × Kr × M ach )
​

Ram Rise Calculation

T AS
2
Ram Rise = ( ​
)
100

Liquid Swirl
In the Northern Hemisphere

When turning through North → Magnitude of turning error increases

When turning through South → Magnitude of turning errors decreases

In the Southern Hemisphere

When turning through North → Magnitude of turning error decreases

When turning through South → Magnitude of turning errors increases

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 CDMVT
C ompass + Deviation = M agnetic

M agnetic + Variation = T rue

Can (Compass) → Dead (Deviation) → Men (Magnetic) → Vote (Variation) → Twice (True)

In this direction, East Increase, West is Less

Gyros Summary
Degrees of
Gyro Gimbals Used in
Freedom

Free Gyro 2 3 Old stuff, rarely used

Directional Gryo, Direction

Horizontally Tied 2 2
Indicator

Vertically Tied (Earth) 2 2 Attitude Indicator

Rate 1 1 Turn Coordinator

Calculating Drift
At latitude ϕand longitude λ,

T otal Drif t =

E arth Rotation + T ransport Drif t + Random Drif t + Latitude N ut

Earth Rotation (degrees per hour) - Horizontal Axis Gyros

Drift: 15 ∗ sin(ϕ)

-ve at the Northern Hemisphere; +ve at the Southern Hemisphere

Topple: 15 ∗ cos(ϕ)

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 Transport Drift

E W groundspeed(kts)
Rate of transport wander(°per hour) = ​
∗ tan(ϕ)
60

+ve at the Northern Hemisphere, -ve at the Southern Hemisphere

Random Drift
Random Drift: fixed to the instrument (”mechanically perfect” → no random drift)

Latitude Nut
Latitude nut: causes the gyro to undergo a real drift at a rate equal and opposite to the
drift caused by Earth rotation (i.e. meant to correct for ER)

Pneumatic AH Errors
Turning Error

Turn So Far Angle of Bank Pitch Angle

90 degrees Under reads Over reads

180 degrees Correct Over reads

270 degrees Over reads Over reads

369 degrees Correct Correct

To remember, use the below graph (red for angle of bank, blue for pitch)

Acceleration Error

Acceleration causes pitch up and roll right

Deceleration causes pitch down and roll left

Electrical AH Error

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 In gentle manoeuvres:

Acceleration: AI indicates pitch up

Deceleration: AI indicates pitch down

Turning: AI under-reads

Rate Turns
Indication Turn Rate Degrees / sec Degree / min 360 degrees in

1st Rate 1 Turn 3 180 2 minutes

2nd Rate 2 Turn 6 360 1 minute

3rd Rate 3 Turn 9 540 40 seconds

Turn Coordinator
Indications:

Ball deflection same as turn: SLIP → turn radius increases, more rudder in direction of
turn
Ball deflection opposite: SKID → turn radius decreases, less rudder in direction of turn

Angle Of Bank Calculation

T AS (kts)
AoBRate 1 (°)
​ = ​
+ 7
10

Remote Indicating Compass

Heading Information from flux valve → Error Detector → Amplifier → Torque Motor

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 Advanced Instruments

Minumum Gyros/Accelerometers
System Principle Min Gyros Min Accelerometers

INS Stabilised platform 3 2

IRS Strapdown 3 3

Coordinate Calculations
1° latitude = 60NM
′
1 (arc minute) = 1NM

E /W distance = Δlongitude(in minutes) × cos(latitude)

E /W distance
ΔLongitude(in minutes) = ​

cos(latitude)

Schuler Oscillations
Intentionally forced period of 84.4 minutes

Error Types
Error Caused by

- Inaccurate azimuth gyro

Bound - Integrator errors in the first
stage of integration

- Position error
- Wander in the levelling
Unbound gyros
- Integrator errors in the
second stage of integration

- Intentionally induced to
Schuler correct for the curvature of
the Earth

Radio Altimeter Figures

Carrier wave: 4300MHz (SHF)

Modulation: +-100MHz → 4200 to 4400MHz

Beam width: 30-60 degrees, wider in roll than pitch

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 Accuracy: +-2 feet (<500ft) or +-1.5% (3%?), whichever is greater

Works up to 2500ft AGL

ND Colours and Symbols

Green: engaged auto flight
modes, and active or
selected data

White: armed auto flight

modes, range scales,
current status/data

Magenta: pointers, symbols, route and fly-to information

Cyan: non active background information

Red: warning information

Amber: Caution information and fault flags

Black: blank background or set in the “off” condition

Brown: earth background

Low Visibility Categories

Category Decision Height Runway Visual Range

CAT I 200ft 550m

CAT II 100 < 200 300m

CAT III A < 100ft 175m

CAT III B < 50ft 50m < 175m

CAT III C None None

Must obtain visual with the runway before decision height which means that at least one
of the following elements have been attained and can be maintained:

At least 3 consecutive lights of the centerline of the approach light

Touch down zone (TDZ) lights, centerline (CL) lights or runway (RL) lights

The visual reference must include a lateral element of the ground lighting pattern

AFCS

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 Control loops:

Loop Used in Control flow

N1 and EPR input for Detector → Output → Control → Feedback →

Inner/Closed
autothrottle Back to Detector…

Air/ground logic switch, Input → Detector → Output → Control

Outer/Open
autothrottle (inner loop runs concurrently)

Levels of FWS Alerts

Level A Alert (RED): a warning, requires immediate flight crew action

Level B Alert (AMBER): a caution, requires immediate flight crew alertness in preparation
of possible future action

Level C Alert (AMBER): an advisory, requires flight crew alertness

Stall warning margines must be greater than: 5kts or 5% of CAS

TCAS Indications
Traffic Category Lateral/Vertical Range Colour Symbol

Other Traffic >6nm OR >1200ft Blue/White Hollow diamond

Proximate Traffic <6nm AND <1200ft Blue/White Solid diamond

Traffic Advisory <48 seconds Amber Solid circle

Resolution Advisory 15-35 seconds Amber Solid square

TCAS detection range 30nm

TAWS Modes

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 Excess Terrain Take-off Configuration makes the Glideslope Minimums Windy

Terrain Representation Colours

Capacitance (for Fuel Gauge)

Area of Plates
C apacitance = Relative P ermitivity × ​

Distance between plates

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