Biology for Engineers

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION

Topic 1: Science and Engineering

Generally, Science is the study of the physical world, while Engineering applies
scientific knowledge to design processes, structures or equipment.

Both Engineers and Scientists will have a strong knowledge of science, mathematics
and technology, but engineering students will learn to apply these principles to
designing creative solutions to Engineering challenges.

1. Science is the study of systematically arranged facts that can be logically explained
while engineering is a branch of science that deals with the discipline of gaining and
using scientific, mathematical, economic, and practical knowledge to design and
produce machines and devices that are useful to man.

2. Science has several classifications including natural science, social science, empirical
and applied sciences while engineering has four main branches that include: chemical,
mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering.

3. Engineering uses different scientific fields in its pursuit of suitable designs and
methods of producing devices for the benefit of man.

4. Science is a collection of knowledge and validated systems while engineering is the

utilization of these systems and knowledge to create devices and structures.

 Scientist:
Scientist is trained in a science. Their job involves during scientific research or
solving scientific problems.
 Engineer:
Engineer has scientific training and who designs and builds complicated
products, machines, systems, or structure. They specialize in a branch of engineering.
 SCIENCE ENGINEERING
Science is concerned with understanding Engineering involves the application of
fundamental laws of nature and the science and technology to create useful
behavior of materials and living things. products and services for the whole
community, within economic,
environmental and resource constraints.
Science is the study of the physical world. Engineering applies scientific knowledge
It is knowledge of general truths and laws. to design processes, build/create structures
or equipment.
If a person is asking “why does this If a person is asking, “How do I make this
happen?” they are a scientist. work?” they are an engineer.
Science is a lot of high level theory. Engineering is implementation and
optimization.
Science is a never-ending search. Engineering limited to goals, profit
margins and physical means.
Science explores the phenomena of nature Engineering attempts to use the laws of
and attempts to find the laws that govern nature to replicate them in situation
them. leading to usable and results.
 The Scientific Method

Topic 2: Why should engineers know biology?

What is Biology?
Biology is the study of:
- All living things
- All life processes
- The habitats of living things
- The interactions between and among living things
- The history of living things
- The future of living things
WHY TO STUDY BIOLOGY?
 First, to find solutions to challenges, that faces mankind.
  Second reason is, second reason for studying biology is that biology is us, we
are all biological creatures.
 The third reason why we could, we would want to know biology, is because it is
there, and needs to be understood. This is what is called a scholarly view
HUMAN NEEDS
 Energy
 Shelter
 Oxygen
 Food
 Health
 Clothing

ADVANCEMENT
 The first humans learned things about nature for basic survival.
 Greater knowledge of plants and animals allowed for the development of
agriculture.
 Greater knowledge of the human body allowed for solutions to medical
problems.
NEW DISCOVERIES AND A BETTER FUTURE
 Even though biologists know a lot about living things today, they always
discover new things about life.
 Only with a thorough understanding of living things can humans expect
to improve their lives and ensure the future health of our planet.
IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
 Improved understanding on functions of organisms.
 Improved understanding on causes of diseases.
 Finding treatment for diseases.
 Improved understanding on ecology.
 Better management on environment problems.
 Improved quality and production of food.
 Applications of Biology
 Environment
 Pharmaceutical
 Biofuels
 Food
 Agriculture
 Bio-materials
  Bio based-chemicals
BIOLOGY IN ENGINEERING
 Biological Engineering is an interdisciplinary area focusing on the application of
engineering principles to analyze biological systems and to solve problems in
the interfacing of such systems –
 Plant.
 Animal or microbial with human designed machines,
 Structures, processes and instrumentation.

ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN THE FIELD OF BIOLOGY

Working with Doctors, Clinicians, and Researchers, Bioengineers use traditional
engineering principles and techniques to address biological processes including…
- Ways to replace
- Augment
- Sustain or
- Predict chemical and mechanical processes.
ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN THE FIELD OF BIOLOGY
Biology Engineering

Genome Knowledge Cost, Practical Applications

Medical Research Analytical & synthetic

Molecular Biology Maths, Chemistry, Physics, Computer

science

Recombinant DNA technology Structure, Process, Manufacture

Topic 3 - Major discoveries in biology

1) Vaccination- Discovered in 1796. Small pox virus was bigger problem during that
time. It was fatal for 30% during that time. Milkmaid who got infected with cowpox
virus was not infected by small pox. Vaccine was developed in 1798 and started the
vaccination procedure.

2) Polio Vaccines- It is animal virus. Scientists John, Thomas and Robbins were
awarded Nobel Prize for the discovery that this virus can be cultured (grow) in
laboratories. It led to the discovery of vaccines in 1953. Polio drops were discovered in
1961.

Polio is a disease caused by virus. It could be lethal or will make people handicapped.
Polio vaccines are developed from killed polio virus particles or attenuated virus
particles.

Polio vaccine can be injected in the muscles or through oral drops.

3) Penicillin – Was discovered in1928 by Alexander Fleming and received Nobel Prize.
Penicillin was discovered originally from the fungus Penicillum notatum. It is
antibacterial substance. It greatly reduced the number of deaths from bacterial infection.
Penicillin will not kill any fungus.

4) TB is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It causes

respiratory or skin disease and generally called as TB. Robert Koch discovered that
Mycobacterium is responsible for the disease and awarded Nobel Prize in 1905. This
bacterium cannot be killed by the antibiotic, ampicillin. This disease is generally treated
by combination of two different antibiotics such as rifampicin and deoxycycline.

5) Insulin – It was discovered in 1920. It is animal hormone, made up of protein. It

controls the transport of glucose level from blood into the cell. It maintains the blood
glucose level. Too much glucose in the blood leads to condition called diabetics
disease/disorder. Two scientists, Fredrick and John received Nobel Prize for the
research on insulin.

6) DNA structure is double helix and was discovered in 1953 by Watson & Crick. It
was discovered by a technique called X-ray crystallography. They won Nobel Prize for
this great discovery.

7) X-Rays. German scientist Rontgen discovered X-Rays 1897 and awarded the Nobel
Prize. X-rays are type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. It is quick and painless
test that produces image of the structures inside the body. X-ray beams are absorbed in
different amounts depending on the density of the material.

8) Rabies Viral disease – Rabies viruses are deadly. It spreads to people from the
saliva of infected animals (Ex. Stray dogs).The symptoms include fever, headache,
excess salivation, muscle spasms, paralysis and mental confusion. Rabies virus infects
the central nervous system of mammals and finally infects brain as well and leads to
death. Rabies viral disease can be prevented by vaccines. It was discovered in 1885 by
Louis Pasteur.

9) Cancer- Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably
and spread to other parts of the body. Human body is made up of trillion cells. Cancer
can occur in any cell. Cancer is a genetic disease. It is caused by changes in the genes
that control the cell division and cell growth. In 18th century there were many reports
available on discovery of cancer. Blood cancer was discovered in 1863. In 1950, it was
discovered that smoking cigarettes caused lung cancer. Chewing tobacco-based
products would lead to mouth or throat cancer.

10) Blood groups: During 1900, scientist discovered three different human blood
groups such as A, B and O. Karl Landsteiner, an Austrian scientist received Nobel Prize
for this discovery. 1902, two students who worked in Dr. Karl’s lab discovered the
fourth blood group AB. Blood group O is designated as universal donor and this blood
can be given to anyone. Blood group AB is discovered later that it is universal acceptor.
People who have AB blood group can receive blood from any other group. Another
 protein Rhesus (Rh) was found in some people’s red blood cell and missing in some
others. People who have such protein in the red blood cell called as Rh+, if they do not
have, referred as Rh negative.

11) Cell: It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He actually observed the cork
(dead plant cells with cell wall) under the microscope and coined the term cell.
Invention of microscope led to the discovery of the cell. Later it helped to develop cell
theory such as new cells can be developed from the existing cells.

Topic 4 - Cell: basic unit of life- prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Cell:
Cell is a basic structural and functional unit of all living organism. Robert Hooke discovered the
cell in the year 1665 and coined the term “cells”. In 1673 Antan van Leeuwenhoek created a
powerful microscope for visualize the structure of cell. In 1938 – 1939, Schwann and Schleiden
concluded that all plants and animals are made of cells.
Cell theory:
All organism composed of one or more cells
The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things
All cells are originating from pre-existing cells.
The cell contains DNA is responsible for carrying genetic information

Prokaryotic Cell

• Prokaryotic cells fall into a size range of about1–5µm.

• A prokaryotic cell contains external and internal structures.

• Capsule, flagella, axial filaments, fimbriae, and pili are present external to the cell wall, while
interior of the bacterial cell contains cytoplasm.
Organelles:
Flagella
• Flagella–Flagellaarewhiplikestructuresmadeofproteinandprovidemotilitytothe cell.
• Prokaryotic cells maybe
a) Monotrichous–Cells that have one flagellum.
b) Lophotrichus–Cells that have a clump of flagella known a tuft, at one end of the cell.
c) Amphitrichous–Cells that have flagella at two ends of the cell.
d) Peritrichous–Cellsthathaveflagellacoveringtheentirecellonthesurface.

Fimbriae and pili

• Fimbriae and pili– Fimbriae are proteinaceous, sticky, projected structure used by cells to attach to each
other and to objects around them, while pili are tubules that are used to transfer DNA from one cell to
another cell.

• Capsule Depending on the type of bacterium, there may be an exterior surrounding layer, such as a
capsule or slime layer, made of glyocalyx.

Cell wall
• The prokaryotic cell wall is present outside the plasma membrane.
• It provides rigidity to the cell shape and structure and protects the cell from its environment.
• Bacterial cell wall is primarily composed of peptidoglycan and on the basis of cell wall composition the
bacteria classified into gram-positive and gram negative organisms.

Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is thick, aqueous, semi-transparent fluid present inside the prokaryotic cell.

• It is about 80% water and contains primarily proteins (enzymes), carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic ions,
and many low- molecular-weight compounds.
• Inorganic ions are present in much higher concentrations in cytoplasm than in most media.

Nucleoid/Genetic material
• Nucleoid/Genetic material– The cytoplasm also contains a region called the nucleoid, which is where the
DNA of the cell is located.

• The prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that isn’t contained within a nuclear membrane or
envelope.

• The nucleoid or bacterial chromosome comprises a closed circle of double stranded DNA, many times
the length of the cell and is highly folded and compacted.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the principle structure in a prokaryotic cell after the nucleoid.
• They are composed of a complex of protein and RNA, and are the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
• The prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S, comprised of sub-units50S and 30S.

Endospore
• A number of gram-positive bacteria can form a special resistant, dormant structure called an endospore.
• Endospores develop within vegetative bacterial cells and are extraordinarily resistant to environmental
stresses such as heat, ultraviolet radiation, gamma radiation, chemical disinfectants, and desiccation.

Eukaryotic cell

Plasma membrane
• Like bacteria and archaea, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding
environment.

• The plasma membrane controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of
the cell.

• Wastes (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the plasma
membrane, usually with some help of protein transporters.

Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm refers to the entire region of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope.
• It is composed of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various chemicals

• Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it nevertheless has a semisolid
consistency. It is crowded in there.

• Proteins, simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, ions and many other
water-soluble molecules are all competing for space and water.

Nucleus
• The nucleus houses the cell’s DNA.
Nuclear envelope
• Outermost boundary of the nucleus is a double-membrane-both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
• The nuclear envelope is also punctuated with protein-based pores that control the passage of ions,
molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.

• The nucleoplasm is the semisolid fluid inside the nucleus where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus,
a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs.

Chromatin and chromosomes

• Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made-up of DNA, the hereditary material.

• You may remember that in bacteria and archaea, DNA is typically organized into one or more circular
chromosome(s).
• In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures.
• Every eukaryotic species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus fits cells.

• The term chromatin is used to describe chromosomes (the protein-DNA complexes) when they are both
condensed and de-condensed.

Various levels of the organization of chromatin

Nucleolus
• A darkly staining area within the nucleus called the nucleolus aggregates the ribosomal RNA with
associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then transported out to the cytoplasm
through the pores in the nuclear envelope.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis.
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are often called the “powerhouses or energy factories” of a cell because they are the primary site of
metabolic respiration in eukaryotes.

Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes.

• These organelles carry out redox reactions that oxidize and breakdown fatty acids and aminoacids.

• They also help to detoxify many toxins that may enter the body.

Vesicles and vacuoles

• Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.
• Major differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cell
 Comparison of plant and animal cells

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Main differences between plant and animal cell:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Plant cells have cell wall Animal cells do not have cell wall
Plant cells have plastids (membrane-bound Animal cells do not have such plastids
organelle) such as chloroplast, chromoplast like chloroplast or other types.
and amyloplast
Plant cells are totipotent. Totipotent means, Animal cells are not totipotent.
a new plant can be generated from any
single cell.
Big size vacuole is present in plant cell Animal cells have small size vacuoles
Plants can do photosynthesis Animals cannot do photosynthesis
Similarities among all three different types of cells:

All bacterial, plant and animal cells have cytoplasm. In bacteria, all the parts such as
ribosomes and DNA (nucleoid) are suspended in the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is filled
with water, proteins, carbohydrates and other metabolites. In bacteria, almost all
chemical reactions must occur in the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm in plant and animal cells
has to accommodate different membrane bound organelles. Excluding the nucleus,
other organelles such as Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, etc. are
present in the cytoplasm. Nucleus is present in Eukaryotic organisms (plants and
animals). Nucleus is just an organelle and it has DNA inside. Organelle means small
organ like structure present inside the cell and generally covered by lipid membrane.
Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles inside the cell, including nucleus.
Each organelle plays different biological role (function) inside the eukaryotic cell.
Hence, the chemical reactions that occur in each organelle are different from other
organelle in the same cell.

Chromosomes/DNA:

Chromosomes are structural material, made up of DNA and proteins. DNA stands for
Deoxy ribonucleic acid. Chromosomes are present in all bacteria, plant and animal
cells. Interestingly, all living organisms including bacteria, plant or animal, the DNA is
made up of 4 types of nucleotides such as A, T, C and G.
All these 4 different nucleotides are made up of nitrogenous base + deoxy-ribose sugar
+ Phosphate. The nitrogenous base is different from one another; the ribose sugar and
phosphate are similar in all nucleotides. The four different nitrogenous bases in DNA
are: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine. DNA in all living organisms in this
planet is made up of these 4 nitrogenous bases. Nucleotide is a monomer. DNA is a
polymer of 4 different nucleotides.

Replication of DNA: All DNA, whether it is from bacteria, plant or animal cell, goes
through replication process during the cell division. Cell division normally happens
when the cell receives enough nutrients and water. Although bacterial, plant and animal
chromosomal DNA is made up of same 4 different nucleotides, the sequence in which
they are arranged is not same. Sequence means the order of the nucleotides present in
the chromosomes. Example: ATCG is one order. CTAG is another order of nucleotides.

RNA:

There are two types of nucleic acids in all living organisms. One is DNA and another is
RNA. RNA means ribonucleic acid. RNA is made up of 4 different nitrogenous bases
such as, Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine and Guanine. There is no Thymine in RNA. Instead,
it has Uracil. In general, RNA is synthesized from DNA. RNA is also a polymer of
these 4 different nitrogenous bases. The three major differences between RNA and
DNA are: 1) RNA has ribose sugar in the nucleotide (not deoxy ribose sugar as in
DNA). 2) RNA has Uracil (instead of Thymine in DNA), RNA is single stranded and
DNA is double stranded. All RNA in bacteria, plant and animal cells follow these same
rules. However, the sequence of RNA differs from one another. It means, the order of
nucleotides present in the RNA differs from one to another. The sequence of RNA is
decided by the sequence the DNA present in the chromosomes, because RNA is
synthesized from DNA only. There are three different types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA
and tRNA. All cells, including bacterial, plant or animal, have these 3 types of RNA.
mRNA means – messenger RNA, as it is carrying a message. It means, it carries a
hidden message (encoded) to synthesize proteins. Synthesis of mRNA from DNA is
referred as transcription.

Ribosomes and Proteins:

All bacterial, plant and animal cells have ribosomes. The biological role (function) of
ribosomes in all cells is protein biosynthesis. Ribosomes can do protein biosynthesis
only after binding or attaching with mRNA. The process of synthesis of proteins from
mRNA is called as Translation. Proteins are made up of amino acids. All proteins in
any type of cell (bacterial, plant or animal) are basically made from 20 different amino
acids. However, the sequence (the order) of amino acid differs from one protein to
another. The sequence of amino acids is determined by the nucleotide sequence present
in mRNA. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA is determined or decided by the
sequence of nucleotides in DNA. This is the same rule in all living cells. Protein
synthesis occurs normally in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Parts of Plant Cell and Animal Cell and their functions

 Cell structure, organelles and their functions

Major membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells

There are many membrane bound organelles in eukaryotic cells include, nucleus,
chloroplast, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, big vacuoles etc. Few of the membrane-bound organelles such as big
vacuoles and plastids (chloroplasts) are present only in plant cells. However, nucleus is
present in all eukaryotic cells.

Nucleus:

Nucleus is enclosed by nuclear envelope. It has nuclear pores, through which RNA and
protein molecules are transported. Chromosomal DNA is bound with proteins and is
referred as chromatin, which are present inside the nucleus. All chromatin threads are
collectively called as chromosomes. Nucleus is filled with nucleoplasm. It also has
nucleolus. It is the site for rRNA synthesis and ribosome biosynthesis.

Mitochondria:

Mitochondria are present in both plant and animal cells. The number of mitochondria
per cell varies from cell to cell in animals. Tissues (made up of cells) need more energy
normally have more number of mitochondria in a single cell. Mitochondria are semi-
autonomous organelle. It has its own DNA and ribosomes. Protein biosynthesis can also
happen inside mitochondria. Mitochondria help in production of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate), the energy
molecule during the cellular
respiration process.

Animals’ sperms cells have

mitochondria and they are responsible for their mobility. However, mitochondria of
sperm cells do not enter into the egg cell. All animals receive mitochondria only from
mother’s egg cell.

Although glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm of the cell, the remaining steps like
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occurs inside the mitochondria and release
ATP. ATP is required for any reaction or action that requires energy. Hence they
produce ATP; mitochondria are called as ‘power house’ of the cell.

Chloroplast:

It is present only in the plants. It is also called as semi-autonomous organelle as it

contains its own DNA and ribosomes. Protein biosynthesis occurs inside the chloroplast
also. Photosynthesis in plant cells occurs only inside the organelle, chloroplast.
Chloroplast contains thylakoids and they are stacked together as shown in the figure
below.

Photosynthesis reaction helps in synthesis of glucose (type of carbohydrate/sugar) and

release oxygen in the atmosphere.
Endoplasmic reticulum-

There are two types and they are called as ‘Rough’ and Smooth endoplasmic reticulum-

Rough ER: Proteins that need to be secreted outside the cell or to be attached to plasma-
membrane are processed in rough ER. Proteins that stay in the cytoplasm are not
modified in rough ER. It is modified and transported through small vesicles. For
example, pancreatic cells (in animals) will have more of rough ER as it has to secrete
insulin and transport them out. It also makes glycoproteins. Carbohydrates are attached
with proteins inside the rough ER.

Smooth ER: Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, phospholipids and steroids. It also

detoxifies drugs and poisons. It stores calcium ions. Liver cells have more smooth-ER
as it needs to detoxify the chemicals in the body.

Golgi apparatus is like shipping and receiving center. Golgi further modifies the
products synthesized at ER. It is also involved in synthesis of complex polysaccharides.
Golgi sorts and packages the proteins or other molecules in the form of transport
vesicles.

Lysosomes are also membrane-bound organelles and have many hydrolytic enzymes
that can digest macromolecules. Peroxisome is also membrane-bound organelle.

Topic 5 - Overview of cell cycle and cell division

Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

Prokaryotic cells do NOT go through mitosis or meiotic cell division. Bacterial cells
divide by a process called binary fission. The somatic cells of eukaryotic organisms go
through the cell division mitosis. Germ cells or sex cells divide by a process called
meiosis.

Basics: Mitosis begins and ends with diploid. Diploid means, two sets of each
chromosome in a cell. 23 pairs of chromosomes are present in human beings. Here 2
pairs of chromosomes are shown for an example. This picture shows the chromosomal
DNA before the replication process.

Here the number of copies of each chromosome is

2. N is the total number of chromosomes present in
a single cell (excluding the copy). In this picture, 1
and 2 are homologous chromosomes. Likewise, 3
and 4 represent another set of homologous
chromosomes (they are same copies – have similar
number of genes, size and length). Chromosomes 1
and 3 (red colour) are possibly from one parent
(mother or father).

Cell cycle: The somatic cells do not divide all the

time and it depends on available nutrients and the age of an organism. Very young plant
seedlings or animals have actively dividing cells. The outcome of mitotic cell division
is to produce two daughter cells exactly like the original mother cell (One cell becomes
two cells after the mitosis). Overall, the cell cycle has different phases such as G0, G1,
S, G2 and M phases. These phases are shown below.

G0 Phase – If cells are not going through any

cell division for a long period of time it is
referred as G0 phase. The cell has left the cell
cycle and stopped dividing.

G1, S and G2 Phases are collectively referred

as Interphase in actively dividing cells.

G – stands for Gap

Gap 1 (G1)– Cells increase in size during this

phase and the G1 check point control
mechanism confirms that everything is ready of
DNA synthesis.

S Phase – S refers synthesis-

DNA synthesis (replication of DNA) occurs

during this phase. Each and every chromosome
is doubled in the cell. Checkpoint mechanism confirms all the chromosomes are
replicated and not damaged.

G2 Phase – Gap 2 phase. The cell continues to grow bigger. G2 checkpoint mechanism
confirms everything is ready for Mitotic (M) phase.

Cell division cycle is controlled by cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) enzymes and the
proteins called Cyclin. Nobel prize was awarded for this discovery.

INTERPHASE

• Chromosomes are NOT condensed and

invisible (in microscopic view) thin thread
like structure.
– All the chromosomes are already
replicated (in the S phase). Three
pairs of chromosomes are taken here
as an example to explain the mitosis.
Sister chromatids are not seen until
prophase
• The centrosome divides into two.
Centrosomes contain centrioles. Centrioles organize microtubule filaments.

This picture shows how one chromosome appears

after the replication process and attached with each
other before the cell division. The two copies of a
replicated chromosome are termed chromatids. They
are joined at the centromere to form a pair of sister
chromatids

chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes

connected at the centromere

centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach during

mitosis and meiosis.

PROPHASE

• Nuclear envelope dissociates into smaller vesicles

• Nucleolus gets diffused
 • Centrosomes separate and move towards two opposite poles
• The mitotic spindle apparatus is formed. It is made up of microtubules (MTs). (MTs are
made up of proteins)

METAPHASE

• Spindle fibers attach with the sister

chromatids
• Kinetochore microtubules grow from the
two poles
If they make contact with a kinetochore, the sister
chromatid is “captured”. If not, the microtubule
depolymerizes and retracts to the centrosome

•
The two kinetochores on a pair of sister
chromatids are attached with MTs from
both two opposite poles. Pairs of sister chromatids align themselves along a
plane called the metaphase plate
•
ANAPHASE – The connection holding the sister
chromatids together is broken.

• Each chromatid, now an individual chromosome, is

linked to only one pole. As anaphase proceeds the
Kinetochore MTs get shorter. Chromosomes move
to opposite poles.
• Poles themselves move further
away from each other

• TELOPHASE - Chromosomes reach their

respective poles and becoming thin threads
like before
• Nuclear membrane reforms to form two
separate nuclei
• In most cases, mitosis is quickly followed by
cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm into two)
 • In animals, formation of a cleavage furrow is seen.
• In plants, formation of a cell plate is observed.

All four different phases of mitosis and cytokinesis at the end result in formation two
genetically similar cells from one mother cell. It retains the chromosome number. The
cell division is repeated until the development of particular tissue or organ in any
organism.

Meiosis –
This type of cell division occurs only in the reproductive cells (sex cells or germ cells).
Example for germ cells are sperms (male) and egg (female) cells in animals and human
beings. These sperm or egg cells are also called as gametes. They are generally haploid
in nature. 4 haploid gametes are normally produced from 1 diploid primordial cell
present in testes (male) or ovary (female). In diploid cell, each chromosome has another
copy. In haploid cell each chromosome has no other copy. After fertilization of sperm
and egg it becomes diploid (one from male and another from female).

• Like mitosis, meiosis begins after a cell has progressed through interphase
of the cell cycle
• Unlike mitosis, meiosis involves two successive divisions. These are termed
Meiosis I and II

Meiosis and Mitosis Key differences

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
The mitosis occurs in all somatic cells It occurs only in reproductive cells
 At the end it produces two daughter cells At the end it produces 4 daughter cells
At the end, both cells are diploid At the end, all 4 cells are haploid
(gametes)
No Chromosomal crossover in mitosis Chromosomal crossover happens in
prophase of Meiosis I
There are only 4 stages like prophase, Meiosis is divided to Meiosis I and
anaphase, metaphase and telophase Meiosis II. Prophase in Meiosis 1 has 5
stages.

Topic 6 – Gene, Genome and Chromosome

Gene:

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Some
genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not code
for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2
million bases. An international research effort called the Human Genome Project, which worked
to determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains, estimated
that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Every person has two copies of each gene,
one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of
genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of
the same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences
contribute to each person’s unique physical features. Genes are made up of DNA. Each
chromosome contains many genes.

Chromosome:

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins
called histones that support its structure. Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not
even under a microscope—when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up
chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a
microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing
chromosomes during cell division. Each chromosome has a constriction point called the
centromere, which divides the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the
chromosome is labelled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labelled the “q arm.”
The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic
shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific genes.
Genome

An organism's complete set of DNA is called its genome. Virtually every single cell in the body

contains a complete copy of the approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs, or letters, that make up

the human genome.

Topic 7 - DNA as a Genetic Material

In early 20th century scientist did not know what the genetic material was in an organism. By
doing many experiments finally it was evident that DNA is a genetic material. What is genetic
material? Genetic material means, any material of an organism (bacteria, plant, animal or viruses)
that carries the genetic information and that passes from one generation to next generation. For
example, a mango tree will produce many mangoes with seeds and from the seeds new mango
tree will develop. What is transferred to the seeds and what determines in the seed to become
another mango tree? Many experiments were carried out and finally it was concluded that DNA
is the genetic material.

Frederick Griffith Experiment (1928)

In 1928, experiments were carried out by using two different types of bacterial strains of
Streptococcus pneumoniae. One of the S. pneumoniae strains was referred as Smooth (S) and
highly virulent. This S strain can kill mice if it was injected into its body. Another strain, S.
pneumoniae, referred as Rough (R) is not virulent, not capable of killing mice, when it was
injected to its body.
Griffith did an interesting experiment with heat-killed virulent (S) strain of S. pneumoniae. Now
the mice were alive. However, when he injected mouse with the mixture of heat-killed virulent
and live non-virulent strain of (R) of S. pneumoniae, the mouse were dead. These bacteria infect
the lung cells. Griffith found the smooth strain (lethal-virulent strain) in the lungs of dead mice.
He concluded that there is something transformed from the heat-killed S strain into live non
virulent strain of S. pneumoniae. The genetic material was transformed from one bacterium to
another bacterium. But it was not clear whether it was DNA or something else.

Later in year 1944, Scientists Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty did well plan experiment with
many controls and determined that DNA is the transformation material from the heat-killed S
strain to live R strain. The experiment they designed is as given below as a diagram
In all 5 different treatments, the non-virulent R strain was added with 5 different molecules. In
first case, the polysaccharides in the S strain were destroyed after the extract was prepared from
S strain culture. In 2nd case, lipids from the heat killed S strain extract were destroyed by the
enzymes lipases. In 3rd case, RNA was destroyed from the heat killed S strain extract and
injected along with non-virulent R strain. In 4th case all proteins were destroyed by the enzyme
protease and injected with live R strain. In all the above-mentioned 4 cases, the mice were dead.
It showed that polysaccharides, lipid, RNA or protein are not the genetic material. In the 5th case,
DNA was destroyed by enzymes DNases in the S strain extract and mixed with non-virulent R
strain of S. pneumoniae. Now the mice were alive and clearly indicated that DNA is the genetic
material.

Convincing final evidence came in year 1952, when scientists, Hershey and Chase did an
experiment with bacteriophage and bacteria. Bacteriphages are viruses that infect only bacteria
and multiply inside the bacteria. These scientists used T2 bacteriophage which contains double
stranded DNA inside the protein coat. This bacteriophage has only two components. One is

protein coat and double stranded DNA inside the protein coat.
These viruses can replicate or multiply only inside another bacterium. Protein can be radioactively
labeled with sulfur (35S) and DNA can be labeled with radioactive 32P. By instrument one can
estimate the radioactivity in a sample. Phages were multiplied in the medium containing 35S or 32P
separately. It means, one flask the proteins are labeled in the bacteriophages and in another flask,
DNA molecules are labeled. Now the cultures are stirred in the blender to separate the empty
protein shell (without DNA inside). These samples are centrifuged to pellet the bacteria and
estimated the radioactivity both in the supernatant and the pellet. They identified the radioactivity
in the pellet (bacterial cells) where they had bacteria and DNA of bacteriophage. It clearly
indicated that DNA is sent inside the bacterium cell and gets multiplied and form new
bacteriophages. Hence, forming new bacteriophages is determined by the DNA and not by the
protein. Hence it clearly proved that DNA is the genetic material.
Topic 9 – Central Dogma of Life