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Reassessment of Natural Expansive Materials and Their Impact on Freeze-

Thaw Cycles in Geotechnical Engineering: A Review

Article in Frontiers in Built Environment · July 2024

DOI: 10.3389/fbuil.2024.1396542

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 TYPE Review
PUBLISHED 25 July 2024
DOI 10.3389/fbuil.2024.1396542

Reassessment of natural
OPEN ACCESS expansive materials and their
EDITED BY
Fei Wang,
Tarleton State University, United States
impact on freeze-thaw cycles in
REVIEWED BY
Menglim Hoy,
geotechnical engineering: a
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
F. E. Jalal,
Shenzhen University, China
review
Jinhu Song,
University of Texas at San Antonio, United States Felix Oppong and Oladoyin Kolawole*
*CORRESPONDENCE
Oladoyin Kolawole, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ,
[Link]@[Link] United States

RECEIVED 05 March 2024

ACCEPTED 04 July 2024
PUBLISHED 25 July 2024

CITATION
The stabilization and application of expansive geomaterials are critical in
Oppong F and Kolawole O (2024), geotechnical engineering. These naturally expansive materials exhibit complex
Reassessment of natural expansive materials hydro-chemo-mechanical properties because they undergo volumetric changes
and their impact on freeze-thaw cycles in
geotechnical engineering: a review.
in response to variations in moisture content and/or temperature. The
Front. Built Environ. 10:1396542. characteristic shrink-swell behavior of these materials makes their use
doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2024.1396542 problematic and plays a substantial role in influencing the stability of geo-
COPYRIGHT infrastructure applications. However, there is a lack of comprehensive
© 2024 Oppong and Kolawole. This is an open- knowledge of the mechanisms and factors impacting their behavior to ensure
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
mechanical integrity in natural and built infrastructure and geo-engineering
The use, distribution or reproduction in other projects. This work provides a comprehensive review of the intrinsic and
forums is permitted, provided the original extrinsic factors contributing to the shrink-swell behavior and expansion
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
credited and that the original publication in this
mechanisms of frost-heaving and natural-expansive geomaterials, such as
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted expansive clays and sulfate minerals. We reviewed and synthesized peer-
academic practice. No use, distribution or reviewed published works in various databases and academic repositories in
reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.
the last 100 years. The influence of shrink-swell behavior of these geomaterials
and the critical role they play in engineering infrastructure were highlighted,
explicitly focusing on their involvement in geotechnical-related hazards, such as
the freeze-thaw cycle, and the damage and sulfate-attack of geo-infrastructure.
We analyzed the interactions between clay minerals, especially how bentonite
enhances grout stability and acts as a buffer material in high-level nuclear waste
repositories. The findings indicate that water interaction with geomaterials and
concrete can cause about a 10% volume expansion when frozen. Also, the
exposure of fractured rocks to low (≤0°C) and high (>0°C) temperatures can
greatly change rock deformation and strength. Finally, gypsum interacting with
water can theoretically increase in volume by 62% to form ice crystals. This
forward-leading review presents the advantages, disadvantages, and unresolved
issues of expansive natural geotechnical materials that improve the resiliency and
sustainability of geological infrastructure.

KEYWORDS

geomaterials, expansive clay, frost-heaving, sulfate minerals, soil improvement,

geotechnical engineering

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1 Introduction structures. Jiang et al. (2023) focused on the frost-heaving

characteristics of hydraulic tunnel wall rock in cold regions,
Natural expansive geomaterials are essential to geotechnical emphasizing the spatial distribution and variation of frozen areas
engineering due to their unique properties during the and frost-heaving forces. Low temperatures, especially below-
construction and reinforcement of surface, near-surface, and freezing points, significantly affect surrounding rock stability in
underground infrastructure. These natural expansive materials rock engineering projects. Prolonged exposure to negative
exhibit complex hydro-chemo-mechanical properties, and their temperature and freezing conditions alters the deformation and
use poses a threat because they undergo volumetric changes in intensity of fractured rocks (Wang and Zhou, 2018). As a result, in
response to variations in moisture content and/or temperature. the study of rock tunneling in cold regions, the occurrence and
These geomaterials often exhibit a freeze-thaw behavior, and expansion of the frost-heaving temperature have been addressed to
their expansion and shrinkage mechanism can be detrimental to prevent and reduce frost damage. Studies have shown that the
geo-infrastructure. Geo-infrastructure refers to infrastructures built temperature at the entrance section of tunnels is significantly
on or around geomaterials (rocks and soils) on the surface, near- affected by the colder air both inside and outside the tunnel
surface, and deep underground environments that support human during the cold season, consequently making it the main area
activities. The inherent volume change characteristics of naturally susceptible to freezing damage (Yu et al., 2019; Zhou et al.,
expansive materials can lead to cracking and deformations 2021). Zhang et al. (2022) reported that the decrease in
(i.e., failures), which play a substantial role in influencing the temperature in the tunnel causes the freezing of water, and the
stability and geotechnical-related hazards, especially in slopes (Qi volume expansion damages the tunnel structure further, causing
and Vanapalli, 2015), underground tunnels (Schullera and other forms of freezing damage. This highlights the critical role of
Schweiger, 2002), structures (Liu et al., 2016), wellbore (Zhang low temperatures in driving freezing damage. Furthermore, freezing
et al., 1999), and in underground mining (Feng et al., 2022). The damage to tunnel foundations encompasses various aspects,
problematic results associated with these materials have led including failures in the drainage system, snowmelt and ice
researchers to address innovative approaches to mitigate formation on roadcut surfaces, foundation seepage, and icing
geomaterials’ freeze-thaw cycles and shrink-swell behavior, issues (Li et al., 2022).
especially in cold regions in our dynamic, fast-paced age. The Natural expansive geomaterials cause many problems in geo-
typical contributing factors that result in the volume change of engineering and vary significantly in volume; thus, they expand as
these materials are the variations in temperature, moisture content, they absorb water and shrink as they evaporate (Pooni et al., 2019).
pressure, and chemical reaction, and the details are: (i) the soil and Natural expansive geomaterials (expansive soils) are common
rock masses undergo freeze-thaw cycles because of temperature worldwide, covering about 33% of Sudan, 20% of Indonesia and
variations, and these cycles cause phase transitions between water India, 12% of Syria, and approximately 6% of China (Jalal et al.,
and ice, as the volume of ice is greater than that of water, which may 2020), and their existence severely slows down geotechnical projects
induce the volume expansion; and (ii) some natural soils and rocks and causes long-term stability problems (Aziz et al., 2015). Several
contains mineral constituents that could cause volume expansion researchers have discussed the inter-particle swelling and
owing to water absorption and this are the clay minerals and intercrystalline expansion mechanism of expansive soils and
sulfate minerals. pointed out that the economic losses due to the alternating
Generally, frost-heaving behavior in geomaterials is one of the shrinkage and expansion behavior of these materials outweigh
leading causes of damage to geo-infrastructure in cold climates, the damage caused by natural disasters (Jones and Holtz, 1973).
especially in the winter season (Huang et al., 2020). The freeze-thaw Basma et al. (1996) found that cyclic swelling and shrinkage of
settlement of structures on soft clay significantly impacts the expansive clays can result in changes in their expansive behavior and
geotechnical characteristics of soft soils in cold regions (Konrad microstructure. Lajurkar et al. (2013) highlighted the damaging
and Morgenstern, 1980; Barker and Thomas, 2013). Also, the effects of alternate swelling and shrinkage on structures built on
seasonal and alternating temperatures can cause freeze-thaw expansive soils. Phanikumar and Singla, (2016) discussed the
cycles in soil and rocks, disturbing engineered underground problems posed by expansive soils and explored the efficiency of
infrastructure and resulting in potential hazards. Frost heaving fiber reinforcement in reducing swelling and shrinkage.
varies based on humidity and soil conditions, which can result in Muthukumar and Shukla (2019) explained that the swelling
non-uniform deformation of railway and highway subgrade decreased slightly with an increase in fiber content, while
constructed on permafrost (Chen Y. et al., 2020). Geo- shrinkage significantly decreased with the addition of fibers.
infrastructure projects built in freeze-thaw geomaterials are one Comparatively, sulfates cover a significant portion of the Earth’s
of the most prevalent challenges in the world (Matsuoka, 2001). surface, making them a crucial area of interest for researchers due to
mentioned that rocks can uptake water during slow freezing, and their significance in both geological and environmental contexts.
thus, for frost damage, high initial water content is unnecessary. The diverse nature of sulphates and their widespread distribution
Consequently, the implications of frost heaving on geotechnical demands thorough investigation to understand their implications
practices in cold regions have been investigated by several and effects on geo-systems. Joanna, (2012) highlighted that
researchers. Michaud and Dyke, (2008) discussed the mechanism sulphates cover a significant portion of the Earth’s surface,
of bedrock frost heave in permafrost regions, emphasizing the including coastal salt lakes, sabkhas, and salt lakes in different
potential threat it poses to engineering design stability. regions. Tarragona, (2014) discussed the expansion mechanisms
Shi et al. (2020) analyze the influence of soil frost heaving on the of sulphated rocks and soils, emphasizing the role of gypsum
internal force and displacement of foundation pit supporting precipitation in discontinuities, which can lead to swelling strains

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and geo-structural damage. Maio et al. (2014) investigated the occurs in the northern hemisphere (cold regions) countries like
natural occurrence of sulphates in groundwater, suggesting that America, Canada, Russia, and the Nordic regions e.g., Denmark,
gypsum formations associated with specific carbonate rocks are the Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Greenland (Brown et al.,
predominant source of sulphates in a particular area. Samborska 1998; Prince et al., 2018) (Figure 1A), and its influence is a problem
et al. (2013) studied Triassic carbonate aquifers in Upper Silesia, of national concern since it delays many engineering projects
Poland, and found that sulphate sources included sulphide (Taivainen, 1963). The effect of frost heaving causes a lot of
weathering and gypsum dissolution. Fontboté et al. (2017) damage to geo-structures, such as pipelines (Oswell, 2011),
focused on sulfide minerals in hydrothermal deposits, which play subgrades (Wu et al., 2018), foundations, tunnels, etc.
a crucial role in concentrating metals and triggering the deposition The prevalence of seasonal freezing and thawing in the northern
of valuable metals through the precipitation of less economically hemisphere has far-reaching implications with more than half of the
significant sulfides. These studies represent a diverse range of northern hemisphere’s land area (Figure 1A) (Prince et al., 2018).
investigations into sulphates and shed light on their geological Within this vast region, a significant portion, precisely one-quarter
significance, expansion mechanisms and natural occurrence as well as 17% of the Earth’s exposed land surface is characterized by
on earth. permafrost, where the ground remains frozen at or below 0°C for a
The behavior of expansive soils, sulfate attack, and freeze-thaw minimum of two consecutive years (Christiansen et al., 2010;
cycles can influence the volumetric expansion of cement structures. Gruber, 2012; Biskaborn et al., 2019). In China, there is an
Over time, the shrinkage and expansion of expansive soil can cause extensive distribution of frozen soil in the northern climates like
foundation movement, cracking, and structural damage (Holtz et al., Tibet, Xinjiang, and Qinghai, where the temperature is low (below
2011). Sulfates can penetrate concrete and react with calcium 0°C), large frozen depths, and long durations in the soil throughout
hydroxide and hydrated calcium aluminate to form expanding two-thirds of the time in a year (Liu et al., 2017). It is reported that
compounds that can cause cracking, spalling and loss of engineers working at underground tunnels in these areas in China
structural integrity (Al-Dulaijan et al., 2003; Mamun and often observe ice in fractured rock mass at low temperatures, which
Bindiganavile, 2011; Min et al., 2019; Othman et al., 2020; Zhang sometimes causes the fissure volume to expand, resulting in
et al., 2021; Tian et al., 2023). Freeze and thaw cycles can create underground instability (Wang et al., 2016b). Permafrost in the
internal stresses within the concrete and lead to structural damage Nordic region can be found in lowland areas with marine sediments,
and failure (Valenza and Scherer, 2007; Dabas et al., 2021). palsas, and peat plateaus, and in many mountainous regions at
The objective of this study is to comprehensively review the temperatures near 0.8°C (Figure 1B), making it highly responsive to
expansion behavior and mechanisms of natural expansive materials climate variations (Christiansen et al., 2010).
and frost-heaving behavior in geo-infrastructure. Further, this study In locations such as Svalbard, northeast Greenland, and the
will provide an innovative review of: i) the relationship between highest mountainous zones throughout the Nordic area, permafrost
several potential underlying factors, including moisture content, is slightly colder but still just a few degrees above freezing
temperature, and pressure contributing to the volume expansion (Christiansen et al., 2010). Notably, in Finland, the penetration of
and shrinkage variations of natural expansive materials; ii) frost into glacial soils exhibits distinct regional patterns; thus, in the
consequences of material expansion and shrinkage for mitigating southern part of the country, frost reaches depths of approximately
these challenges in geotechnical engineering, and iii) ongoing efforts 1.22 m–1.83 m (4–6 ft), while in the northern part, this freezing
to enhance the resilience and sustainability of geo-engineering phenomenon extends much deeper, ranging from 2.13 m to 3.05 m
practices in the face of variable natural expansive material (7–10 ft) which accounts for more frost occurrence in the northern
behavior. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: i) Section climate of Finland (Taivainen, 1963). As a result, boundary markers
2 introduces the swelling-shrinkage behavior of expansive natural often shift from their designated positions due to the upward
materials, and Section 3 covers swelling-shrinkage mechanisms of movement of rocks resulting from the volumetric expansion of
natural expansive materials; ii) Section 4 focuses on the impact of ice beneath road beds (Taivainen, 1963).
freeze-thaw cycles and sulfate exposure on the durability of natural Extensive research on frost-heaving has been conducted since
and built infrastructure, and Section 5 presents the significance and the early 1990s till date. Taber (1930) and Taber (1929) explored the
implications of natural expansive materials in geotechnical frost-heaving mechanisms such as the growth of ice lenses in soil.
engineering applications, and iii) lastly, these sections will be Mu and Ladanyi, (1987) developed models that integrated stress-
followed by the conclusion section and future research strain behavior, heat, and mass transport to estimate frost heave.
direction section. Matsuoka (1990) focused on measuring frost-heaving strains in
rocks, observing the influence of surface area on freezing expansion
(Huang et al., 2020). Dagli et al. (2018) investigated the role of
2 Swelling-shrinkage behavior of suction in water migration to the frost front. Wang and Zhou, (2018)
expansive natural materials emphasized how jointed rock mass properties can affect frost-
heaving pressure due to phase changes. Osokin et al. (2000),
2.1 Frost-heaving materials in geotechnical Rekstad et al. (2013), and Liu et al. (2017) highlighted the
engineering importance of freezing and negative temperatures in soil, leading
to volume expansion and negative pressure formation in
Many types of soils and rock masses show frost-heaving frozen areas.
behavior during the freeze-thaw cycles because of temperature Frost heaving is primarily affected by factors such as
variations when they contain water. Generally, frost heaving temperature and pressure, and the details of each factor are

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FIGURE 1
Freezing and thawing in geomaterials in the Northern Hemisphere: (A) Northern Hemisphere land cover [tundra (blue), forest (green), open land
(yellow), and water/ice (white); Red dots mark weather stations] [modified after (Prince et al., 2018)]; (B) Permafrost distribution in the Nordic area based
on Circum-Arctic Permafrost Map [modified after (Brown et al., 1998)].

expressed below. However, it is important to recognize that the study monitoring and quantifying freeze-thaw cycles, which are defined by
of this phenomenon requires a comprehensive understanding of temperature fluctuations either from above freezing to below 0°C or
multiple contributing factors (Lu et al., 2021). The change in volume from below 0°C to above freezing (Al-Omari et al., 2015). Table 1
resulting from the freezing of water and the subsequent melting of provides a comprehensive overview of the geographic distribution of
ice serves as the fundamental trigger for soil deformation within a frost-heaving geomaterials and addresses their implications from a
freezing-thawing environment. Periodic frozen soil is susceptible to geotechnical engineering perspective.
temperature variation (Niu et al., 2017; Niu et al., 2017; Lin et al., Freezing can generate high pressure when water is constrained
2018), and the cyclic pattern of freezing and thawing of soil to prevent expansion. This phenomenon can also affect the physical
significantly affects soil strength. Bouyoucos (1920) studied soil and mechanical properties of rocks. Taber, (1929) and Taber, (1930)
physics and chemistry and discovered that water in the soil mentioned that under atmospheric pressure, when a definite
freezes at multiple temperatures, not just one. Huixin et al. amount of water is cooled, it freezes at 0°C with an expansion in
(2012) pointed out that in a closed system, as the freezing volume at about 10%. Also, in soils, Beskow, (1991) stated that an
temperature rises, the amount of frost heave and the ratio of increase in load pressure leads to soil consolidation, resulting in the
frost heave relative to the soil mass water content and dry squeezing out of water. When the pressure decreases, the soil tends
density also increase. Liu et al. (2017) identified frost heave in to expand and under these conditions, there is potential for the soil
coarse-grained soils when specific combinations of clay content (the to suck the water required for the volume increase (Black and
mass fraction of the particle with a diameter less than 0.075 mm), Hardenberg, 1991). Tarefder and Ahmad (2015) reported that
initial moisture, and temperature occurred in seasonal when water enters the road surface, under the intense action of
frozen regions. the wheel load, it causes a higher pressure concentration at the weak
In rock mass, as the freezing temperature decreases, the joint between the aggregate and the asphalt binder, which accelerates
unfrozen water film thickness between the rock and the ice the damage process and leads to permanent deformation.
decreases, leading to an increase in disjoining pressure (De Based on the analysis made, it is recognized that freeze-thaw
Gennes, 1985; Rempel et al., 2001; Huang et al., 2020). Wang cycles (temperature variations) and pressure control rock heave and
and Zhou (2018) explained that under freezing conditions and settlement in the foundation when little or no water-ice phase
low temperatures, prolonged rock exposure can lead to change is involved. Also, the volumetric expansion of frozen
significant changes in the deformation and strength water (ice) and the melting of pore ice cause heave in wet
characteristics of the fractured rock mass. Penner (1959) stated geomaterials, which in turn affect the concrete structure and
that structures and roadways built on materials highly susceptible to underground space engineering.
frost, along with their associated expansion, could heave up to
0.61 m. Brimblecombe et al. (2010) stated that the count of
freeze-thaw cycles can be determined based on the assumption 2.2 Expansive natural materials in
that rocks freeze solely when the mean daily temperature drops geotechnical engineering
below −3°C, and thawing only occurs when the mean daily
temperature rises above +1°C. Recently, a novel technique has Various types of natural soil and rock masses exhibit a volume
been developed that utilizes meteorological data to analyze the expansion behavior. The natural expansive minerals can be divided
daily maximum and minimum temperatures. This method entails into two types: i) clay minerals, mainly montmorillonite, illite, or

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TABLE 1 Geographic distribution of frost-heaving materials and implication on geo-infrastructure.

Geographic Location Frost susceptibility and References

distribution implications
Northern Hemisphere Canada and Alaska: Prairie Provinces (Alberta, Long, harsh winters in cold climates, frost- Wynn (2006), Stewart et al. (2019), DeBeer
and Arctic Regions Saskatchewan, and Manitoba), Ontario, susceptible soils, and large areas of permafrost et al. (2021), Loranger (2020), Akhmetiev
Quebec. and seasonally frozen soils pose enormous (2015), Panin et al. (2009), Naumov et al.
challenges to the environment and (2020), Tuukka et al. (2020), Bird (2017),
Russia: Siberia, Russian Far East. infrastructure. These conditions cause soil Prince et al. (2018)
instability, impact road and building
Scandinavia/Nordic regions: Norway, Sweden, construction, and affect local ecosystems
Finland, Faroe Islands, Denmark, Iceland, adapted to freeze-thaw cycles. Water
Greenland and Svalbard. management becomes critical as frozen ground
blocks drainage and affects groundwater
recharge rates.

Temperate Zones United States: Northern states (Minnesota, Moisture-retaining soils during cold winters Donald and Hansen (1974), Baladi and
Wisconsin, Maine, Michigan, New York); experience freezing and wetting conditions. The Rajaei (2015), Denny, 1951, Sharifi et al.,
frost-susceptible soils swell and shrink during 2019, Thiry et al. (2014), Isarin (1997),
North Africa: Tunisia, Morocco, northern freeze-thaw cycles, causing significant Vaitkus et al. (2016), Kassam (1981), Wang
regions of Egypt, Libya, Algeria, and Western challenges. In the case of geo-infrastructure, et al. (2017), Xiao et al. (2018), Masaki (2019)
Sahara. ground movements can cause cracks and
instability in buildings and roads. From an
Southern Africa: the southern tips of environmental perspective, these conditions can
Madagascar, Mozambique, the entire damage habitat and soil health, affecting
territories of Eswatini, and Lesotho, southern biodiversity and changes microbial activity in
parts of Botswana, Namibia and the great part soil that affect nutrient cycling and ecosystem.
of South Africa.

Europe: Northern and Central Europe

(Germany, Poland, United Kingdom);

Northern Middle East: northern United Arab

Emirates, northern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,
Qatar, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Turkey.

Asia: Northern China, Japan (Hokkaido)

High Altitude Areas Rocky Mountains: High elevations in the US Cold temperatures and soil moisture cause Auer et al. (2005), Jaesche et al. (2003), Savi
and Canada valleys and areas of standing water to freeze, et al. (2015), Hauer et al. (1997), Ives and
especially in cold climates where soils are Fahey (1971), Hewitt, 1968, Dimri and Dash
Alps: European Alpine region (Monaco, susceptible to frost, posing unique challenges (2011).
France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, such as cracks in infrastructure, and the
Austria and Slovenia). environment. Environmental impacts include
damage to local ecosystems, particularly those
Himalayas: High-altitude regions (Nepal, adapted to harsh mountain climates.
Bhutan, Bangladesh, northern India, Pakistan)

kaolin. Montmorillonite clay will expand significantly as the volume foundations, pavements, floors, and basement walls represent
increases, while illite and kaolin clay will have limited expansion. common forms of damage induced by expansive clay minerals.
The typical expansive geomaterials which contain montmorillonite Chen (1975) stated that many floor slabs constructed in an
are mud rock and bentonite, etc. ii) The other one is the sulphate expansive clay area crack and sometimes heave due to improper
minerals such as gypsum, anhydrite, calcium thenardite, and infrastructure design. Also, there have been reported cases where
anhydrous thenardite. These two types of expansive minerals swelling pressure generated by expansive clay caused lateral
expand because of the reaction with water. deflections of basement walls in foundations (Chen, 1975;
Elarabi, 2010)
2.2.1 Clay mineral expansion behavior Experimental research in soil mechanics suggests that moisture
Expansive clay minerals are prevalent geomaterials that exist in content, volume increase, swelling pressure, expansion time, surface
various regions worldwide, including both humid and arid/semi- area, mineral composition and pore morphology are the factors that
arid regions, with their primary mineral constituent being dispersed contribute to the extensive shrink-swell behavior of most expansive
layered silicate (Cherif et al., 2018). They are heterogeneous in clays. The volume of expansive clay minerals tends to increase as
nature and their chemical composition depends on other elements, they absorb additional water, which is observed in approximately
not only the swelling minerals. The expansion behavior of clay 90% of clays (Chen, 1975; Jones and Jefferson, 2012). When the
minerals can cause significant damage to geotechnical engineering moisture content of the clay changes, the swelling pressure will
projects. According to research, the damages associated with increase and cause volume expansion both in the vertical and
expansive clays exceed the average annual damages from floods, horizontal directions. Holtz et al. (2011) experimented on the
hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornados (Jones and Holtz, 1973; shrink/swell behavior of expansive clay minerals and observed
Chen, 1975; Simmons, 1991; Jones and Jefferson, 2012; Hyndman the following: i) the process of swelling and shrinkage are not
and Hyndman, 2014). Bouassida et al. (2022) stated that cracked entirely reversible, ii) shrinkage induces cracks that upon re-

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wetting, do not completely close which result in a slight expansion or 2.2.2 Sulfate mineral expansion behavior
bulking of the soil, and also allow enhanced access to water for the Sulfate minerals are abundant and cover about 25% of the
swelling process. Zhang et al. (2018) studied the expansion constituent of Earth materials and are also found on other
characteristics of clay minerals within diverse layers of weathered planets (Blatt et al., 1980; Ford and Williams, 2007). They
crust elution-deposited ore bodies and revealed that clay minerals in occur mainly in the form of gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2 O) and
the humus layer exhibited the highest tendency for swelling. Despite anhydrite (CaSO4 ). Gypsum, which is usually the main
the high swelling potential, if the moisture content of the clay source of sulphate-bearing soil is the hydrated form of
remains unchanged, there will be no volume change; and calcium sulphate and it is primarily detected in geologic
structures founded on clays with constant moisture content will structures like veins, beds, and nodules (Alonso, 2012).
not be subjected to movement caused by heaving Jones and Anhydrite is reported to exist at depths where there is little
Jefferson (2012). or no water (Wang et al., 2019). Fundamentally, the expansion of
Several test results suggest that the swelling pressure sulfate mineral is associated with the formation of ettringite and
increases with respect to decreasing initial water content. at high sulphate concentrations of gypsum (Tian and Cohen,
However, swelling pressure increases with increasing initial 2000; Marchand et al., 2001; Müllauer et al., 2013).
dry density at a controlled initial water content. These trends The formation of ettringite [Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12·26H2O] in
can either be linear or exponential, according to different soils, is a type of sulfate attack that occurs due to the reaction
research studies (Komine, 2004; Rao et al., 2004; Tu and between sulfate, calcium, and alumina-bearing stages in the
Vanapalli, 2016). Meanwhile, Tu and Vanapalli (2016) presence of water (Figure 2) (Ehwailat et al., 2022). This
reported that the swelling pressure increase can be attributed phenomenon is commonly observed in cement and soils
to the increased interaction between clay particles due to closer treated with lime, especially in an environment enriched with
packing. Further, the swelling pressure of clay minerals is sulfate (Rajasekaran, 2005; Ehwailat et al., 2022). When calcium
primarily affected by their average specific surface area. A and aluminate react with sulfate anions, ettringite can swell up to
larger surface area leads to greater surface forces, which causes 250% when form completely and produce insoluble ettringite
significant changes in volume and swelling pressure (Huang et al., with increased porosity as the reaction progresses (Zhang et al.,
2019; Keskin et al., 2023). Moreover, the duration of expansion 2018; Akula and Little, 2020). According to Ouhadi and Yong
and temperature are key factors in determining the linear (2008), for soil stabilization, the lower solubility of aluminum
swelling ratio and initial expansion rate of clay minerals. As compounds in a clay fraction is an important source of
the temperature increases, the linear swelling ratio tends to rise ettringite formation.
which results in a higher initial expansion rate (Chen et al., 2020). The expansion behavior of sulfated rock formations is more
Therefore, the swelling of clay minerals is likely to increase with significant than clay or marl rocks when involved in near-surface
temperature. and underground tunnel excavation (Alonso, 2012; Tarragona,
On the contrary, it has been recognized that mineralogical 2014). Structural damage attributed to severe heave and
composition is an influential factor since different clay minerals settlement in sulfated natural formations has often been
have different microstructures in nature (Madsen and Müller- associated with tunneling and bridge abutments when
Vonmoos, 1989; Azam, 2003). This variation in microstructure periodically exposed to wetting (Yılmaz, 2001; Alonso, 2012). In
affects the physical and chemical properties of the clay (kaolinite, open discontinuities in sulphated rock formations, gypsum, upon
illite, and montmorillonite), such as its plasticity index, shrink-swell contact with water molecules at a molecular level, expands and
potential, and ion exchange capacity (Shan et al., 2021). Shan et al. undergoes a volume increase of about 62% creating ice crystals
(2021) investigated the impact of clay mineral composition on the (Wittke, 2006; Alonso, 2012). This percentage volume increase
dynamic properties and structure of artificial marine clay. It was causes the crystals to fill the discontinuities, thereby resulting in
found that marine clays with a high content of montmorillonite heaving/expansion behavior in rocks (Figure 3).
showed increased plasticity index (PI) and Atterberg limits. This Gypsum is susceptible to rapid dissolution upon contact with
increase was attributed to the tendency of montmorillonite to more water; as a result, its availability causes the spontaneous collapse of
readily adsorb strong and loosely bound water (stern layer) on its individual caverns and migration of voids, eventually leading to
surfaces when in a plastic state. Accordingly, understanding the subsidence of the overlying ground surface (Yılmaz, 2001). When
specific mineralogical composition is essential for predicting and gypsum acts as a cementing agent, the dissolution of the cement can
managing the behavior of clay in various engineering applications result in the breakdown of the soil structure (Abduljauwad and Al-
such as soil stabilization and contaminant containment. Amoudi, 1995; Yılmaz, 2001). The leaching of gypsum and
Pore morphology substantially influences the swelling behavior anhydrite creates cavities in the subsoil, which may induce the
of clay minerals (Sarman et al., 1994). experimented on the pore collapse of light structures without prerequisite warning (Yılmaz,
morphology of clay minerals and concluded that the swelling phase 2001; Azam, 2007).
did not only relate to the clay mineral type, but also to the pore Zanbak and Arthur (1986) discussed the mechanism of
morphology. It was found that samples with large pore volumes hydration expansion and deformation of anhydrite rock, and
combined with a high percentage of small-sized pores exhibited high the study showed that the molar volume of anhydrite increases
swelling potential. The swelling characteristics of various bentonites after water absorption, and the volume expansion could be
with different montmorillonite contents with expansion 62.6%. Madsen and Müller-Vonmoos, (1989) carried out
development time, volume expansion rate, water content, and theoretical and experimental studies on the microscopic scale
restricted pressure are summarized in Table 2. from the perspective of mineralogy on the interaction between

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TABLE 2 Swelling characteristics of various bentonites with different montmorillonite contents.

Soil/rock Clay mineral Expansion Volume expansion Water Restricted

content % time (hr) ratio % content % pressure kPa
Bentonite (Komine, 2004) Montmorillonite ~15–70 ~6–360 13.8 ~6–941
48

Bentonite (Komine, 2004) Montmorillonite Over 150 ~10–250 13.1 ~10–2032

69

Bentonite (Komine, 2004) Montmorillonite ~1–15 ~16–120 29.5 ~10–2098

80

Bentonite (Komine, 2004) Montmorillonite ~10−150 ~15–180 25.6 ~10–2040

76

Bentonite (5%) (Komine and Montmorillonite ~5–30 ~46–77 19.4 ~21–36

Ogata, 1999) 48

Bentonite (10%) (Komine and Montmorillonite ~15−44 ~67–90 17.6 ~31–43

Ogata, 1999) 48

Bentonite (20%) (Komine and Montmorillonite 144 ~117–235 17.0 ~56–112

Ogata, 1999) 48

Bentonite (30%) (Komine and Montmorillonite ~144−648 ~209–375 14.6 ~100–180

Ogata, 1999) 48

Bentonite (50%) (Komine and Montmorillonite 720 ~350–585 17.5 ~167–280

Ogata, 1999) 48

FIGURE 2
Schematic of ettringite formation: (A) ettringite’s chemical structure, (B) columnar formation of ettringite, (B) existence of aluminum and calcium
polyhedral [modified after (Ehwailat et al., 2022)].

FIGURE 3
Gypsum crystal growth: (A) expansion of gypsum crystal within a rock vein, (B) gypsum crystals after opening with hands [modified after (Tarragona,
2014)]; and (C) Gigantic gypsum crystals in Naica’s Crystal Cave (Chihuahua, Mexico) [modified after (Van Driessche et al., 2019)].

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clay particles, anhydrite, and gypsum crystal. Kaiser (1975) 2021). Freezing and thawing cycles result in a decrease in the
studied the growth and expansion of ettringite and anhydrite soil’s bulk density and penetration resistance (Unger, 1991). The
crystals in solution, and believed that with the change of thermal freeze-thaw process induces uneven stresses within the soil,
equilibrium and hydrodynamics, the anhydrite expansion curve which create cracks, fractures, and joints in most clay soils,
showed a logarithmic curve growth form. Barnhoorn et al. (2005) leading to a significant increase in permeability (Eigenbrod,
used the residual strain scanning method to study the texture 1996; Fouli et al., 2013; Aksakal et al., 2021). However, coarser
characteristics of anhydrite rocks in the Swiss Bibiani Islands, soils show a slight change in permeability (Eigenbrod, 1996). As
which is of great significance for underground engineering works, shown in Figure 4A (Schreiber, 2014), when the ice expands
such as mining and tunnels. within the frozen ground, it induces a soil volume increase of 9%,
Rauh and Thuro (2007) performed powdery swelling tests, thin as proposed by the pore water pressure hypothesis. With high soil
slice analysis, electron microscope scanning analysis, x-ray moisture content, the surrounding regions will continually
diffraction, and specific surface area analysis on gypsum rocks in provide moisture to the frozen area through capillary action.
three different places, and reported that swelling is related to the This process subsequently contributes to additional ice volume
crystallinity of CaSO4, the larger the crystal size, the smaller the expansion, ultimately leading to frost heaving at the base of the soil.
expansion capacity. Azam (2007) studied the geological and (Guthrie et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2017). The expansion of the frozen
engineering issues involved in the expansion and compression of water (ice lens) within the soil will exert upward pressure from the
the anhydrite-gypsum transition along the Arabian Gulf coast, some penetration limit and induce deformation, which in turn lifts the in-
key experimental stages of anhydrite have evaluated their situ frozen soil (Figure 4B) (Schreiber, 2014; Wang and Zhou, 2018).
swellability using volume morphological changes, and the As the temperature gradually decreases over an extended period at a
gypsum compression index and rebound index were determined. point where the water supply to the lens stops, the frost front drops
Alonso (2012) conducted softening and swelling experiments of down until it encounters the saturated soil and creates another ice
clay-containing anhydrite rocks under the effect of water lens, which creates consecutive volume expansion within the soil
evaporation and studied the effect of sulphate concentration in (Figure 5) (Schreiber, 2014). The process can continue and cause
solution on swelling. vulnerability to the infrastructures in the affected area.
The analysis suggests that when the sulphate minerals absorb Consequently, (Alonso et al., 1987; Alonso et al., 1990; Alonso
water, the moisture content in gypsum increases, which causes et al., 1999), Adem and Vanapalli (2015), and Lu et al. (2018) and
swelling and when the moisture content decreases, it shrinks, reported the expansion mechanism in expansive soil during freezing
leading to structural cracks in civil engineering and other at different degrees of saturation in porous materials. Figures 5A,B
construction works. represent particle types and arrangements in unfrozen expanded
clay at higher and lower saturations, respectively.
Clay particles form aggregates that control macropore space, while
3 Swelling-shrinkage mechanism of elementary clay particles regulate the micropore distribution within the
natural expansive materials aggregates, creating dual porosity. When soil with higher saturation
freezes (Figure 5C), the pores between aggregates expand due to the
3.1 Frost-heaving expansion mechanisms growth of ice lenses, resulting in the compression and rearrangement
of soil aggregates. Low-temperature suction forces the water within the
The expansion mechanism of frost-heaving soil arises from the aggregate out, which causes drying-induced shrinkage (Lu et al., 2018).
interaction between three frost actions: water supply, frost- This compensatory shrinkage is insufficient to balance the expansion
susceptible soil composition, and temperature as the primary of the growing ice, resulting in an overall increase in soil volume. In
factors (Taber, 1930; Penner, 1959; Black and Hardenberg, 1991; contrast, under lower saturation conditions (Figure 5D), the volume
Guthrie et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2017). Heaves are more likely to expansion of water between the aggregate and ice is contained by the
happen in soil with unique textures, such as loam, silt, and clay, air present in the pores.
which are moisture-retaining. In rock mechanics, the presence of joints and fissures
Freeze-thaw cycles are common in soils due to fluctuating significantly affects the geological stability of a rock mass,
temperatures. When soil layers freeze, pore water movement is especially in fractured rock mass, where they play a pivotal role.
transferred from unfrozen areas to negative regions, which leads As the strength of rock is impacted by these discontinuities, the
to the expansion of the soil’s volume and the development of properties of jointed rock are particularly susceptible to the influence
negative pressure (Beskow, 1991; Black and Hardenberg, 1991; of ice within these joints during freezing temperatures (Wang and
Osokin et al., 2000). In these cold regions, pore water crystallizes Zhou, 2018). The frost heave of a rock mass is subject to various
and forms ice in the pores, sometimes forming ice lenses (Konrad factors: temperature, rock frost susceptibility, surrounding rock
and Morgentern, 1980; Kozlowski and Nartowska, 2013; grade, porosity, and external water supply conditions (Wang
Schreiber, 2014). This phenomenon can lead to significant et al., 2016a). Joint water in its free state condenses by
frosts and a decrease in the engineering properties of the soil. undergoing a phase change to ice due to negative temperature,
In cold climates, the cyclic freezing and thawing processes exhibiting an expansion coefficient of 9% (Wang et al., 2016a). The
strongly influence the durability and performance of geo- water freezing within rock joints initiates a volumetric expansion of
infrastructures (Tian et al., 2019). The physical and the joint filling. This expansion is constrained by the surrounding
mechanical properties of soils, including expansive soils, rock mass, leading to an increase in frost-heaving pressure as a result
change significantly due to freeze-thaw cycles (Yang et al., of the phase transition. If this pressure exceeds the rock mass

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FIGURE 4
Frost heave mechanism in susceptible soils: (A) In-situ freezing, (B) ice crystals’ expansion, and (C) continuous heaving of ice crystals in soils.
Modified after (Schreiber, 2014).

FIGURE 5
Schematic diagram of expansive soil freezing showing freezing expansion from (A) lower saturation to (C) higher saturation; and freezing shrinkage
from (B) higher saturation to (D) lower saturation. Modified after (Lu et al., 2018).

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FIGURE 6
Conceptual volume expansion of ice in a fractured rock mass (A) freeze-thaw cracking process of fractured rock mass [modified after (Chang et al.,
2022)], (B) Frost wedging causing the detachment of blocks from the bedrock [modified after (Geocache, 2023)].

strength, the jointed rock will fracture and break apart as shown in The intergranular expansion is mainly caused by the absorption
Figure 6. Given a homogeneous rock medium, the frost heaving ratio of water in the aqueous medium by the surface of the clay particles
is the relationship between volume increment and the original rock under the effect of electrostatic attraction, which results in the
volume. This ratio is affected by the 9% volume phase transition expansion of the soil or rock due to the increase of the thickness
process, influencing the rate of frost heave as shown in Eq. 1 (Wang of the combined water film (Figure 7A). The expansion of the crystal
et al., 2016a): layer (lattice) occurs when there is a change in the expansive mineral
under the action of water or in a humid environment. Water enters
ΔV
η (1) the mineral either by becoming an inherent part of the mineral
V
composition or by occupying the spaces within its crystal lattice
where η is the frost heaving ratio, ΔV is the volume increment of the structure (Tuller and Or, 2003), which causes the mineral volume to
frost heave, and V is the volume of the original rock. expand significantly (Figure 7B). This phenomenon makes it
Additionally, when a rock is exposed to negative temperatures difficult to control water movement in foundations and
and freezing conditions for a long time, the deformation and underground support environments.
intensity properties of the fractured rock mass change greatly.
Such occurrences pose threats to constructions such as tunnels, 3.2.2 Expansion mechanism of sulfate minerals
shafts, storage caves, and other infrastructure (Luo et al., 2015; Wang The mechanism that leads to the expansion of sulphate
and Zhou, 2018) minerals is primarily attributed to the evaporation-based and
In contrast, the above analysis shows that the frost heaving in gypsum (CaSO4 p2H2 O) precipitation through an aqueous
geomaterials does not promote water flow, causing high hydraulic solution in the presence of anhydrite (CaSO4 )
conductivity. As geomaterials freeze, their porosity decreases and (Tarragona, 2014).
restricts capillary flow. This phenomenon can prevent water ingress The evaporation-based mechanism requires a boundary that
from forming ice lenses that cause volume expansion of the interacts with an atmosphere of lower relative humidity than the
geomaterials, resulting in an uplift at the surface. On the water potential in the soil or rock. Alternatively, the rate of
contrary, the freeze-thaw process of these natural expansive evaporation and the gypsum solubility also affect this
materials makes it difficult to control water movement in the mechanism. The evaporation rate controls moisture removal,
underground support environment. while the limited solubility of gypsum restricts the amount that
can be dissolved. Nonetheless, the extent of precipitation is
constrained by the combined effects of low solubility and
3.2 Expansion mechanism of natural controlled evaporation rates. The limited precipitation primarily
geomaterials occurs on or near the evaporation surface, rather than within the
volume of the geomaterial and, therefore, initiates a small mass of
3.2.1 Expansion mechanism of clay minerals precipitated gypsum (Tarragona, 2014; Butscher et al., 2015).
(montmorillonite) Gypsum precipitation through an aqueous solution with
The expansion of the interlayer space in clay minerals is due to anhydrite can lead to larger volumes of gypsum formation,
the hydration energy forces associated with the interaction of the posing greater engineering risks compared to evaporation-
particles (Karpiński and Szkodo, 2015). Clay mineral expansion based mechanisms (Alonso, 2012; Tarragona, 2014; Butscher
(montmorillonite) is generally considered to be mainly intergranular et al., 2015). For instance, since natural calcium sulfate-rich
and lattice expansion (Figure 7). water is supersaturated and anhydrite has higher solubility

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FIGURE 7
Schematic illustration of expansion mechanism of montmorillonite minerals: (A) Intergranular expansion, (B) Lattice expansion. Modified from
(Tuller and Or, 2003).

FIGURE 8
Conceptual model for gypsum precipitation. Source: (Tarragona, 2014).

compared to gypsum at temperatures below 56°C, the water in 4 Impact of freeze-thaw cycles and
contact with anhydritic claystone at the active layer will dissolve sulfate exposure on the durability of
anhydrite and subsequently lead to the precipitation of gypsum natural and built infrastructure
(Kontrec et al., 2002; Alonso, 2012; Tarragona, 2014). Afterward,
the water becomes supersaturated with respect to gypsum, which 4.1 Damage mechanism of freeze-thaw
causes the excess dissolved calcium sulphate to precipitate as cycles in cemented structures
gypsum crystals.
In practical terms, the excess hydrated gypsum can be The primary mechanism of freeze-thaw damage in cemented
transported in an aqueous solution or precipitate within available structures is described by both the hydraulic pressure theory and the
voids in rocks. This action can exert pressure on the rock mass and osmotic pressure theory, and both mechanisms are attributed to
push it apart, while potentially triggering the expansion of concrete deterioration (Powers, 1949; Powers, 1975; Hudec, 1991;
discontinuities and inducing swelling strains (Figure 8) (Alonso, Pigeon et al., 1996; Valenza and Scherer, 2007; Zeng et al., 2010;
2012; Tarragona, 2014; Butscher et al., 2015). As presented in Dabas et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2022).
Figure 8, the analysis shows that hydrated gypsum can be According to Powers and Darcy’s law, the hydraulic pressure
transported in an aqueous solution and fill facture spaces in the theory explains the effects of low temperatures on concrete (Powers,
rock mass, making it difficult to control water movement in the geo- 1949; Powers, 1975). When concrete is exposed to low temperatures,
infrastructural environment. the outer layer of the concrete freezes first. This freezing causes the

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FIGURE 9
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure mode: (A) Hydrostatic pressure principle (Zeng et al., 2010), (B) Osmotic pressure model. Modified after
(Sun et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2022).

liquid water within the concrete to migrate through capillary pores To mitigate cracking in concrete due to freeze-thaw cycles, an
due to the volume differences between ice and liquid water. effective method will be to reduce hydrostatic pressure by decreasing
Precisely, ice occupies a greater volume than liquid water, the spacing between pores. This may be accomplished through the
creating a differential pressure that drives the migration (Valenza use of air-entraining agents, which introduce tiny air bubbles into
and Scherer, 2007; Dabas et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2022). As the the concrete mix. These air bubbles create additional space in the
temperature continues to drop, the volume of ice within the concrete concrete that can accommodate the expanding ice, thereby reducing
increases. This increase in ice volume compresses the remaining the overall pressure and preventing damage. For instance, in regular
liquid water, generating significant compressive stress in the pores of concrete, the pressure exerted by the freezing water causes the
the concrete. Simultaneously, ice expansion induces tensile stress in concrete to expand in volume. Nevertheless, in air-entrained
the concrete matrix (Guo et al., 2022) (Figure 9A). If the tensile stress concrete, the presence of micro-pores created by the air-
exceeds the ultimate tensile strength of the concrete, microcracks entraining agents allows the ice to form within these spaces,
begin to generate (Zeng et al., 2010). These microcracks generated leading to a contraction rather than expansion (Sun and
can compromise the structural integrity of the concrete which can Scherer, 2010).
lead to long-term durability issues. In spite of the knowledge
addressed by the hydraulic pressure theory, it does not fully
explain certain phenomena. For instance, it does not account for 4.2 Impact of sulfate attack on cemented
the expansion observed in ordinary concrete during freezing or the structures
behavior of non-expansive liquids when they freeze (Rønning, 2001;
Yu et al., 2017). Concrete deterioration occurs due to sulfate ions reacting
Studies have discussed the osmotic pressure theory, which with hydrated cement composites in pore solution, leading to
involves specific salt ions in concrete (Powers, 1949; Powers et al., expansion and corrosion in geo-infrastructure (Figure 10), and
1953; Powers, 1975; Hudec, 1991; Valenza and Scherer, 2007). this reaction forms expansion phases like gypsum and ettringite,
According to this theory, the complex pore structure of concrete as well as corrosion types such as calcium alumina, magnesium
results in varied migration rates of ions and water which leads to sulfate complex, and carbon-sulfur calcium silica stone corrosion
the development of osmotic pressure and interior damage. When (Al-Dulaijan et al., 2003; Mamun and Bindiganavile, 2011; Min
unfrozen water transitions to ice, osmotic pressure is generated et al., 2019; Othman et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021; Tian et al.,
because the vapor pressure of liquid water becomes higher than 2023). Sulfate attack in concrete is affected by the availability of
that of ice (Figure 9B). This pressure is directly related to the sulfate ions, moisture content, temperature fluctuations, and
concentration of the solution; as the concentration increases, so exposure duration.
does the osmotic pressure. Conversely, the amount of ice Basically, sulfate attack in concrete involves physical and
formation has an inverse relationship with osmotic pressure, chemical reactions (Chen et al., 2020). In the physical reaction,
with the pressure value being highest at a specific concentration sulfate ions penetrate concrete pores, causing crystallization-
of the solution (Washburn, 1921; Guo et al., 2022). Basically, induced expansion, leading to internal cracking, which can
osmotic pressure theory emphasizes that the migration and generate tensile stress and lead to progressive loss of mechanical
distribution of salt ions and water within the porous structure strength (Tulliani et al., 2002; Oualit and Jauberthie, 2019; Brekailo
of concrete can generate significant internal pressure during et al., 2023). The deterioration process originates from two main
freeze-thaw cycles. This can cause damage such as sources: internal and external attacks. The internal attack results
microcracks, especially in areas where the solution from sulfate within the concrete itself, while external sources include
concentration is at maximum coupling values (Figure 9B). various environmental factors like soils, groundwater, transport

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FIGURE 10
Sulfate attack in cemented structures: (A) Macro cracking due to sodium sulfate attack leading to boundary movement [modified after (Yin et al.,
2022)], (B) Experimental analysis of sulfate attack [modified after (Liu et al., 2022)].

fluids, river water, seawater, coastal areas, and acid rain (Neville, 3CSH2 + C3 AH6 + 2OH → C2 AS4 H32 (3)
2004; Zhao et al., 2020).
Water serves as a carrier that allows sulfate ions to infiltrate The reaction process of these compounds causes concrete
the concrete matrix over time. This infiltration is further expansion, and microcrack formation, and facilitates the entry of
heightened by wetting and drying cycles, which can occur harmful ions, accelerating concrete damage.
naturally or as a result of environmental conditions such as
temperature and water table fluctuations. At higher
temperatures, water travels at a faster rate along with sulfate 5 Significance and implications of
ions, which accelerates the chemical reaction between the sulfate natural expansive materials in
and the hydration products of the cement (Ikumi and Segura, geotechnical engineering applications
2019; Chen et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2023). This acceleration causes
swellable compounds to form more quickly and increases the 5.1 Significance and implications of frost
rate of deterioration. This reaction results in the formation of heaving in geomaterials
expansive compounds such as gypsum and ettringite (Ikumi and
Segura, 2019; Chen et al., 2020). These compounds exert Frost heaving, a critical geotechnical concern in cold regions,
pressure within the concrete matrix, causing internal causes structures built on geomaterials to uplift due to freezing
cracking, expansion, and ultimately deterioration of the temperatures. It alters soil and rock properties by impacting load-
concrete structure. However, areas with warmer climates may bearing capacity, weakening their strength integrity. This poses a
experience a more rapid progression of sulfate attack than colder serious threat to both surface and underground geo-infrastructures
environments where temperatures are lower and reactions like tunnels, foundations, pipelines, roads, etc., and, however,
proceed more slowly. necessitates a profound understanding of accurate design and
During sulfate attack, particularly assuming sodium sulfate mitigation for geotechnical considerations and engineering
(Na2 SO4) as the sulfate source, the following chemical reactions practices. Table 3 provides a comprehensive summary of the
(Zuo et al., 2012; Ikumi and Segura, 2019). freeze-thaw cycle effects on expansion materials, highlighting
Gypsum formation (CSH2 ): when sulfate intrudes into their factors and implications in geotechnical engineering.
concrete, it reacts with the concrete hydration products, such as Further, in cold weather, especially during negative
calcium hydroxide (CH) and calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) to temperatures, the expansion of ice within fractures acts like a
form (CSH2 ) (Zhu et al., 2023). The chemical reaction formula as stabilizing agent that binds the fractured rock mass together and
shown in Eq. 2 (Al-samawi and Zhu, 2020): enhances its stability as well as any structure adjacent to or within it.
Na2 SO4 + CH → CSH2 + Na2 SiO4 (2) This phenomenon is often referred to as frost wedging. In the
context of underground openings such as tunnels or mines, the
Ettringite formation (C6 AS3 H2): when gypsum reacts with presence of ice filling the fractures can provide additional support
calcium aluminate phases, such as Monosulfate (C4 ASH12 ), and reinforcement to the surrounding rock mass. It helps maintain
Tricalcium aluminate (C3 A), Hydrogarnetto (C3 AH6) etc. in the structural integrity of the openings and minimize the risk of
concrete components, the reaction will result in the formation of collapses or instability. In frost-susceptible soils, natural rubber latex
ettringite (Zhu et al., 2023). The chemical reactions formula as (NRL) can significantly improve durability against the adverse
presented in Eq. 3 (Al-samawi et al., 2023): effects of wetting and drying (w-d) cycles in cement-stabilized

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TABLE 3 Summary of freeze-thaw effects of natural expansive material and their implications in geotechnical engineering.

Category Region/Context Factors/Conditions Implications References

Freeze-thaw effects Northern Hemisphere Temperature variations, presence of Frost heaving delays engineering Brown et al. (1998), Prince et al.
(cold regions: America, water, soil type projects; damage to pipelines, subgrades, (2018), Taivainen (1963), Oswell
Canada, Russia, Nordic foundations, tunnels (2011), Wu et al. (2018)
regions)

Permafrost Northern Hemisphere Temperatures at or below 0°C for at Ground remains frozen, impacting Biskaborn et al. (2019),
(e.g., Canada, Russia, least 2 years infrastructure stability Christiansen et al. (2010), Gruber
Nordic regions) (2012)

Frost penetration China (Tibet, Xinjiang, Low temperatures (below 0°C), Ice in fractured rock mass causes Liu et al. (2017), Wang et al.
Qinghai) extensive frozen soil distribution instability during thawing. (2016b)

Frost depth Finland Regional temperature differences, Frost reaches different depths in Taivainen (1963)
variation glacial soil types southern and northern regions, causing
boundary marker to shift from their
original position.

Soil deformation Various regions with Temperature variation, soil moisture Soil deformation due to freeze-thaw Lin et al. (2018), Niu et al. (2017),
seasonal freezing content, clay content cycles affecting the strength. Niu et al. (2020), Huixin et al.
(2012), Liu et al. (2017)

Frost Heave in rock Cold regions Freezing temperature, rock frost Increased frost-heaving pressure can De Gennes (1985), Huang et al.
mass susceptibility, water supply conditions result in surface cracking and jointed (2020), Rempel et al. (2001), Wang
rock mass fracturing, which increases the and Zhou (2018), Luo et al. (2015)
risk of rock falls and landslides.

Hydraulic and Cemented structures Low temperatures, capillary pore water Concrete deterioration due to freeze- Powers (1949), Powers (1975),
osmotic pressure migration, ice formation thaw cycles Dabas et al. (2021), Guo et al.
theories (2022), Hudec (1991)

Mitigation strategies Cemented structures Use of low water-to-cement ratio mixes Reduction of hydrostatic pressure and Sun and Scherer (2010), Yeon and
and air-entraining agents to introduce cracking in concrete Kim (2018), Liu et al. (2024)
tiny air bubbles, applying melamine-
formaldehyde coatings to concrete
reduces water absorption and protects
against freeze-thaw damage, using
high-quality aggregates that are durable
and resistant to frost action.

soil, particularly when subjected to cyclic tensile loads (Udomchai 5.2.1 Implications of using clay minerals
et al., 2021; Hoy et al., 2023). The NRL forms films that infiltrate and Clays have complex structural properties, including their small-
fill the pores and microcracks within the soil-cement matrix. This sized expansive surface areas, which control the solid soil fraction’s
infiltration not only strengthens the bond between soil particles and reactivity, act as water reservoirs in soils, and maintain plant-
cement but also enhances the overall durability of the geo- friendly moisture levels in hot and dry environmental conditions
infrastructure. By preventing the propagation of microcracks and (Villiéras et al., 1997). Clay minerals are widely used in geotechnical
reducing permeability, these NRL films provide a robust barrier engineering as impermeable barriers and underground seals due to
against freeze-thaw cycles (Udomchai et al., 2021; Hoy et al., 2023). their low hydraulic conductivity, which effectively retains fluids and
It is important to note that this stability enhancement is particularly prevents the rapid convective transport of various leachates from
significant during cold seasons when freezing occurs. However, waste disposal sites (Villiéras et al., 1997; Met and Akgun, 2015).
during warmer seasons or when the ice melts, rock mass However, swelling clays pose risks in geotechnical engineering
maintenance and monitoring are crucial to ensure projects due to stability concerns (Villiéras et al., 1997).
continued stability. Understanding the properties of clay minerals and their
relationship and interaction with water is critical to
characterizing clay material applications. One effective approach
5.2 Significance and implications of to addressing these issues is the chemical grouting method, which
expansive natural geomaterials involves injecting materials such as lime, cement, and silica fume
into the soil. This method has been extensively studied and has been
Natural expansive geomaterials with high shrink-swell potential shown to improve soil stability, reduce permeability, and enhance
play a crucial role in geotechnical engineering. These materials load-bearing capacity, making the soil more suitable for supporting
exhibit unique properties that can significantly affect structures (Zhao et al., 2014; Puppala and Pedarla, 2017; Al-
infrastructure stability and environmental concerns. Therefore, Gharbawi et al., 2022; Dharini et al., 2023).
this section discusses the significance and implications of clay Al-Gharbawi et al. (2022) investigated the swell and contraction
minerals and sulfate minerals in geotechnical engineering, behavior of expansive soils, primarily composed of montmorillonite,
drawing upon relevant research and findings. in response to water content changes. The study focused on using

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TABLE 4 Summary of bentonite applications in geotechnical engineering.

Category Conditions Significance References

Bentonite clay Small particle size, low hydraulic conductivity, Bentonites particularly serve critical roles in Villiéras et al. (1997), Met and Akgun
minerals stability under certain temperatures, and geotechnical applications, primarily as impermeable (2015), Klik et al. (2022)
moisture interaction barriers and sealing materials. They control soil
reactivity, act as water reservoirs, and stabilize ground
conditions.

Applications of High cation exchange capacity and swelling Bentonite is used for its low permeability and high Komine (2004), Klik et al. (2022), Liu et al.
Bentonite pressure, and long-term durability cation exchange capacity in geo-infrastructure (2019), Abdalqader et al. (2023), Svensson
projects such as soil stabilization, landfill liners, and et al. (2017)
nuclear waste repositories.

Challenges and Quality control measures, environmental factors Ensuring consistent quality of bentonite is crucial for Magnus et al. (2020), Kolstad et al. (2004),
Considerations (temperature, pH, salinity, microbial activity), reliable performance in engineering applications, Mazzieri et al. (2017), Laine and Karttunen
long-term durability especially under changing environmental conditions (2010)
and long-term use in nuclear waste containment.

TABLE 5 Summary of natural expansive materials and expansion behavior in geo-infrastructure.

Category Conditions Implications References

Clay mineral expansion Moisture content, volume increase, swelling Expansive clay minerals are heterogeneous and Jones and Jefferson (2012), Holtz et al.
pressure, mineral composition, and pore cause damage like cracked foundations, (2011), Zhang et al. (2018), Shan et al. (2021)
morphology influence shrink-swell behavior. pavements, and floor heaving.

Sulfate mineral Formation of ettringite, gypsum precipitation Sulfate minerals (e.g., gypsum, anhydrite) expand Blatt et al. (1980), Marchand et al. (2001),
expansion through evaporation or aqueous solutions, and due to ettringite formation, causing structural Alonso (2012), Kaiser (1975), Barnhoorn
solubility dynamics influence expansion. heave in tunnels and bridges. et al. (2005), Tarragona (2014)

Impact of Sulfate attack Sulfate ion availability, moisture content, Sulfate attack on concrete causes expansion and Al-Dulaijan et al. (2003), Oualit and
in cemented structures temperature fluctuations, and exposure deterioration through reactions with hydration Jauberthie (2019), Ikumi and Segura (2019),
duration influence concrete degradation. products (e.g., gypsum, ettringite). Zhu et al. (2023)

5%, 7%, and 9% lime, cement, and silica fume to stabilize soils. The its adsorption capacity. The resulting swelling pressure creates a
results showed that stabilization reduced free swell and swelling dense structure that fills capillary pores and effectively seals
pressure by about 65% and 76%, respectively. Additionally, grouting fractures, cracks, and void spaces, thus preventing the migration
with silica fume improved the bearing capacity of footings by 64%– of radioactive materials over long periods (Komine, 2004; Liu et al.,
82% for soils treated with 5% and 9% silica fume, respectively. 2019; Klik et al., 2022). Bentonite enhances grout waterproofing and
Dharini et al. (2023) investigated the treatment of expansive clay strength, prevents bleeding, and forms a low-permeability hardened
soils using hydrated lime powder and sodium silicate. The study material purposely for sealing groundwater inflow and reinforcing
identified 10% lime as the optimal content based on standard fractured rock (Peila et al., 2011; Jinpeng et al., 2018; Benyounes,
proctor and unconfined compressive strength tests. Different 2019; Zhou et al., 2020; Abdalqader et al., 2023). Aside from these
proportions of sodium silicate (2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%) were traditional applications, bentonite have been used as buffer materials
examined while maintaining the optimal lime content. The in high-level nuclear waste repositories to prevent radioactive waste
results from California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests indicated that from leaching into groundwater, and potential escape into the
soil treated with lime exhibited a CBR value 5.2 times higher than environment (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management,
untreated soil, and soil treated with both lime and sodium silicate 1992; Johnson et al., 1994; JNCDI, 1999; Ito, 2006; Sellin and
showed a CBR value of 7.86 times higher than untreated soil. While Leupin, 2013; Tripathy et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2019).
undisturbed clay barriers have historically shown higher Ensuring consistent quality of bentonite clay is critical, but
performance in containing chemical waste, identifying thick challenging due to natural variations in its composition.
natural barriers is not always feasible (Met and Akgun, 2015). As Variations in mineral content, particle size and moisture content
a result, compacted clay liners have become essential in municipal can affect its swelling characteristics and performance. This requires
and hazardous waste landfill lining systems (Met and Akgun, 2015). strict quality control measures, including periodic testing and
In addition to the use of clays as soil barriers, several clay characterization of bentonite batches, to ensure consistency and
minerals have useful applications in geo-infrastructure. Bentonite is reliability in engineering applications (Kiviranta and Kumpulainen,
particularly known for its low permeability, which makes it ideal for 2011; Svensson et al., 2017; Magnus et al., 2020). Under changing
certain geotechnical applications. For instance, it is used for its high environmental conditions, bentonite buffer can undergo physical
cation-exchange ability, allowing effective binding and retaining and chemical changes over an extended period that can affect its
ions making it useful for soil stabilization and geo-infrastructure performance as a sealant or barrier material, especially in geological
projects (Klik et al., 2022). When bentonite absorbs water, it repositories. Factors such as chemical interactions with surrounding
hydrates and swells, forming a stable gel structure that enhances materials, changes in temperature (high temperatures) and

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Oppong and Kolawole 10.3389/fbuil.2024.1396542

humidity, specific pH and salinity conditions, and microbial activity emphasizes the critical role these materials play in engineering
can reduce its performance. In nuclear and geotechnical practices, with a particular focus on their involvement in
engineering, long-term durability is an important issue, geotechnical-related hazards, such as freeze-thaw cycles,
specifically for applications such as nuclear waste containment, damage, and sulfate attack in underground cemented
where materials need to maintain their integrity for thousands of structures, as well as their applications in geotechnical
years (Kolstad et al., 2004; Laine and Karttunen, 2010; Mazzieri et al., engineering. The following deductions were made:
2017). Table 4 summarizes the geotechnical applications of
bentonite, highlighting its high cation exchange capacity and low i. Frost heaving is prevalent in the Northern Hemisphere, Arctic
permeability which make it effective for soil stabilization and geo- regions, temperate zones, and high-altitude areas. In these
infrastructure projects. geographical locations, when a significant amount of water
within the geomaterials and concrete structures freezes, they
5.2.2 Implications of using sulfate minerals can expand by approximately 10% of their original volume.
Gypsum is extensively used in geotechnical engineering for This expansion can enlarge fractures and void spaces in
diverse purposes such as embankment and subgrade backfill geomaterials and concrete structures during the thawing
material, cement additive, building material, treatment agent for process, which can contribute to structural instability in
expansive soils, and soft soil reinforcement (Shen et al., 2012; these regions.
Rashad, 2017; Jiang et al., 2018; Rosales et al., 2020; Pu et al., ii. The freeze-thaw cycle is influenced by variations in
2021). Gypsum plays a crucial role in cement manufacturing by temperature and pressure. In rock mechanics, prolonged
preventing or slowing down the rapid setting of cement particles, a exposure of rocks to low temperatures (≤0°C) and high
phenomenon known as flash setting (Aakriti et al., 2023). Its temperatures (>0°C) can lead to significant changes in the
application as an additive material to stabilize expansive soils deformation and strength characteristics of fractured rock
(clay soils) has gained significant attention due to its widespread masses. Additionally, when pressure decreases, soil tends to
availability, cost-effectiveness, minimal carbon emissions, and its expand, while increasing pressure causes soil to shrink.
ability to improve water resistance (Toksöz Hozatlıoğlu Yılmaz, Therefore, it is recognized that freeze-thaw cycles make it
2021; Ma et al., 2022). difficult to control settlement in geo-infrastructure and rock
Relatively, recycled gypsum’s positive impact on soil heave in underground space engineering.
stabilization is evident through its influence on various iii. Expansive clay minerals (notably montmorillonite) are
engineering and environmental factors, including compaction widespread in both humid and arid regions which pose
characteristics, consistency, strength, deformation, compression, significant geotechnical hazards, surpassing damages caused
shear, expansion properties, and long-term durability in the past by natural disasters. The expansion mechanism of clay
decades (Pu et al., 2021). However, the number of comprehensive minerals, driven by hydration energy and water absorption
studies exploring the efficiency of gypsum in soil stabilization into interlayer spaces and crystal lattices is complex which
remains relatively limited, with notable contributions from makes it difficult to control water movement in underground
researchers (Yilmaz and Civelekoglu, 2009; Kiliç et al., 2015). excavation and foundation engineering.
In contrast, combining gypsum with other materials offers a wide iv. Bentonite is being explored as a buffer material in high-level
range of applications in the construction industry. For instance, nuclear waste repositories for storage due to its unique
fly ash-lime-gypsum bricks are used as a substitute for traditional swelling and sealing properties to provide a safer
clay bricks in construction, and their application contributes to containment and isolation of radioactive wastes over
soil conservation, pollution reduction, and an increase in the extended periods in deep underground environments. Also,
consumption of fly ash and gypsum (Jayasudha and bentonite provides a reliable substitute for cementitious
Niranjan, 2014). materials in geo-infrastructure and can enhance grouted
Table 5 provides a summary of various natural expansive rock stability, waterproofing, and rock strength, in addition
materials, highlighting how their expansion behavior can affect to contributing to soil stabilization.
geo-infrastructure. The analysis indicates that clay mineral v. Sulfate minerals, particularly gypsum, interact with water,
expansion, influenced by factors such as moisture content and resulting in a theoretical 62% volume increase while
volume increase, leads to shrink-swell behavior and can cause transforming into ice crystals. This transformation
significant damage to foundations. Sulfate mineral expansion process can fill rock discontinuities. Moreover, the
results in structural heave in tunnels and bridges. Additionally, formation of these ice crystals exerts pressure on the
sulfate attack in cemented structures causes concrete expansion and surrounding rock, causing heaving and potentially
deterioration through reactions with hydration products like leading to geo-infrastructural damage.
gypsum and ettringite. vi. Sulfate attack in concrete structures and geo-infrastructure
involves a chemical reaction between sulfate ions and
hydrated compounds, leading to expansion, corrosion, and
6 Conclusion the formation of gypsum and ettringite phases. The expansion
of sulfate minerals is influenced by evaporation-based
This paper reviews the intrinsic and extrinsic contributing precipitation and anhydrite-aqueous solution mechanisms,
factors and significance of natural expansive materials and their making it crucial to assess risks and implement mitigation
impact on geo-infrastructures. Additionally, this work strategies for geological and engineered structures.

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Oppong and Kolawole 10.3389/fbuil.2024.1396542

7 Future research directions methods, predictive models, numerical modeling, and

microstructural characterization. These approaches will
This review highlights several key areas for future research, enable geotechnical engineers to predict material behavior,
particularly in understanding the frost-heaving behavior in rocks, identify internal mechanisms, and develop strategies to
clay minerals, sulfate minerals, and concrete structures, as well as the minimize the impact on geo-infrastructure, resulting in
shrink-swell behavior and expansive mechanisms in geomaterials safer and more resilient construction.
within geotechnical engineering. Extensive studies have explored v. Strict measures must be tailored to ensure that building codes
frost-heaving mechanisms, considering factors such as ice lens and regulations, which include comprehensive guidelines for
growth, stress-strain behavior, temperature, pressure, and load construction in regions susceptible to expansive soils and
conditions. Critical elements in this complex process include freeze-thaw cycles, are strictly adhered to. These measures
moisture content, temperature variations, and cyclic freezing- are crucial for safeguarding the safety and structural stability
thawing patterns. However, to achieve effective engineering of buildings and infrastructure.
design practices, key research gaps related to expansive materials
should be prioritized in future studies:
Author contributions
i. Frost heaving in tunneling and rock engineering is a
significant concern due to its impact on rock mechanical FO: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology,
integrity, driven by pressure changes during freezing and Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. OK: Project
thawing. However, the mechanisms of frost heaving in administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing–review
deep underground rock openings remain poorly and editing.
understood and warrant further investigation.
ii. There is a knowledge gap regarding how the expansion,
shrinkage, and chemical reactions of sulfate minerals in Funding
geomaterials and cemented infrastructures can induce
significant reinforcements under varied loading and The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for
environmental conditions. The influence of expansive the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
natural materials on geo-infrastructures can be profound,
often resulting in foundation cracks, structural tilting, and
compromised integrity. Repairing damage caused by Conflict of interest
expansive natural materials can be costly and time-
consuming, necessitating proper site assessment and The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
engineering solutions. absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
iii. Expansive soils also impact the environment, causing soil erosion, construed as a potential conflict of interest.
sedimentation in water bodies, and altered groundwater flow
patterns. To mitigate these effects, geotechnical engineers should
implement strategies such as moisture control, proper drainage, Publisher’s note
moisture barriers, and foundation designs that accommodate soil
movement by using experimental, numerical modeling, and field All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
investigations. and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
iv. Ongoing research using emerging technologies to better organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
understand natural expansive materials and their reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
interactions with water, which cause shrink/swell behavior claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
should be investigated through advanced soil and rock testing endorsed by the publisher.

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Nomenclature
CaSO4 *2H 2 O Gypsum

CaSO4 Anhydrite

Na2 SO4 sodium sulfate

Na2 SiO3 sodium metasilicate

CSH 2 gypsum formation

CH calcium hydroxide

CSH calcium silicate hydrate

C6 AS3 H 2 ettringite formation

C3 A tricalcium aluminate

C4 ASH 12 monosulfate

C3 AH 6 hydrogarnetto

η the frost heaving ratio

ΔV volume increment of the frost heave

V volume of the original rock

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