CHEBO K PARDON
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Coordination and Response in Animals
Coordination is the process by which different organs and systems of the
body work together efficiently. In animals, coordination happens through two
main systems:
1. The Endocrine System – Uses hormones to regulate body functions.
2. The Nervous System – Uses nerves to transmit signals throughout the
body.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is made up of glands that release hormones directly
into the blood. These hormones travel to specific target organs to cause a
response. Once their job is done, the liver breaks them down.
Main Endocrine Glands and Their Functions
1. Pituitary Gland (Master Gland)
The pituitary gland is also called
Hypophysis.
It is called the master gland because it secrets hormone that stimulate
other endocrine gland.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) – Activates the thyroid gland.
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) – Stimulates the adrenal glands.
• Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) – Stimulates testosterone
production in males.
•Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – Stimulates egg development in
females.
•Luteinising Hormone (LH) – Causes ovulation and corpus luteum formation.
Other important hormones produced by the pituitary gland include:
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – Controls water balance in the body by
reducing water loss in urine. Lack of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus, which
causes excessive urination.
• Growth Hormone (GH)
This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of macromolecules such as
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
– Helps in body growth . Imbalances lead to:
•Gigantism – Excess GH in childhood causes abnormal height.
•Acromegaly – Excess GH in adults causes enlarged bones.
•Dwarfism – GH deficiency leads to stunted growth.
•Oxytocin – Causes contractions during childbirth and helps release breast
milk.
•Prolactin – Stimulates milk production in mothers.
2. Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland produces thyroxine, a hormone that:
- Controls metabolism (how the body uses energy).
-Helps in growth and cell [Link] thyroxine production, the body
needs iodine. Imbalances in thyroxine levels cause:
• Hyperthyroidism – Too much thyroxine leads to weight loss, fast heart rate,
and irritability.
•Hypothyroidism – Too little thyroxine causes:
•Myxoedema – Slow metabolism in adults.
•Cretinism – Poor physical and mental development in children.
•Goitre – Swelling of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency.
3. Adrenal Glands
• Located above the kidneys, the adrenal glands produce adrenaline, also
called the fight-or-flight hormone. This hormone prepares the body for
emergencies by:
•Increasing blood sugar levels for energy.
• Increasing breathing and heart rate to supply more oxygen.
•Redirecting blood to the muscles for quick action.
•Dilating pupils for better vision.
•Causing goosebumps and shivering in response to cold or fear.
4. Pancreas
The pancreas functions both as:
•An exocrine gland – Producing digestive enzymes.
• An endocrine gland – Regulating blood sugar levels. For that reason it is
also called compound gland
Inside the pancreas, special cells called the Islets of Langerhans produce two
important hormones:
Insulin (from beta cells) – Lowers blood sugar by converting excess glucose
into glycogen and fat for storage.
Glucagon (from alpha cells) – Raises blood sugar by converting stored
glycogen and fat back into glucose.
A lack of Insulin causes diabetes mellitus, which leads to:
- High blood sugar.
- Glucose appearing in urine.
- Excessive thirst.
- Rapid weight loss.
- Numbness in body parts.
THE OVARIES AND TESTED
Collectively the ovaries and test are called the GONADS .
The gonads are the primary reproductive organs in males and females,
responsible for producing gametes (sperm and eggs) and secreting sex
hormones. In males, the gonads are the testes, while in females, they are the
ovaries. These organs play a crucial role in sexual development,
reproduction, and endocrine function.
1. The Male Gonads (Testes)
The testes are paired, oval-shaped organs located in the scrotum. Each testis
is surrounded by a fibrous capsule called the tunica albuginea and is divided
into numerous compartments called lobules. Each lobule contains
seminiferous tubules, which are responsible for sperm production.
Functions of the Testes
1. Spermatogenesis (Sperm Production)
- The seminiferous tubules contain spermatogenic cells that undergo
meiosis to produce sperm.
- Sertoli cells within the tubules provide nourishment and support for
developing sperm.
- The process is regulated by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
testosterone.
2. Hormone Production
- Leydig cells, located in the interstitial tissue, secrete testosterone, the
primary male sex hormone.
TESTOSTERONE REGULATES:
- Sperm production
-Development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deep voice, muscle
growth, facial hair)
- Libido and sexual function
3. The Ovaries
The ovaries are two almond-shaped structures located on either side of the
uterus. They consist of an outer cortex (containing ovarian follicles) and an
inner medulla (containing blood vessels and nerves).
Functions of the Ovaries
1. Oogenesis (Egg Production)
The ovaries contain follicles, each housing an immature egg (oocyte).
During ovulation, a mature egg is released into the fallopian tube for
potential fertilization.
2. HORMONE PRODUCTION
The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate:
-Menstrual cycle
- Development of female secondary sexual characteristics (breast
development, widening of hips)
-Pregnancy and reproductive health
KEY TERMINOLOGIES
1. Acromegaly – Abnormal bone enlargement, especially in the face and
hands, due to excess growth hormone.
2. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) – The minimum amount of energy required
for the body to function at rest.
3. Corpus Luteum – A temporary gland in the ovary that produces
progesterone after ovulation.
4. Cretinism – A condition caused by hypothyroidism in infants, leading to
severe growth and mental retardation.
5. Ductless Glands – Glands that release hormones directly into the
bloodstream instead of through ducts.
6. Gigantism – Excessive height and body size due to overproduction of
growth hormone during childhood.
7. Goitre – Swelling of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency.
8. Homeostasis – The process of maintaining a stable internal
environment in the body.
9. Hypothyroidism – A condition where the thyroid gland produces
insufficient thyroxine, leading to slow metabolism.
10. Interstitial Cells – Cells in the testes responsible for producing
testosterone.
11. Luteinising Hormone (LH) – A hormone that triggers ovulation in
females and testosterone production in males.
12. Myxoedema – A severe form of hypothyroidism in adults, causing
sluggishness and mental dullness.
13. Oxytocin – A hormone that stimulates uterine contractions and
milk ejection.
14. Prolactin – A hormone that promotes milk production in females.
15. Thyroxine – A hormone that regulates metabolism and growth.
16. Vasopressin – Another name for ADH, responsible for water
retention in the kidneys.
QUESTIONS