HUMAN.

GEO-XII-4
Primary Activities
 Economic Activities: Activities that generate income are called economic activities.

o They are broadly classified into four categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary.

 Primary Activities:

o These activities directly depend on the environment because they involve the
utilization of the Earth's resources.

o Examples include land, water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals.

o Specific types of primary activities are hunting and gathering, pastoral activities,
fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.

o People engaged in primary activities are known as red-collar workers due to the
outdoor nature of their work.

 Hunting and Gathering:

o This is the oldest economic activity known.

o Early human beings relied on their immediate environment for survival, subsisting on
hunted animals and gathered edible plants.

o Primitive societies heavily depended on wild animals, especially in very cold and
extremely hot climates.

o While fishing has modernized with technology, coastal areas still engage in it.

o Illegal hunting (poaching) has led to the extinction or endangerment of many

species.

o Early hunters used simple tools, limiting the number of animals they could kill.

o Hunting has been banned in India (the source asks "Why has hunting been banned
in India?" but does not provide the answer).

o Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions by primitive societies

to obtain food, shelter, and clothing.

o Gathering requires little capital investment and uses low levels of technology,
resulting in low yield per person and little to no surplus.

o Regions where gathering is practiced include high latitude zones (northern Canada,
northern Eurasia, southern Chile) and low latitude zones (Amazon Basin, tropical
Africa, Northern fringe of Australia, interior Southeast Asia).
 o In modern times, some gathering has become market-oriented (commercial),
involving the collection and sale of valuable plants like medicinal plants, leaves, and
barks after simple processing.

o Various parts of plants are used (e.g., bark for quinine, leaves for beverages, nuts for
food and oils, tree trunks for rubber).

o Chicle, the base of chewing gum, is made from the milky juice of the zapota tree.

o Gathering has limited potential at the global level because its products cannot
compete in the world market, and synthetic products often replace them.

 Pastoralism:

o It likely emerged as humans realized hunting was unsustainable.

o People in different climates domesticated animals found in their regions.

o Animal rearing is practiced at subsistence or commercial levels, depending on

geographical factors and technological development.

o Nomadic Herding (Pastoral Nomadism):

 A primitive subsistence activity where herders rely on animals for all basic
needs (food, clothing, shelter, tools, transport).

 Herders move with their livestock in search of pasture and water.

 Each community traditionally occupies a well-defined territory.

 Different animals are kept in different regions (cattle in tropical Africa,

sheep/goats/camels in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, yak/llamas in Tibet and
Andes, reindeer in Arctic/sub-Arctic).

 Associated with three main regions: core region from North Africa to
Mongolia and Central China, the tundra region of Eurasia, and smaller areas
in South-west Africa and Madagascar.

 Movement can be horizontal over vast distances or vertical in mountainous

regions (transhumance).

 Transhumance involves seasonal migration between plain areas and

mountain pastures (e.g., Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, Bhotiyas in the
Himalayas) or north-south movement in tundra regions.

 The number of pastoral nomads and their operational areas are decreasing
due to the imposition of political boundaries and new settlement plans.

o Commercial Livestock Rearing:

 More organized and capital intensive than nomadic herding.

 Closely associated with western cultures and practiced on permanent

ranches covering large, fenced areas.
  Grazing is regulated by moving animals between parcels.

 The number of animals is kept within the pasture's carrying capacity.

 A specialized activity focusing on rearing one type of animal (sheep, cattle,

goats, horses).

 Products (meat, wool, hides, skin) are scientifically processed, packed, and
exported.

 Emphasizes breeding, genetic improvement, disease control, and animal

health care.

 Important countries include New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and

the USA.

 Agriculture:

o Practiced under diverse combinations of physical and socio-economic conditions,

leading to different agricultural systems.

o Categorized based on farming methods, crops grown, and livestock raised.

o Subsistence Agriculture:

 Farming where the produce is mostly consumed locally.

 Two categories: Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence

Agriculture.

 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture (Shifting Cultivation):

 Widely practiced by tribes in the tropics (Africa, South and Central

America, Southeast Asia).

 Vegetation is cleared by fire (slash and burn agriculture), and ashes

add to soil fertility.

 Small cultivated patches and use of primitive tools (sticks, hoes).

 Soil fertility declines after 3-5 years, so farmers shift to new patches.
They may return to earlier patches later.

 A major problem is the shortening cycle of cultivation (jhum) due to

fertility loss.

 Known by different local names (e.g., Jhuming in Northeast India,

Milpa in Central America and Mexico, Ladang in Indonesia and
Malaysia).
  Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:

 Found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.

 Two types:

 Dominated by wet paddy cultivation: Characterized by rice

as the main crop, small landholdings due to high population
density, family labor, intensive land use, limited machinery,
manual labor for most tasks, use of farmyard manure, high
yield per unit area but low per labor productivity.

 Dominated by crops other than paddy: Practiced where

paddy cultivation is not feasible due to relief, climate, soil,
and other geographical factors. Crops include wheat,
soybean, barley, and sorghum in northern China, Manchuria,
North Korea, and North Japan; wheat in western Indo-
Gangetic plains of India; and millets in dry parts of western
and southern India. Similar characteristics to wet paddy
cultivation, but irrigation is often used.

o Plantation Agriculture:

 Introduced by Europeans in tropical colonies, mainly profit-oriented large-

scale production systems.

 Important crops: tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane,
bananas, pineapples.

 Key features: large estates, large capital investment, managerial and

technical support, scientific cultivation methods, single crop specialization
(monoculture), cheap labor, good transportation linking estates to factories
and markets for export.

 Historical examples: French in West Africa (cocoa, coffee), British in India and
Sri Lanka (tea), Malaysia (rubber), West Indies (sugarcane, banana), Spanish
and Americans in the Philippines (coconut, sugarcane), Dutch in Indonesia
(sugarcane).

 Many plantations now owned by governments or nationals.

 Hill slopes are often used for tea plantations due to favorable geographical
conditions.

o Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation:

 Practiced in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-latitudes.

 Wheat is the principal crop, but other grains like corn, barley, oats, and rye
are also grown.
  Very large farm sizes and mechanized operations from plowing to
harvesting.

 Low yield per acre but high yield per person due to mechanization and large
farm size.

 Best developed in Eurasian steppes, Canadian and American Prairies,

Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Africa, Australian Downs, and
Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

o Mixed Farming:

 Found in highly developed parts of the world (North-western Europe,

Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, temperate latitudes of Southern
continents).

 Moderate farm sizes with a mix of crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize,
fodder, root crops).

 Fodder crops are important to support animal husbandry.

 Crop rotation and intercropping are used to maintain soil fertility.

 Equal emphasis on crop cultivation and animal husbandry (cattle, sheep,

pigs, poultry) for income.

 Characterized by high capital expenditure on machinery and buildings,

extensive use of fertilizers and green manures, and skilled farmers.

o Dairy Farming:

 The most advanced and efficient type of milch animal rearing, highly capital
intensive.

 Requires investment in animal sheds, fodder storage, feeding and milking

machines.

 Special focus on cattle breeding, health care, and veterinary services.

 Highly labor intensive due to rigorous care in feeding and milking.

 No off-season unlike crop raising.

 주로 urban and industrial centers due to the market for fresh milk and dairy
products.

 Development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurization has increased

the storage duration of dairy products.

 Three main commercial regions: North Western Europe, Canada, South

Eastern Australia/New Zealand/Tasmania.
o Mediterranean Agriculture:

 Highly specialized commercial agriculture in regions around the

Mediterranean Sea, southern California, central Chile, southwestern South
Africa, and southwestern Australia.

 An important supplier of citrus fruits.

 Viticulture (grape cultivation) is a specialty, producing high-quality wines,

raisins, and currants.

 Also produces olives and figs.

 Advantage: growing valuable fruits and vegetables in winters when there is

high demand in European and North American markets.

o Market Gardening and Horticulture:

 Specializes in high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers solely for
urban markets.

 Small farms located near urban centers with good transportation links and
high-income consumers.

 Both labor and capital intensive, emphasizing irrigation, HYV seeds,

fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating in colder regions.

 Well-developed in densely populated industrial districts of northwest

Europe, northeastern USA, and the Mediterranean regions.

 Netherlands specializes in flowers (e.g., tulips).

 Truck farming: specialization in vegetables where the distance to market is

governed by overnight truck travel.

o Factory Farming:

 Modern development in industrial regions of Western Europe and North

America.

 Livestock (poultry and cattle) are reared in stalls and pens, fed manufactured
feedstuff, and closely supervised for diseases.

 Requires heavy capital investment in buildings, machinery, veterinary

services, heating, and lighting.

 Important features include breed selection and scientific breeding.

 o Farming Organization:

 Affected by land ownership patterns and government policies.

 Co-operative Farming:

 Farmers voluntarily pool resources to form a co-operative society for

more efficient and profitable farming.

 Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a cooperative

initiative.

 Co-operatives help farmers procure inputs, sell products at favorable

terms, and process quality products cheaply.

 Originated over a century ago and successful in Western European

countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy.
Denmark has a very successful cooperative movement.

 Collective Farming:

 Based on social ownership of the means of production and

collective labor.

 The Kolkhoz model was introduced in the former Soviet Union to

improve agricultural efficiency and boost production for self-
sufficiency.

 Farmers pooled land, livestock, and labor but were allowed small
private plots for daily needs.

 Mining:

o The discovery of minerals is a significant part of human history (Copper Age, Bronze
Age, Iron Age).

o Early mineral use was mainly for tools, utensils, and weapons.

o The actual development of mining began with the Industrial Revolution, and its
importance continues to grow.

o Factors Affecting Mining Activity:

 Physical factors: size, grade, and mode of occurrence of the mineral

deposits.

 Economic factors: demand for the mineral, available technology, capital for
infrastructure, labor, and transport costs.

o Methods of Mining:

 Surface Mining (Open-cast or Strip Mining): Used for minerals close to the
surface; easiest and cheapest method; low overhead costs (safety,
equipment relatively low); large and rapid output.
  Underground Mining (Shaft Method): Used when ore lies deep below the
surface; vertical shafts are sunk with underground galleries radiating to the
minerals; requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation;
risky due to poisonous gases, fires, floods, and caving in.

o Developed economies are moving away from mining, processing, and refining due to
high labor costs, while developing countries with large labor forces are becoming
more important in this sector.

o Several countries in Africa, South America, and Asia earn over 50% of their revenue
from minerals.

Relationships Between Topics

 Environmental Influence: Primary activities are fundamentally linked to the environment.

The type of land, climate, water availability, and mineral resources directly determine which
primary activities are feasible in a region. For example, coastal regions favor fishing, while
plains are suitable for agriculture. Geographical factors influence the types of animals
domesticated in pastoralism.

 Technological Advancement: Technological progress has significantly impacted primary

activities. Modern fishing techniques, mechanized agriculture, and advanced mining
methods have increased efficiency and scale. However, the level of technology varies
significantly between subsistence and commercial activities.

 Economic Development: The shift from subsistence-based primary activities like hunting and
gathering and nomadic herding towards commercial activities like ranching, plantation
agriculture, and commercial grain farming reflects economic development and increasing
market integration.

 Population Density: Population density influences the type of agriculture practiced. Densely
populated regions often practice intensive subsistence agriculture to maximize output from
limited land. Market gardening is also linked to proximity to urban populations.

 Historical and Cultural Factors: Colonialism played a significant role in introducing and
shaping certain primary activities like plantation agriculture in various parts of the world.
Cultural traditions influence the patterns of nomadic herding.

 Sustainability: The chapter highlights the sustainability issues associated with hunting and
gathering and shifting cultivation, leading to the development of more sustainable practices
in commercial activities like regulated grazing in ranching and crop rotation in mixed farming.

Expected Prelims and Mains Questions

Prelims (MCQ Type):

1. Which of the following is NOT a primary activity? (a) Mining (b) Manufacturing (c) Agriculture
(d) Forestry

2. Red-collar workers are primarily associated with which sector of economic activities? (a)
Tertiary (b) Secondary (c) Primary (d) Quaternary
 3. 'Slash and burn' agriculture is also known as: (a) Intensive farming (b) Plantation agriculture
(c) Shifting cultivation (d) Mixed farming

4. Which of the following regions is NOT a major area of nomadic herding? (a) Eurasian steppes
(b) Tundra region of Eurasia (c) Pampas of Argentina (d) Arabian Peninsula

5. Plantation agriculture is characterized by: (a) Small landholdings and mixed cropping (b)
Large estates and monoculture (c) Family labor and subsistence orientation (d) Low capital
investment and traditional methods

6. Mediterranean agriculture is best known for the production of: (a) Wheat and barley (b) Tea
and coffee (c) Citrus fruits and grapes (d) Rubber and cotton

7. The Kolkhoz model of farming was associated with: (a) Co-operative farming in Denmark (b)
Collective farming in the Soviet Union (c) Plantation agriculture in the West Indies (d)
Extensive grain cultivation in North America

Mains (Descriptive Type):

8. "Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment." Elaborate on this statement
with suitable examples from different types of primary activities. (250 words)

9. Differentiate between nomadic herding and commercial livestock rearing, highlighting their
geographical distribution and economic significance. (250 words)

10. Discuss the characteristics and global distribution of intensive subsistence agriculture. How
does it differ between regions dominated by wet paddy and those with other crops? (250
words)

11. Analyze the key features of plantation agriculture and explain the role of European colonists
in its development across the globe. (250 words)

12. Evaluate the factors that influence mining activity. Distinguish between surface and
underground mining methods, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. (250 words)

13. Compare and contrast market gardening and extensive commercial grain cultivation in terms
of their geographical location, scale of operation, and economic focus. (250 words)

14. Examine the concept and significance of co-operative farming in promoting agricultural
efficiency and farmers' welfare. Provide relevant examples. (250 words)

Facts and Definitions

 Economic Activities: Income-generating human activities.

 Primary Activities: Economic activities directly utilizing Earth's resources.

 Red-collar workers: People engaged in outdoor primary activities.

 Hunting and Gathering: Oldest economic activity based on hunting animals and gathering
plants.

 Pastoralism: Domestication and rearing of animals.

 Nomadic Herding: Subsistence-based movement of herders with livestock for pasture.

 Transhumance: Seasonal migration of livestock between different altitudes or latitudes.

 Commercial Livestock Rearing: Capital-intensive, organized animal rearing for market.

 Agriculture: Cultivation of land for growing crops and rearing animals.

 Subsistence Agriculture: Farming where most produce is consumed locally.

 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture (Shifting Cultivation): Slash and burn agriculture, practiced
in tropics.

 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: High-input farming on small landholdings in densely

populated areas.

 Plantation Agriculture: Large-scale, profit-oriented farming of single cash crops, often in

tropics.

 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation: Large mechanized farms growing grains in semi-
arid mid-latitudes.

 Mixed Farming: Integrated crop cultivation and animal husbandry.

 Dairy Farming: Advanced, capital-intensive rearing of milch animals for milk and products.

 Mediterranean Agriculture: Specialized commercial agriculture of fruits, vegetables, and

grapes in Mediterranean climates.

 Market Gardening and Horticulture: Intensive cultivation of high-value crops for urban
markets.

 Truck Farming: Specialization in vegetable cultivation for distant urban markets.

 Factory Farming: Intensive indoor rearing of livestock.

 Co-operative Farming: Farmers pooling resources voluntarily.

 Collective Farming (Kolkhoz): Social ownership of production means and collective labor.

 Mining: Extraction of minerals from the Earth.

 Surface Mining (Open-cast/Strip Mining): Extracting near-surface minerals.

 Underground Mining (Shaft Method): Extracting deep-lying minerals through shafts.