"Beginnings and Beyond" by Ahmad Dallal

Monday, April 21, 2025 2:48 PM

Social and Institutional Contexts

Main Argument
• Historians of Islamic science must go beyond identifying initial conditions and explore the historically specific characteristics of knowledge and how science
sustained cumulative growth over time in varying contexts.
• The goal is to understand how science functioned socially and institutionally in Muslim societies.

Institutional Support and Marginalization of Rational Sciences

• Common Claim: Rational sciences were marginalized due to exclusion from formal curricula and lack of institutional support.
• George Makdisi’s Thesis:
○ Madrasas and similar institutions were focused solely on legal and religious sciences.
○ Rational sciences were viewed as "godless" and excluded from official education.
○ These sciences were pursued privately and without financial support from waqf institutions.
• Criticisms of Makdisi:
○ Islamic education overall was unsystematic, personal, and informal.
○ Scholars had freedom in their teaching choices; networks of individuals, not institutions, structured education.
○ This supports the informality thesis but challenges the idea of exclusive marginalization.

Sonja Brentjes’ Counterargument

• Education in rational sciences was as stable as in religious sciences.
• Took place within structured networks similar to those for religious sciences.
• Biographical dictionaries show rational sciences were:
○ Present, respected, and often allied with religious disciplines.
○ Practiced alongside religious disciplines by the same scholars post-12th century.
• Scholars often combined multiple disciplines:
○ Ḥadīth + medicine
○ Qur’anic exegesis + astronomy
○ Law + philosophy
• Examples of Integration:
○ Farā’iḍ (inheritance law) – subfield of algebra.
○ ‘Ilm al-mīqāt (timekeeping) – subfield of astronomy, relevant for prayers and calendars.
• Rational sciences featured in science classifications and praised in religious biographical dictionaries.
• Specialized Biographical Dictionaries:
○ For physicians (ṭabaqāt al-Aṭṭibā‘) and philosophers/scientists (ṭabaqāt al-ḥukamā’).
○ Validated these professions within Islamic society.

Venues and Support for Scientific Activity

• Science was taught/practiced in:
○ Private homes
○ Endowed institutions
○ Formal schools
• Medicine:
○ Taught privately and in hospitals.
○ From 12th–13th centuries, taught in schools devoted solely to science.
○ Hospitals as major institutions:
▪ Baghdad (5 built in 9th–10th c.)
▪ ‘Aḍuḍī Hospital (Baghdad, 982)
▪ Nūrī Hospital (Damascus, 12th c.)
▪ Manṣūrī Hospital (Cairo, 13th c.)
▪ Others in Qayrawān, Mecca, Medina, Rayy
▪ Features:
□ Gender-segregated halls, areas for surgery, mental illness, contagion.
□ On-site housing, pharmacies, libraries, clinical training.
□ Funded by waqf revenues; treatment was free.

Mathematics and Astronomy

• Partly included in religious school curricula via:
○ Farā’iḍ (inheritance algebra)
○ ‘Ilm al-mīqāt (prayer time astronomy)
• Astronomy more deeply supported by institutional observatories:
Al-Ma’mūn (813–833) initiated organized programs in Baghdad & Damascus:

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 ○ Al-Ma’mūn (813–833) initiated organized programs in Baghdad & Damascus:
▪ Compared Ptolemaic models with real-time observations.
▪ Led to Al-Zīj al-Mumtaḥan (The Verified Tables).
▪ Included:
□ Specialized staff
□ Fixed research sites
□ Coordinated observations
□ Research funding
○ Private vs Official Observatories:
▪ Private: smaller instruments, significant advances
▪ Official: larger instruments, better accuracy

Major Observatories
1. Iṣfahān (11th c.):
○ Founded by Saljūq ruler Malikshāh
○ Planned for 30 years (Saturn’s revolution), lasted 18
○ First long-term official observatory
2. Marāghā Observatory (13th c.):
○ Founded by Ilkhānid Hulāgu, directed by Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
○ Funded by waqf, lasted >50 years
○ Hosted top astronomers from across Muslim world
○ Produced Ilkhānid Zīj, built new instruments, worked on planetary theory
○ Inspired later observatories:
▪ Ulegh Beg (Samarkand, 15th c.)
▪ Taqī al-Dīn (Istanbul, 16th c.)
▪ Jai Singh (Jaipur, 18th c.)

Alternative Model: Mosque Timekeepers

• Office of the timekeeper was widespread in mosques.
• Provided:
○ Stable employment for astronomers
○ Scientific contributions equal or superior to formal observatories
• Ibn al-Shāṭir (d. 1375):
○ Timekeeper at Umayyad Mosque (Damascus)
○ Designed instruments, made significant observations, advanced planetary theory
○ His workplace acted like a minor observatory: stable, socially integrated, independent.

Conclusion
• Science in Muslim societies was not uniformly marginalized.
• It enjoyed support from informal networks, professional affiliations, religious relevance, and institutional structures.
• Multiple models of support coexisted:
○ Private patronage
○ Waqf-funded schools and hospitals
○ Royally-endowed observatories
○ Socially-integrated mosque positions

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 "Beginnings and Beyond" by Ahmad Dallal
Monday, April 21, 2025 2:56 PM

Communities of Scientific Knowledge

Main Idea
Science in classical Muslim societies was not just a side activity done by a few people. It became a well-organized, supported, and professional field.
Scientists worked in communities, shared ideas, followed common rules, and built on each other’s work.

Science Became Central

• In earlier societies, science was often elitist and rare.
• In Muslim societies, it became institutionalized, meaning it was practiced regularly, widely supported, and part of everyday intellectual life.
• Scientists had a shared identity and common practices, like:
○ What to study
○ How to do research
○ What kinds of questions to ask

Against the Old View

• Some older historians claimed:
○ Muslim scientists made random discoveries.
○ Their work had no impact in the Islamic world and was only appreciated later in Europe.
• But new research shows:
○ Islamic science was deep, continuous, and well-organized.
○ Scientists built on each other’s work over centuries.

Examples of Scientific Communities

Astronomy:
• From the 9th century onward, scientists made regular observations together.
• From the 11th to the 16th century, they revised Ptolemaic astronomy (Greek model of the universe).
• They had a shared research agenda and even met to work together.
• Scholars would read, comment on, and build on each other's ideas.
Mathematics:
• Roshdi Rashed (modern historian) showed:
○ Each major mathematical discovery had roots in earlier work.
○ Example: Omar al-Khayyam worked on solving algebraic equations.
▪ His work was part of a long tradition.
▪ Later developed by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.
▪ Ṭūsī's work started the field of algebraic geometry (studying curves using equations).
• These traditions involved:
○ Top scientists
○ Commentators
○ Scholars from other fields
○ All helped to grow and share knowledge.

Multiple Discoveries
• Sometimes, different scientists discovered the same thing independently.
• Example: A theorem about sines was found by astronomers in Khwārizm, Baghdad, and Rayy around the same time.
• This shows:
○ There was competition, but also a shared body of knowledge.
○ Discoveries were not random, but driven by scientific needs and available knowledge.

Normal Science
• These communities practiced what Thomas Kuhn called “normal science”:
○ Everyday, systematic science—not just breakthroughs.
○ This regular work created the environment for big discoveries to happen.

Final Thoughts
• Science in Muslim societies had context—a social and historical background.
• But understanding science isn’t just about the context.

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• But understanding science isn’t just about the context.
• It’s also about studying the ideas, texts, and their internal logic.
• Contexts can be messy or conflicting, so we need to look at both the setting and the scientific content to understand Islamic science properly.

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 Mulakhkhas
Monday, April 21, 2025 3:02 PM

The document argues that madrasas were central to the teaching and preservation of Islamic astronomy, with Jaghmīnī’s Mulakhkhas as a prime example of a
textbook tailored for institutional use. It critiques reductionist views that overlook the interplay between individual scholars, patrons, and enduring educational
structures.

Key Themes and Arguments

1. Debate on the Role of Locale in Islamic Science Pedagogy

• Traditional view: The place of teaching (madrasa, private home, garden) is irrelevant; the student-teacher relationship is paramount (Berkey,
Brentjes).
• Counter-argument: Institutional settings (e.g., madrasas) played a crucial role in sustaining and standardizing scientific education, especially from
the 12th century onward.
2. Marginality Thesis
• Sabra’s critique: The idea that Islamic science was marginal to Islamic civilization, surviving only due to individual initiatives or court patronage, is
flawed.
• Evidence: Science was integrated into mainstream Islamic education, particularly in madrasas, and valued for both practical (religious rituals) and
theoretical (understanding God’s creation) purposes.
3. Patronage vs. Institutional Support
• Patronage (e.g., courts, rulers like Ulugh Beg) supported science but was episodic.
• Institutions (madrasas, mosques) provided stability, democratized learning, and preserved scientific knowledge across generations.
4. Evidence of Science in Madrasas
• Samarqand (15th century): Descriptions by al-Kāshī and al-Shirwānī highlight formalized teaching of astronomy/mathematics in madrasas, with structured
curricula (beginner to advanced texts).
• Ottoman and Mughal Eras: Standardized scientific textbooks (e.g., Mulakhkhas, Tadhkira) were used in madrasas across empires.
• Manuscript Witnesses: Examples of astronomical texts (e.g., Kharaqī’s Muntahā, Tūsī’s Tadhkira) copied/studied in madrasas/mosques (e.g.,
Nizāmiyya Madrasa, Umayyad Mosque).
5. Jaghmīnī’s Mulakhkhas
• Purpose: Simplified hay’a (theoretical astronomy) for broader audiences, commissioned by Shāfiʿī scholars (Badr al-Dīn al-Qalānisī, Shihāb al-Dīn al-
Khīwaqī).
• Structure: Condensed Kharaqī’s Tabṣira, omitting complex philosophical debates, making it suitable for madrasa curricula.
• Popularity: Used for centuries, with thousands of extant copies and commentaries.
6. Transformations in the 12th Century
• Conceptual: Hay’a reframed as a noble science to understand God’s creation.
• Textual: Simplified textbooks (e.g., Mulakhkhas) emerged for pedagogical use.
• Institutional: Madrasas expanded, training administrators and scholars, with science as part of broader education.
7. Critique of "Great Man" Narratives
• Overemphasis on individual scholars (e.g., Ibn Sīnā, Ibn al-Haytham) or patrons (e.g., Ulugh Beg) obscures the role of institutions in sustaining science.
• Science in Islam thrived due to a combination of individual brilliance and institutional support.

8. Key Scholars and Works Cited

• Pro-Institutional Role:
○ Ragep, Fazlıoğlu, İhsanoğlu (evidence from Ottoman/Samarqand madrasas).
○ Brentjes (manuscripts linked to religious institutions).
• Skeptics of Institutional Role:
○ Sabra, Berkey, Chamberlain (emphasis on informal networks).
• Texts:
○ Kharaqī’s Tabṣira and Muntahā, Tūsī’s Tadhkira, Jaghmīnī’s Mulakhkhas.
9. Significance
• Challenges the "decline narrative" of Islamic science by showing its institutionalization.
• Highlights the madrasa as a key site for scientific education, not just religious studies.
• Demonstrates how simplified textbooks (Mulakhkhas) facilitated widespread astronomical learning.
10. Quotable Highlights
• "Science in Islam became less susceptible to the vagaries of courts and individual circumstance" (p. 4).
• "The Mulakhkhas was geared for a circle of religiously-oriented students" in madrasas (p. 36).
• "Denying the role of madrasas leads to episodic history... a historiography based on chance" (p. 40).
11. Further Research Directions
• Comparative study of Mulakhkhas commentaries across regions.
• Role of muwaqqits (timekeepers) in bridging practical/theoretical astronomy.
Influence of Seljuk/Khwārizm Shāh policies on madrasa curricula.

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• Influence of Seljuk/Khwārizm Shāh policies on madrasa curricula.

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 Kashi Letter - Bagheri
Monday, April 21, 2025 3:36 PM

Key Themes and Findings

1. Context of the Letter

• Author: Jamshīd al-Kāshī (d. 1429), a prominent Iranian mathematician/astronomer.
• Recipient: His father in Kāshān, Iran.
• Setting: Samarkand under Ulugh Beg’s patronage (early 15th century).
• Purpose: Describes scientific activities, teaching, and institutional life in Samarkand.
2. Scientific Environment in Samarkand

• Scale of Education:
○ Over 20,000 students engaged in learning/teaching, with 500 studying mathematics.
○ Mathematics taught at 12 locations, surpassing contemporary centers in Persia (Fars) and Iraq.
• Curriculum:
○ Focus on astronomy, mathematics (Euclid’s Elements), and instrumentation (e.g., astrolabes).
○ Advanced topics like planetary theory (Almagest, al-Bīrūnī’s *Qānūn al-Mas‘ūdī*) discussed.
3. Ulugh Beg’s Role
• Patronage: Funded 30,000 dinars for education, with 10,000 allocated to students.
• Personal Engagement:
○ Regularly attended classes, posed complex problems (e.g., sundial design, astrolabe curiosities).
○ Tested scholars (including al-Kāshī) on practical and theoretical challenges.
• Observatory: Initially planned Ptolemaic-style rings, but adopted Maragha-inspired innovations (Fakhri sextant) after al-Kāshī’s advice.
4. Key Figures
• Qāzīzāda al-Rūmī: Leading mathematician/astronomer, later director of Samarkand observatory.
• Other Scholars:
○ Maulānā Muhammad Khānī (expert in non-mathematical sciences).
○ Maulānā Abu’l-Fath (jurist, astrolabe specialist).
• Competition: Al-Kāshī’s rivalry with scholars like Yūsuf Hallāj’s son (an Egyptian-trained astronomer) highlights intellectual rigor.
5. Pedagogical Methods

• Interactive Learning:
○ Spontaneous problem-solving in royal presence (e.g., al-Kāshī solved issues on the spot).
○ Emphasis on "presence of mind" over rote memorization.
• Instruments:
○ Astrolabes, sundials, and the zargāla (universal astrolabe) used for teaching.
○ Practical applications (e.g., designing prayer-time holes in mosque walls).
6. Music and Interdisciplinary Science
• Al-Kāshī studied musical scales (adwār), expanding pentachord types from 13 to 19.
• Collaboration with Khwāja ‘Abd al-Qādir (renowned musician) reflects integration of math/music.
7. Observatory Innovations
• Design: Circular building (200 cubits perimeter) with a rock-carved sextant for stability.
• Legacy: Samarkand observatory became a model, blending Maragha’s techniques with local improvements.

8. Significance
• Institutional vs. Informal Learning: Challenges the notion that Islamic science relied solely on individual mentorship; highlights
structured madrasa/observatory settings.
• Global Networks: Scholars from Egypt, Anatolia, and Persia converged in Samarkand, sharing knowledge.
• Practical-Theoretical Balance: Combines abstract math (e.g., al-Bīrūnī’s Qānūn) with applied tools (astrolabes, sundials).

9. Quotable Highlights

• "His Majesty visits the school once every few days... we do not know what problem will be brought up" (p. 4–5) → Dynamic, interactive
pedagogy.
"The small bird does not become an eagle in our land" (p. 9) → High standards for scholarly recognition.

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• "The small bird does not become an eagle in our land" (p. 9) → High standards for scholarly recognition.
• Al-Kāshī’s zargāla solution: "I will write a hundred chapters on how to know it" (p. 9) → Confidence in empirical problem-solving.

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 Kashi Letter - Kennedy
Monday, April 21, 2025 3:49 PM

1. General Overview

• Author: E. S. Kennedy (1960), translating a letter by Jamshid al-Kāshī (d. 1429), a prominent astronomer and mathematician.
• Context: The letter describes al-Kāshī's life at the court of Sultan Ulugh Beg in Samarqand, his scientific achievements, and the construction of the
Samarqand observatory.
• Significance: The letter provides insights into the scientific environment of the 15th century, the personalities involved, and the challenges of
astronomical research.

2. Key Themes and Points

• Al-Kāshī's Arrival and Role at Ulugh Beg's Court

○ Ulugh Beg, a Timurid ruler, was deeply learned in astronomy, mathematics, and Islamic sciences.
○ Al-Kāshī moved from Kāshān to Samarqand, joining Sultan Ulugh Beg's scientific staff.
○ Al-Kāshī highlights Ulugh Beg's intellectual prowess, including his ability to perform complex mental calculations (e.g., determining the sun's longitude
from horseback).

• Scientific Community in Samarqand

○ A vibrant group of scholars worked under Ulugh Beg, including:

○ Qāḍizādeh al-Rūmī: A leading mathematician, though al-Kāshī subtly critiques his lack of practical skills.
○ Other scholars focused on geometry, algebra, and astronomy.
○ Al-Kāshī emphasizes his own superiority in solving complex problems, often surpassing his peers.

• Astronomical Instruments and Observations

○ Astrolabe Construction: Al-Kāshī corrected errors in plotting 1,022 stars on a large astrolabe, resolving issues with star positions and ascensions.
○ Gnomon and Sundial: He designed a gnomon on a non-meridian wall, solving a problem others found intractable.
○ Armillary Sphere: Criticized earlier designs (e.g., Ptolemy's) and proposed improvements based on Mar āgha observatory instruments.
○ Fakhri Sextant: Mentioned as a large observational instrument, later excavated at the Samarqand observatory.

• Challenges and Rivalries

○ Al-Kāshī refutes rumors spread by Badr al-Dīn, who questioned his qualifications and the validity of the Ilkh ānī astronomical tables.
○ He defends the need for long-term observations (10–15 years) to account for planetary motions and eclipses, countering critics who expected quicker
results.

• Ulugh Beg's Leadership

○ Ulugh Beg actively participated in scientific discussions, encouraged rigorous debate, and admitted errors when proven wrong.
○ The letter portrays him as an ideal patron of science: knowledgeable, humble, and dedicated to truth.

• Personal Reflections

○ Al-Kāshī expresses gratitude for his position and Ulugh Beg's patronage.
○ He subtly boasts of his achievements while maintaining humility, emphasizing his contributions to the observatory's construct ion and
instrumentation.

3. Notable Scientific Contributions

• Corrections to Astronomical Theories: Al-Kāshī identified errors in planetary models (e.g., the moon's maximum anomalistic equation).
• Innovations in Instrumentation: Designed and improved tools like the azimuth instrument and eclipse target device.
• Theoretical Work: Demonstrated mastery in both theoretical and practical astronomy, bridging gaps in existing knowledge.

4. Historical and Cultural Insights

• Marāgha Observatory's Influence: Al-Kāshī drew on earlier work from the Marāgha observatory (13th century) but sought to surpass it.
• Scientific Rivalries: The letter reveals tensions among scholars, with al-Kāshī defending his reputation against detractors.
• Patronage System: Highlights the dependence of scientists on royal support and the risks of political instability.

5. Quotations and Highlights

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5. Quotations and Highlights

• On Ulugh Beg's skills:

"He determined the true longitude of the sun (correct) to degrees and minutes... by mental computation."

• On rivalries:
"People who neither know about these operations nor have seen them done... are astonished that anyone should undertake them."

• On scientific rigor:
"The truth of the problems must be investigated... obsequious flattery should not be indulged in."

6. Conclusion

• The letter is a rare firsthand account of medieval Islamic science, showcasing:

• The collaborative yet competitive nature of scholarly work.
• The blend of theoretical and practical innovation.
• The critical role of patronage in advancing astronomy.
• Al-Kāshī's pride in his work and his defense of his methods offer a humanizing glimpse into the life of a pioneering scientist.

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 The Samarqand Mathematical-Astronomical School
Monday, April 21, 2025 9:23 PM

I. Introduction: Political Background

• The Timurid state (1370–1507) was founded by Timur (Tīmūr Lang).
• Key rulers: Shāh Rukh (r. 1409–1447), Ulugh Beg (r. 1447–1449), and Abū Sacīd.
• Ulugh Beg ruled briefly before being killed by his son ʿAbd al-Laṭīf.
• After 1500–01, the state collapsed due to the Uzbeks and the Shaybānīs.
• The Timurid heritage, especially in science, transitioned to Herat under Ḥusayn Bāyqarā.

II. Herat and Samarqand: A Tale of Two Cities

1. Herat – Religion and Art
○ Under Shāh Rukh, Herat became a center of religious learning and arts.
○ Sunnī orthodoxy reinforced through Ḥanafī/Shāfiʿī scholars and the Naqshbandiyya order.
○ Bāysunghur (Shāh Rukh’s son) promoted calligraphy, miniatures, and literature.
○ Prominent figures: ʿAlī Shīr Nawāʾī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Jāmī.
2. Samarqand – Platonist Mathematics
○ Ulugh Beg emphasized mathematical sciences; loyal to Turco-Mongol traditions.
○ Chose Samarqand over Herat for scholarly endeavors.
○ Likely influenced by visit to the Marāgha Observatory as a child.
○ Strong presence of Marāgha School’s legacy (Ṭūsī, Shīrāzī).
○ Key mentor: Qāḍīzāde al-Rūmī.
○ Emphasis on mathematical wisdom reflected a Platonist worldview.

III. The Court of Mathematical Wisdom: Ulugh Beg’s Madrasa

1. Construction and Development
○ Built between 1417–1420 in Samarqand; richly decorated.
○ Once damaged and later revived (used even into 19th century).
2. The Scientists of Mathematics
○ Ulugh Beg personally tested teachers.
○ Notable teachers: Qāḍīzāde (head teacher), Jamshīd al-Kāshī, Mawlānā Khwāfī.
○ 90 teachers in total; 100 students.
○ Ulugh Beg participated in and led mathematical discussions.
3. Curriculum
○ Heavy focus on mathematics, especially geometry and astronomy.
○ Courses included Euclid’s Elements, Ptolemy’s Almagest, and works by Ṭūsī, Shīrāzī.
○ Religious studies more emphasized in Herat; Samarqand specialized in scientific studies.

IV. The Temple of Mathematical Wisdom: The Samarqand Observatory

1. Establishment
○ Likely built between 1420–1424 under supervision of Kāshī and Qāḍīzāde.
○ Based on Marāgha model; reflected Platonist cosmology.
○ Mathematical astronomy as the rational “language” of the celestial realm.
2. The Zīj-i Ulugh Beg
○ Completed around 1437.
○ A four-part astronomical manual covering calendars, timekeeping, star positions, and astrology.
○ Main contributors: Ulugh Beg, Kāshī, Qāḍīzāde, ʿAlī al-Qushjī.
○ Widely studied and commented upon (e.g., by Mīrām Čelebī, al-Birjandī).

V. Ulugh Beg’s Companions

○ Samarqand became a scholarly magnet; 60–70 mathematicians at one point.
○ Scholars included: Kāshī, Qāḍīzāde, al-Qushjī, al-Shirwānī, al-Birjandī.
Many were influenced by Marāgha’s legacy (Ṭūsī, Shīrāzī, Avicenna, al-Rāzī).

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 ○ Many were influenced by Marāgha’s legacy (Ṭūsī, Shīrāzī, Avicenna, al-Rāzī).
○ Tension between scholarly traditions: Samarqand (scientific, rational) vs. Herat (religious, mystical).

VI. The Mathematical Sciences: People and Works

○ Core texts: Elements, Almagest, Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira, Shīrāzī’s Tuḥfa.
○ Emphasis on “middle sciences” (mutawassiṭāt): geometry, optics, astronomy.
○ Kāshī documented ongoing study of works like al-Sajāwandī’s al-Tajnīs.

VII. The Impact of the Tīmūrids: A Path to Tranquility

○ Scientific migration after political instability spread Samarqand’s knowledge.
○ Major influence on Ottomans, Mughals (India), China, and Europe.
○ Examples: migration of ʿAlī al-Qushjī and al-Shirwānī to the Ottoman Empire.
○ Works copied, studied, and commented on in new centers of learning.
○ The Zīj especially influential globally.

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