C H A P T E R ( 2)

Fluid Statics
2.1 Introduction
Fluids are generally found in contact with surfaces. Water in the sea and in reservoir is
in contact with the ground and supporting walls. Atmospheric air is in contact with the
ground. Fluids filling vessels are in contact with the walls of the vessels. Fluids in contact with
surfaces exert a force on the surfaces. The force is mainly due to the specific weight of the
fluid in the case of liquids. In the case of gases molecular activity is the main cause of force
exerted on the surfaces of the containers. Gas column will also exert a force on the base, but
this is usually small in magnitude. When the whole mass of a fluid held in a container is
accelerated or decelerated without relative motion between layers inertia forces also exert a
force on the container walls. This alters the force distribution at stationary or static conditions.
Surfaces may also be immersed in fluids. A ship floating in sea is an example. In this case the
force exerted by the fluid is called buoyant force. This is dealt with in a subsequent chapter.
The force exerted by fluids varies with location. The variation of force under static or dynamic
condition is discussed in this chapter.
This chapter also deals with pressure exerted by fluids due to the weight and due to the
acceleration/deceleration of the whole mass of the fluid without relative motion within the
fluid.
Liquids held in containers may or may not fill the container completely. When liquids
partially fill a container a free surface will be formed. Gases and vapours always expand and
fill the container completely.
2.2 Pressure
Pressure is a measure of force distribution over any surface associated with the force.
Pressure is a surface phenomenon and it can be physically visualised or calculated only if the
surface over which it acts is specified. Pressure may be defined as the force acting along the
normal direction on unit area of the surface. However a more precise definition of pressure, P
is as below:
P  lim F A  dF dA
Aa

F is the resultant force acting normal to the surface area A. ‘a’ is the limiting area which will
give results independent of the area. This explicitly means that pressure is the ratio of the
elemental force to the elemental area normal to it.

37
The force dF in the normal direction on the elemental area dA due to the pressure P is
dF  [Link] (2.1)
The unit of pressure in the SI system is N/m2 also called Pascal Pa . As the magnitude is
small KN m 2 KPa  and MN m 2 MPa  are more popularly used. The atmospheric pressure is
approximately 10 5 N m 2 and is designated as ‘‘bar’’. This is also a popular unit of pressure.
This is approximately equal to the atmospheric pressure or 1 bar.
2.2.1 Types Of Pressure
1- Absolute pressure
2- Gage pressure.
3- Vaccum pressure.

Fig. (2.1): Absolute and Gage Pressure

Patm  101 kPa = Patm  14.7 psi = Patm  760 mmHg

When the pressure measured is above atmospheric pressure, then

Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
Pabs  Pgage  Patm

If the pressure measured is lower than that of atmospheric pressure, then

Vacuum pressure = atmospheric pressure – gauge reading
PVacuum  Patm  Pgage

This will be less than the atmospheric pressure. This is called Vacuum pressure.

38
2.2.2 Pressure Variation in Static Fluid (Hydrostatic Law)
It is necessary to determine the pressure at various locations in a stationary fluid to
solve engineering problems involving these situations. Pressure forces are called surface
forces.
Consider a reservoir containing fluid at rest. Let A be a point within the fluid; Figure
(2.2), and let us investigate how the pressure varies along the x,y and z directions. Select a
small elementary volume of sides x, y and z with A at the center as shown in Figure (2.2).
Let the origin of the coordinate system be located at the point A. Assume that the
pressure at point A is equal to p and that the pressure increases in the +x, +y, and +z directions
and that it decreases in the –x, –y and –z directions. The pressure at each of the six faces of the
elementary volume may be obtained using a Taylor series expansion of the pressure about the
point A. Using only the first two terms and ignoring the higher order terms in the expansion,
the pressure variations are estimated as follows:

Fig. (2.2): Elemental volume of a fluid at rest in a tank.

Gravitational force is called body force as it acts on the whole body of the fluid.
The pressure will be the same at the same level in any connected static fluid whose density is
constant or a function of pressure only.

39
A consequence is that the free surface of a liquid will seek a common level in any container,
where the free surface is everywhere exposed to the same pressure.
(1) X – direction

F x 0

 P x   P x 
 Px  yz   Px   yz  0
 x 2   x 2 
P
 xyz  0
x
P
Then 0 (2.2)
x
(2) Y – direction

F y 0

 P y   P y 
 P  xz   P   xz  0
 y 2   y 2 

P
 xyz  0
y

P
Then 0 (2.3)
y
In a static fluid with no acceleration, the pressure gradient is zero along any horizontal line
i.e., planes normal to the gravity direction.
(3) Z – direction

F Z 0

P
  g   (2.4)
z
 P z   P z 
 P  xy  P  xyz  gxyz  0
 z 2   z 2 
P
 xyz  g yz  0
z
P P
Since   0 then the pressure depends only on z; i.e., P  P z  only. Then the partial
x y
derivatives with respect to z becomes a total derivative :
P
  (2.5)
z

40
2.2.3 Pressure Variation in Fluid with Constant Density
Since the specific weight is equal to the product of fluid density and acceleration of
gravity   g . changes in  are caused either by a change in  or g. For most engineering
applications the variation in g is negligible, so our main concern is with the possible variation
in the fluid density. For liquids the variation in density is usually negligible, even over large
vertical distances, so that the assumption of constant specific weight when dealing with liquids
is a good one. For this instance, Equation (2.3) can be directly integrated
dP
  or dP   dz
dz
P2 Z2

 dP    dz
P1 Z1

To yield P2  P1   z 2  z1 

Or P1  P2   z 2  z1  (2.6)
Where P1 and P2 are pressures at the vertical elevations z1 and z 2 , as is illustrated in
Figure (2.3).

Fig. (2.3): Notation for pressure variation in a fluid at rest with a free surface

Equation (2.4) can be written in the compact form

P1  P2   .h

P1  P2   .h (2.7)

41
where h is the distance, z 2  z1 , which is the depth of fluid measured downward from the
location of P2 . This type of pressure distribution is commonly called a hydrostatic distribution,
and Equation (2.5) shows that in an incompressible fluid at rest the pressure varies linearly
with depth. The pressure must increase with depth to “hold up” the fluid above it.
When one works with liquids there is often a free surface, as is illustrated in Fig. (2.3),
and it is convenient to use this surface as a reference plane. The reference pressure
P0  Patm would correspond to the pressure acting on the free surface, and thus if we let in
Equation (2.6) it follows that the pressure P at any depth h below the free surface is given by
the equation:
P  Patm  h (2.8)
As is demonstrated by Equation (2.7) or (2.8), the pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference plane,
and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or container in which the fluid is held.
Thus, in Figure (2.4) the pressure is the same at all points along the line AB even though the
container may have the very irregular shape shown in the figure. The actual value of the
pressure along AB depends only on the depth, h, the surface pressure, P0 , and the specific
weight,  , of the liquid in the container.

Fig. (2.4): Fluid equilibrium in a container of arbitrary shape

The transmission of pressure throughout a stationary fluid is the principle upon which many
hydraulic devices are based.
The required equality of pressures at equal elevations throughout a system is important
for the operation of hydraulic jacks, lifts, and presses, as well as hydraulic controls on aircraft
and other types of heavy machinery. The fundamental idea behind such devices and systems is
demonstrated in Figure (2.5).

42
 Fig. (2.5): Transmission of fluid pressure
A piston located at one end of a closed system filled with a liquid, such as oil, can be
used to change the pressure throughout the system, and thus transmit an applied force F1 to a
second piston where the resulting force is F2 . Since the pressure P acting on the faces of both
pistons is the same (the effect of elevation changes is usually negligible for this type of
hydraulic device), it follows that:
F1 F2

A1 A2

The piston area A2 can be made much larger than A1 and therefore a large mechanical
advantage can be developed; that is, a small force applied at the smaller piston can be used to
develop a large force at the larger piston.
The applied force could be created manually through some type of mechanical device,
such as a hydraulic jack, or through compressed air acting directly on the surface of the liquid,
as is done in hydraulic lifts commonly found in service stations.
2.2.4 Pressure Measurements
The pressure measured by the gauge is called gauge pressure. The sum of the gauge
pressure and the outside pressure gives the absolute pressure which actually is the pressure
measured.
(1) Barometer
The outside pressure is measured using a mercury barometer or a bellows type meter
called Aneroid barometer shown in Figure (2.6). The mercury barometer and bellow type
meter have zero as the reference pressure. The other side of the measuring surface in these
cases is exposed to vacuum. Hence these meters provide the absolute pressure value.

43
 Fig. (2.6): Mercury Barometer

The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury

barometer, which in its simplest form consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open
end immersed in a container of mercury as shown in Figure (2.6). The tube is initially filled
with mercury (inverted with its open end up) and then turned upside down (open end down)
with the open end in the container of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an
equilibrium position where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure (which develops
in the space above the column) balances the force due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus,
Patm   .h  Pvapor (2.9)

Where  is the specific weight of mercury. For most practical purposes the contribution of the
vapor pressure can be neglected since it is very small, so that It is conventional to specify
atmospheric pressure in terms of the height, h, in millimeters or inches of mercury. Note that
if water were used instead of mercury, the height of the column would have to be
approximately 34 ft rather than 29.9 in of mercury for an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia.

44
(2) Piezometer Tube

Fig.(2.7): Piezometer tube

The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and
attached to the container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in Figure (2.7). Since
manometers involve columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is
Equation (2.8)
P   .h  Patm

Which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a reference
pressure and the vertical distance h between Remember that in a fluid at rest pressure will
increase as we move downward and will decrease as we move upward.
Application of this equation to the piezometer tube of Figure (2.7) indicates that the pressure
can be determined by a measurement of through the relationship
P   1 h1 (2.10)
where is  the specific weight of the liquid in the container. with the height h1 measured from
the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1). Since point (1) and point A within the container
are at the same elevation, PA  P1 .

45
(3) U-Tube Manometer
Another type of manometer which is widely used consists of a tube formed into the shape of a
U as is shown in Figure (2.8).

Fig. (2.8): Simple U – tube manometer

To find the pressure PA in terms of the various column heights, we start at one end of
the system and work our way around to the other end, simply utilizing Equation (2.7). Thus,
for the U-tube manometer shown in Figure (2.8), we will start at point A and work around to
the open end. The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as we move from point (1) to
(2) the pressure will increase by  1h1 . The pressure at point (2) is equal to the pressure at point
(3), since the pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the
same. Note that we could not simply “jump across” from point (1) to a point at the same
elevation in the right-hand tube since these would not be points within the same continuous
mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified we now move to the open end where the
pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount  2 h2 . In
equation form these various steps can be expressed as
PA   1h1   2 h2  0
and, therefore, the pressure PA can be written in terms of the column heights as
PA   2 h2   1h1 (2.11)

46
Example (2.1)
A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil
with specific gravity of 0.8 flowing in a pipeline. Its right
limb is open to the atmosphere and the left limb is
connected to the pipe. The center of the pipe is 90 mm
below the level of mercury with specific gravity of 13.6 in
the right limb. If the difference of mercury levels in the two
limbs is 150 mm, find the gage pressure of the oil in the
pipe.
Solution
The pressures in the plane Z  Z are the same, so
Poil   0il .g .h1   Hg .g .hHg

Poil  0.8  1000  9.81  0.06  13.6  1000  9.81  0.15

Poil  470.88  20012.4

Poil  19541.52 Pa  19.54 kPa

(4) Differential U–Tube Manometer

The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure
between two containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer connected
between containers A and B as is shown in Figure (2.9). The difference in pressure between A
and B can be found by again starting at one end of the system and working around to the other
end.

Fig. (2.9): Differential U – tube manometer

47
 For example, at A the pressure is PA ,which is equal to P1 and as we move to point (2)
the pressure increases by  1h1 . The pressure at P2 is equal to P3 , and as we move upward to
point (4) the pressure decreases by  2 h2 . Similarly, as we continue to move upward from
point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by  3 h3 . Finally, P5  PB , since they are at equal
elevations.
Thus, PA   1 h1   2 h2   3 h3  PB

and the pressure difference is

PA  PB   2 h2   3 h3   1 h1

When the time comes to substitute in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units.
(5) Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in Figure (2.10) is
frequently used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle and the differential reading
is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure can be expressed as
PA   1 h1   2 l 2 sin    3 h3  PB

Or PA  PB   2 l 2 sin    3 h3   1h1 (2.12)

where it is to be noted the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical
distance between the points, which can be expressed as l 2 sin  . Thus, for relatively small
angles the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made large even for small
pressure differences. The inclined-tube manometer is often used to measure small differences
in gas pressures so that if pipes A and B contain a gas then
PA  PB   2 l 2 sin 
PA  PB
Or l2  (2.18)
 2 sin 

Fig. (2.10): Inclined – tube manometer

48
Example (2.2)
An open tube is connected to a [Link] water rises to a height of 900 mm in the tube. What
are the absolute pressures PA and PB of the air above he water?

Solution
(a) The pressure at point (B)
Point (1) and point (2) are in the same level, so, the pressures at these points are equal
P1  P2

Patm   w .g .0.5  PB

101325  1000  9.81 0.5  PB

PB  106230 Pa  106.23 kPa

(b) The pressure at point (A)

Point (1) and point (3) are in the same level, so, the pressures at these points are equal
P1  P3

Patm   w .g .0.5  PA   w .g .0.2

101325  1000  9.81  0.5  PA  1000  9.81  0.2

101325  4905  PA  1962

PA  104268 Pa  104.27 kPa

49
Example (2.3)
What is the pressure difference between centers of tank A and tank B.

Solution
Point (1) and point (2) are in the same level, so, the pressures at these points are equal
P1  P2

PB  1 .g .0.3  PA   w .g .0.46   2 .g .0.14

PB  1.05  1000  9.81 0.3  PA  1000  9.81 0.46  0.8  1000  9.81 0.14

PB  3090.15  PA  4512.6  1098.72

PB  2521.17  PA

PA  PB  2521.17 Pa  2.52 kPa

Example (2.4)
what is the gage pressure PA ? The specific gravity of the oil is 0.8.

Solution
Point (1) and point (2) are in the same level, so, the pressures at these points are equal
P1  P2

 Hg . g .0.3  PA   w . g .1.6   oil . g .3

13600  9.81  0.3  PA  1000  9.81  1.6  0.8  1000  9.81  3

50
 40024.8  PA  15696  23544

40024.8  PA  39240

PA  784.8 Pa

Example (2.5)
What is the absolute pressure in drum A at position a ?

Solution
Point (1) and point (2) are in the same level, so, the pressures at these points are equal
P1  P2

PA   oil .g .0.25  Patm   w .g.0.6  0.3   Hg .g.0.15

PA  0.8  1000  9.81  0.25  101325  1000  9.81  0.3  13600  9.81  0.15

PA  1962  101325  2943  20012.4

PA  1962  84255.6

PA  86217.6 Pa  86.22 kPa

51
2.3 Forces on Surfaces Immersed in Fluids
When a fluid is in contact with a surface is exerts a normal force on the surface. The
walls of reservoirs, sluice gates, flood gates, oil and water tanks and the hulls of ships are
exposed to the forces exerted by fluids in contact with them. The fluids are generally under
static condition. For the design of such structures it is necessary to determine the total force on
them. It is also necessary to determine the point of action of this force.
The point of action of the total force is known as centre of pressure or pressure centre.
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid.
The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to
the surface since there are no shearing stresses present. We also know that the pressure will
vary linearly with depth if the fluid is incompressible. For a horizontal surface, such as the
bottom of a liquid-filled tank (Fig. 2.11), the magnitude of the resultant force is
simply FR  P. A , where P is the uniform pressure on the bottom and A is the area of the
bottom. For the open tank shown, P   .h. Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both
sides of the bottom, as is illustrated, the resultant force on the bottom is simply due to the
liquid in the tank. Since the pressure is constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, the
resultant force acts through the centroid of the area as shown in Figure (2.11).

Fig. (2.11): Hydrostatic force developed on the bottom of an open tank

52
2.3.1 Hydrostatic Force on A plate Submerged in A static Fluid
Consider a submerged plane surface is inclined, as is illustrated in Figure (2.12), we will
assume that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere. Let the plane in which the surface lies
intersect the free surface at 0 and make an angle  with this surface as in Figure (2.12). The
x–y coordinate system is defined so that 0 is the origin and y is directed along the surface as
shown. The area can have an arbitrary shape as shown.
We wish to determine the direction, location, and magnitude of the resultant force
acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in contact with the area. At any given depth, h,
the force acting on dA (the differential area of Figure 2.12) is dF and is perpendicular to the
surface.

Fig. (2.12): Hydraulic force on a submerged flat plate

53
(a) The resultant hydrostatic force (FR)
dFR is the force on the element on area dA

dFR  P  dA h

with P    h and h  y sin  y

dFR   y sin   dA
The magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing these differential forces over
the entire surface. In equation form
FR    y sin   dA

FR   sin   y  dA

But  y dA = the first moment of area about the x–axis

yc 
 ydA   ydA
 dA A
 ydA  y c A

Then FR   sin   y c . A
But hc  y c sin  and PC    hc    y c  sin 

FR  Pc  A (2.13)
Where Pc  pressure at the centroid
Pc   .hc   .[Link]
Thus, the resultant force on any submerged flat plate is equal to the pressure at centroid times
the area of the plate.
(b) Position of the center of pressure (xR,yR)
1- Calculation of YR
The y coordinates, y R , of the resultant force can be determined by summation of moments
around the x axis. That is, the moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the
distributed pressure force, or
The moment of the resultant force about the origin =  the moment of elementary forces on

the elements about the origin

FR . y R   dF . y

But dFR   y sin   dA and FR   .hc . A

54
  .hc . A. y R    . y 2 . sin  .dA

 . y c . sin  . A. y R   . sin   y 2 dA

yc . A. y R   y 2 dA
2
The integral  y dA is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), I xx , with respect to

an axis formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (x
axis). Thus, we can write:
y c . A. y R  I xx

I xx
yR 
y c .A.

Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express , I xx , as

I xx  I xx  A. y c2

where I xx is the second moment of the area about the horizontal axis passing through its
centroid of the plane and parallel to the x axis. Thus,
I xx  A. y c2
yR 
y c . A.

I xx
y R  yc  (2.14)
y c .A.

This equation shows that the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but is always
I xx
below it, since  0.
y c . A.

2- Calculation of XR
The x coordinate, x R , for the resultant force can be determined in a similar manner by
summing moments about the y axis. Thus,
The moment of the resultant force about the origin =  the moment of elementary forces on

the element about the origin

FR .x R   dF .x

But dFR   y sin   dA and FR   .hc . A

 .hc . A.x R    . y. sin  .[Link]

 . y c . sin  . A.x R   . sin   x. [Link]

yc . A.x R   x. [Link]

55
The integral  x. [Link] is the product of inertia to the x and y axis, I xy ,

Thus, we can write:

yc . A.x R  I xy

I xy
xR 
y c .A.
Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express , I xy , as

I xy  I xy  [Link] y c

I xy  [Link] y c
Then, xR 
y c . A.

I xy
x R  xc  (2.15)
y c .A.

where I xy is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing

through the centroid of the area and formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system.
If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis passing through the
centroid and parallel to the x or y axes, the resultant force must lie along the line x  xc since
I xy is identically zero in this case. The point through which the resultant force acts is called

the center of pressure. It is to be noted from Equations (2.14) and (2.15) that y c as increases
the center of pressure moves closer to the centroid of the area. Since yc  hc sin  , the
distance y c will increase if the depth of submergence, hc , increases, or, for a given depth, the
area is rotated so that the angle,  , decreases. Centroidal coordinates and moments of inertia
for some common areas are given in Figure (2.13).

56
 Rectangular Circle Half Parabolic Complement

37b.h 3 b 3 .h b 2 .h 2
 .R 4 I xx  , I yy  , I xy 
I xx  I yy  2100 80 120
4
b.h 3 b 3 .h I xy  0
I xx  , I yy  , I xy  0
12 12
Right Triangle Semicircle Half Parabola

I xx  0.1098 R 4
 .R 4
I yy  8b.h 3 19b 3 .h b 2 .h 2
8 I xx  , I yy  , I xy 
175 480 60
b.h 3 b 3 .h b2h2 I xy 0
I xx  , I yy  , I xy  
36 36 72
Isosceles Triangle Quarter Circle Circular Section

I xx  I yy  0.05488 R 4
R4
b.h 3 b 3 .h I xy  0.01647 R 4 I xx  2  sin 2 
I xx  , I yy  , I xy  0 8
36 48
R4
I yy  2  sin 2  , I xy  0
8
Triangle Quarter Ellipse

b.h 3 b.h 2
I xx 
36
, I yy 
36

a  ab  b 2 ,
I xx  0.05488 a.b 3 , I yy  0.05488 a 3 .b , I xy  0.01647 a 2 b 2
2
b.h
I xy  2a  b 
72
Fig. (2.13): Geometric properties of some common shapes

57
Example (2.6)
The 4 m diameter circular gate of figure below is located in the inclined wall of a large
reservoir containing water. The gate is mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For
water depth of 10 m above the shaft determine:
(a) The magnitude and location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water
(b) The moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate.

Solution
(a) The magnitude and location of the force
FR  PC . A

FR   w .[Link] . .R 2

FR  1000  9.81  10   2

2

FR  1232761 N  1232.8 KN

To locate the center of pressure which FR acts, we use the equation:

I xx
y R  yc 
yc .A.

 .R 4
y R  yc 
4  y c   .R 2

R2
y R  yc 
4  yc

y R  yc 
22  0.0866 m
10
4
sin 60

58
(b) The moment applied to the shaft to open the gate

M c  FR  y R  y c 

M c  1232.8  0.0866  106.76 KN .m

Example (2.7)
For the closed tank in figure, all fluids are at 20 0 C , and the airspace is pressurized. It is found
that the net outward hydrostatic force on the 30 cm by 40 cm panel at the bottom of the water
layer is 8450 N . Estimate: (a) the pressure in the airspace and
(b) The reading h on the mercury manometer.

Solution
(a) The pressure in the airspace
FR  Pair  Poil  Pwater . A

FR  Pair   oil .g .hoil   w .g .hwater  A

8450  Pair  800  9.81  0.6  1000  9.81  0.650.3  0.4

70416.67  Pair  4708.8  6376.5

Pair  59331.37 Pa  59.33 kPa

(b) The reading h on the mercury manometer

Pair   Hg .g .h

59.33  1000  13600  9.81  h

h  0.445 m  44.5 cm

59
Example (2.8)
The tank has a 4 cm diameter plug which will pop out if the hydrostatic force on it reaches
25 N . what will be the reading h on the manometer?

Solution
FR  Pc . A

FR   w .[Link] . .R 2

25  1000  9.81  hc   0.02

2
hc  2.03 m

H  hc  0.02 sin 50

H  2.03  0.02 sin 50 H  2.045 m

For the U – tube manometer the two points are in the same level and same liquid has the same
pressure
P1  P2

 w. [Link]   Hg .g.h

1000  H  .0.2  13600  h

1000  2.045  .0.2   13600  h h  0.152 m

60
Example (2.9)
The water tank is pressurized, as shown in figure by the mercury-manometer reading.
Determine the hydrostatic force per unit depth on gate AB.

Solution
Pc  PHg  Pwater

Pc   Hg .g  0.8   w .g  6 

Pc  13600  9.81  0.8  1000  9.81  6

Pc  106732.8  58860 Pc  165592 .8 Pa

FR  Pc . A

FR  165592.8  2  1

FR  331185.6 N  331.2 KN

Example (2.10)
Gate AB has length L, width b into the paper, is hinged at B, and has negligible weight. The
liquid level h remains at the top of the gate for any angle  . Find an analytic expression for
the force P, perpendicular to AB, required to keep the gate in equilibrium in figure.

61
Solution
(1) The force from the fluid
FR  Pc . A

L
FR   liquid .g .hc . A , hc  sin 
2
L
FR   liquid .g . sin   L  1
2
1
FR   liquid .g.L2 sin 
2
(2) Location of the force from fluid
L
yc 
2
1  L3 L3
I xx  
12 12
I xx
y R  yc 
yc . A

L3 L
y R  yc  
L 6
12   L  1
2
(3) The moment about hinge is equal zero

M B 0

L 
P  L  FR     y R  y c   0
2 

 L L
P  L  FR      0
2 6
1  3 1 
P L   liquid .g.L2 . sin    L  0
2  6 
1 L
P L   liquid .g .L2 . sin  
2 3
1
P  liquid .g .L2 . sin 
6

62
Example (2.11)
The circular gate ABC in Fig. has a 1 m radius and is hinged at B. Compute the force P just
sufficient to keep the gate from opening when h  8 m.

Solution
(1) The force from the fluid
FR  Pc . A

FR   w .g .hc . A
2
FR  1000  9.81  8   1

FR  246552 N  246.55 KN

(2) Location of the force from fluid

y c  hc  8 m

 R4   14
I xx    0.7854
4 4
I xx
y R  yc 
yc . A

I xx
y R  yc 
y c .  R 2

0.7854
y R  yc   0.03165 m
8    1
2

(3) The moment about hinge is equal zero

M B 0

P  1  FR   y R  y c   0

P  1  246.55  0.03165  0 P  7.8 KN

63
Example (2.12)
Gate AB in Fig. is semicircular, hinged at B, and held by a horizontal force P at A. What force
P is required for equilibrium?

Solution
(1) The force from the fluid
FR  Pc . A

FR   w .g .hc . A

 4R 
But hc  5   R  
 3 

 43
hc  5   3    6.727 m
 3 
1 2
FR  1000  9.81  6.727   3
2
FR  932938 N  933 KN

(2) Location of the force from fluid

y c  hc  6.727 m

I xx  0.1098R 4  0.1098  3  8.8938

2

I xx
y R  yc 
yc . A

I xx
y R  yc 
1
yc    R 2
2
8.9838
y R  yc   0.0944 m
1
6.727     3
2

2
(3) The moment about hinge is equal zero

M B 0
64
  4R 
P  3  FR     y R  y c   0
 3 

 43 
P  3  933    0.0944   0
 3 
P  3  9338  1.18  0 P  367 KN
Example (2.13)
Isosceles triangle gate AB in figure is hinged at A and weighs 1500 N . What horizontal force
P is required at point B for equilibrium?

Solution
(1) The force from the fluid
FR  Pc . A

1
FR   oil .g .hc . A , hc  3  2   3.667 m
3
2
sin 50 
H
2
H  2.611 m
sin 50
1
A  1  2.611  1.3055 m 2
2
FR   oil .g .hc . A

FR  830  9.81 3.667  1.3055  38979.4 N

(2) Location of the force from oil

hc 3.667
yc    4.787 m
sin 50 sin 50

65
 3
a.H 3 1  2.611
I xx    0.4944
36 36
I xx
y R  yc 
yc . A

0.4944
y R  yc   0.07911 m
4.787  1.3055
(3) The moment about hinge is equal zero

M A 0

P  2  W . cos 50  0.8703  FR  0.8703  0.07911  0

P  2  1500 cos 50  0.8703  38979.4  0.8703  0.07911  0

2 P  839.13  37007.4  0
2 P  36168.27
P  18084.14 N  18.1 KN
Example (2.14)
Determine the force and its position from fluids acting on the door.

66
Solution
(a) The Force
(1) The pressure at the cancroid
P1  Pair   w g 1.5

P1  690  1000  1000  9.81  1.5

P1  690000  49050  739050 Pa

Since P2  P1  739050 Pa
Pc  P2   w .g 3  1.5 sin 60

Pc  739050  1000  9.81  4.3

Pc  696867 Pa

(2) The Force

FR  Pc . A

FR  696867  3  2.5  5226502.5 N

FR  5226.5 KN

(b) The Force Position

Pc 696867
hc    71 m
 w .g 1000  9.81
hc 71
yc    81.98 m
sin 60 sin 60
I xx
y R  yc 
yc . A
3
2.5  3
y R  yc 
12  81.98  2.5  3
y R  y c  0.01 m

67
2.4 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability
2.4.1 Archimedes’ Principle
In the previous sections the forces due to fluid on surfaces were discussed. Here the
forces due to fluid on floating and submerged bodies are discussed. It is applicable in the
design of boats, ships, balloons and submersibles and also hydrometers. In addition to the
discussion of forces the stability of floating bodies due to small disturbances is also discussed.
When a stationary body is completely submerged in a fluid, or floating so that it is only
partially submerged, the resultant fluid force acting on the body is called the buoyant force. A
net upward vertical force results because pressure increases with depth and the pressure forces
acting from below are larger than the pressure forces acting from above. This force can be
determined through an approach similar to that used in the previous article for forces on
curved surfaces.
If an object is immersed in or floated on the surface of fluid under static conditions a
force acts on it due to the fluid pressure. This force is called buoyant force. The calculation of
this force is based on Archimedes principle.
Other possible statements are: The resultant pressure force acting on the surface of a
volume partially or completely surrounded by one or more fluids under non flow conditions is
defined as buoyant force and acts vertically on the volume. The buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid and acts upwards through the centre of gravity of the displaced
fluid. This point is called the centre of buoyancy for the body.
2.4.2 Buoyancy Force
For submerged and floating body, the total force on the body can be calculated by
considering the body to consist of a large number of cylindrical or prismatic elements and
calculating the sum of forces on the top and bottom area of each element.
(A) Submerged body
Consider a prismatic element:

68
 Fig. (2.15): Proof for Archimedes principle

Let the sectional area be dA , Force on the top dF1  dA. .h1 and
Force on the base dF2  dA. .h2 (canceling Patm , common for both terms)
Net force on the element: dF2  dF1    .dAh2  h1    .dV
where dV is the volume of the element. This force acts upwards. as h2  h1
Summing up over the volume,
F   .Vtotal (2.18)
Or the weight of the volume of liquid displaced.
(B) Floating body
Considering an element of volume dV , Force on the top of the element dF1  [Link] and
Force on the base of the element dF2  dA .h2  Patm 
dF2  dF1    .dA.h2   .dV
where dV is the volume of the fluid element displaced. Summing up over the area,
F   .Vsubmerged (2.19)

The weight of volume displaced.

69
 Fig. (2.16): Proof for Archimedes principle
Therefore, the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body and is directed vertically upward. This result is commonly referred to as
Archimedes’ principle
The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy.
In the derivations presented above, the fluid is assumed to have a constant specific
weight,  . If a body is immersed in a fluid in which  varies with depth, such as in a layered
fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant force remains equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
However, the buoyant force does not pass through the centroid of the displaced volume; but
rather, it passes through the center of gravity of the displaced volume

Example (2.19)
A spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m , weighs 8.5 KN , and
is anchored to the sea floor with a cable as is shown in Figure.
Although the buoy normally floats on the surface, at certain
times the water depth increases so that the buoy is completely
immersed as illustrated. For this condition what is the tension
of the cable?
Solution
(1) Calculate the buoyant force acting on the sphere
FB   water . g .Vsubmerged

4
FB   water . g  R 3
3
4 3
FB  1000  9.81    0.75  17335.7 N
3

70
(2) The tension in the cable can now be calculated, for mechanical equilibrium

F  0
T  W  FB

T  FB  W

T  17335.7  8.5  10 3
T  17335.7  8500
T  8835.7 N  8.836 KN
Example (2.20)
The homogenous 12 cm cube is balanced by 2 Kg mass on the beam scale when the cube is
immersed ethanol with specific gravity of 0.8. What is the specific gravity of the cube?

Solution
(1) Calculate the buoyant force acting on the cube
FB   L .g .Vsubmerged

FB  0.8  1000  9.81  0.12  0.12  0.12

FB  13.56 N

(2) The tension in the cable

T  M .g  2  9.81  19.62 N

(3) The specific gravity of the cube, for mechanical equilibrium

F  0
T  FB  W

19.62  13.56  W
W  33.18 N
W  mb .g

W   b .g .Vb

71
 W 33.18
b    1957.33 Kg m 3
g.V 9.81  0.123

 b 1957.33
S .G    1.957
w 1000

Example (2.21)
A hydrometer is a device that uses to determine the specific gravity S of liquid. If the
weight of this device is W ad a constant cross section area. When floating in water the
submerged volume is V0 . When floating in another liquid the stem sit higher at the free
surface from this position by distance h , show that
V0 S  1
h 
As S

Where, As is the cross section of the stem , S is the specific gravity of the liquid.

Solution
(a) Hydrometer in Water
(1) Calculate the buoyant force acting on the hydrometer
FB W   w .[Link]

FB W   w .g .V0

(2) For mechanical equilibrium

F  0
FB W  W

W   w .g .V0 ------------------------------------------ (1)

(b) Hydrometer in liquid
(1) Calculate the buoyant force acting on the hydrometer
FB L   l .g .Vsubmerged

FB L   l .g .V0  As .h 
72
(2) For mechanical equilibrium

F  0
FB L  W

W   l .g .V0  As .h  -------------------------------------- (2)

From equation (1) and (2)

 w .g.V0   l .g.V0  As .h 

 w .V0   l .V0  As .h 

l
.V0  V0  As .h 
w
.V0  S V0  As .h 

V0
.  V0  As .h
S
V0
As .h  V0 
S
SV0  V0
As .h 
S
V0 S  1
h 
As S

Example (2.22)
A uniform block of steel SG  7.85 will “float” at a mercury-Water interface as in the figure.
What is the ratio of the distances a and b for this condition?

Solution
(1) Buoyancy Force from water
FB w   w .g.Vsubmerged1

FB w   w .g . A.a

(2) Buoyancy Force from Mercury

FB Hg   Hg .g .Vsubmerged 2

73
 FB Hg   Hg .g . A.b

(3) Total Buoyancy Force

FB  FB w  FB Hg

FB   w .g. A.a   Hg .g . A.b

(4) For Mechanical Equilibrium

F  0
FB  Wb

 w .g. A.a   Hg .g. A.b  mb .g

 w .g . A.a   Hg .g . A.b   b .[Link]

 w .g . A.a   Hg .g. A.b   b .g . Aa  b 

 w .a   Hg .b   b a  b 

1000a  13600b  7850a  b 

0.1274a  1.7325b  a  b
a
0.8726a  0.7325b  0.84
b

74
2.4.3 Stability Definition
Another interesting and important problem associated with submerged or floating
bodies is concerned with the stability of the bodies. A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when displaced, it returns to its equilibrium position. Conversely, it is
in an unstable equilibrium position if, when displaced (even slightly), it moves to a new
equilibrium position. Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or
floating bodies since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide. A small
rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple.
(A) Completely submerged body
For the completely submerged body shown in Figure (2.17), which has a center of
gravity below the center of buoyancy, a rotation from its equilibrium position will create a
restoring couple formed by the weight, W , and the buoyant force, FB , which causes the body
to rotate back to its original position. Thus, for this configuration the body is stable. It is to be
noted that as long as the center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy, this will always
be true; that is, the body is in a stable equilibrium position with respect to small rotations.
However, as is illustrated in Figure (2.18), if the center of gravity is above the center of
buoyancy, the resulting couple formed by the weight and the buoyant force will cause the
body to overturn and move to a new equilibrium position. Thus, a completely submerged body
with its center of gravity above its center of buoyancy is in an unstable equilibrium position.

Fig. (2.17): Stability of a completely immersed body (center of gravity below centroid)

75
 Fig. (2.18): Stability of a completely immersed body (center of gravity above centroid)

(B) Floating bodies

For floating bodies the stability problem is more complicated, since as the body rotates
the location of the center of buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the displaced
volume) may change. As is shown in Figure (2.19), a floating body such as a barge that rides
low in the water can be stable even though the center of gravity lies above the center of
buoyancy. This is true since as the body rotates the buoyant force, FB , shifts to pass through
the centroid of the newly formed displaced volume and, as illustrated, combines with the
weight, W , to form a couple which will cause the body to return to its original equilibrium
position. However, for the relatively tall, slender body shown in Figure (2.20), a small
rotational displacement can cause the buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning
couple as illustrated.

Fig. (2.19): Stability of floating body (Stable configuration)

76
 Fig. (2.20): Unstability of floating body (Unstable configuration)

It is clear from these simple examples that the determination of the stability of
submerged or floating bodies can be difficult since the analysis depends in a complicated
fashion on the particular geometry and weight distribution of the body.
2.4.4 Conditions of Stability for Submerged and Floating Bodies
Stability of a body: A ship or a boat should not overturn due to small disturbances but should
be stable and return, to its original position. Equilibrium of a body exists when there is no
resultant force or moment on the body.
A submarine or ship though made of denser material floats because, the weight/volume
of the ship will be less than the density of water. In the case of submarine its weight should
equal the weight of water displaced for it to lay submerged.
1. Conditions of Stability for Submerged Bodies
A submerged body can stay in three states of equilibrium.
(i) Stable equilibrium: Small disturbances will create a correcting couple and the body will
go back to its original position prior to the disturbance such as a balloon.
(ii) Neutral equilibrium: Small disturbances do not create any additional force and so the
body remains in the disturbed position. No further change in position occurs in this case.
(iii) Unstable equilibrium: A small disturbance creates a couple which acts to increase the
disturbance and the body may tilt over completely.
Under equilibrium conditions, two forces of equal magnitude acting along the same line of
action, but in the opposite directions exist on a submerged body. These are the gravitational
force on the body (weight) acting downward along the centroid of the body and buoyant
force acting upward along the centroid of the displaced liquid. Whether floating or
77
 submerged, under equilibrium conditions these two forces are equal and opposite and act
along the same line.

Fig. (2.21): Stability of Balloon

2. Conditions of Stability for Floating Bodies

(i) When the centre of buoyancy is above the centre of gravity of the floating body, the body is
always stable under all conditions of disturbance. A righting couple is always created to
bring the body back to the stable condition.
(ii) When the centre of buoyancy coincides with the centre of gravity, the two forces act at the
same point. A disturbance does not create any couple and so the body just remains in the
disturbed position. There is no tendency to tilt further or to correct the tilt.
(iii) When the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity as in the case of ships,
additional analysis is required to establish stable conditions of floating.
This involves the concept of metacentre and metacentric height. When the body is disturbed
the centre of gravity still remains on the centroidal line of the body. The shape of the
displaced volume changes and the centre of buoyancy moves from its previous position.
The location M at which the line of action of buoyant force meets the centroidal axis of the
body, when disturbed, is defined as metacentre. The distance of this point from the centroid
of the body is called metacentric height. This is illustrated in Figure (2.22).
If the metacentre is above the centroid of the body, the floating body will be stable. If it is at
the centroid, the floating body will be in neutral equilibrium. If it is below the centroid, the
floating body will be unstable.

78
 Equilibrium condition After small tilt
Fig. (2.22): Metacentric height, stable condition

When a small disturbance occurs, say clockwise, then the centre of gravity moves to
the right of the original centre line. The shape of the liquid displaced also changes and the
centre of buoyancy also generally moves to the right. If the distance moved by the centre of
buoyancy is larger than the distance moved by the centre of gravity, the resulting couple will
act anticlockwise, correcting the disturbance. If the distance moved by the centre of gravity is
larger, the couple will be clockwise and it will tend to increase the disturbance or tilting.
The distance between the metacentre and the centre of gravity is known is metacentric
height. The magnitude of the righting couple is directly proportional to the metacentric height.
Larger the metacentric height better will be the stability. Referring to Figure (2.23), the centre
of gravity G is above the centre of buoyancy B. After a small clockwise tilt, the centre of
buoyancy has moved to B′. The line of action of this force is upward and it meets the body
centre line at the metacentre M which is above G. In this case metacentric height is positive
and the body is stable. It may also be noted that the couple is anticlockwise. If M falls below
G, then the couple will be clockwise and the body will be unstable.
2.4.5 Metcentric Height
A floating object is shown in Figure (2.23) in section and plan view (part). Uniform
section is assumed at the water line, as the angle of tilt is small. The original centre of
buoyancy B was along the centre line. The new location B / can be determined by a moment
balance. Let it move through a distance  . Let the weight of the wedge portion be W .
The force system consists of the original buoyant force acting at B and the forces due to
the wedges and the resultant is at B / due to the new location of the buoyant force.

79
 Fig. (2.23): Metacentric height – derivation

Let a body floating in a liquid (Fig. 2.23), and it be heeled through a small angle, . Also let,
B  Position of the center of buoyancy before heeling
B \  Position of the center of buoyancy after heeling
C  Couple moment due to forces F
G  Position of the center of gravity
L  The distance GB
M  Metacenteric
MG  Metacentric height
W  Weight of the body
  The shift of the line of action of the buoyant force.
FB  FB \  F  F

FB  FB \  W

80
(1) Calculation of “ δ ”

M B\
0

C C
FB .  C   
FB W

(2)Calculation of C
C   dF . x but dF   .dV

dF    dA   x. 

Then,
C     dA   x. x

C    . . x 2 dA

C   .  x 2 dA

C   . .I yc

Where
  Specific weight of liquid
= the axis of symmetry of the plan form of the ship
C   I yc
Then  
W W

sin  
MB
    I yc  I yy  
MB    
sin  W sin  W sin 


From L’ Hopital’s rule lim 1

 0sin 

 I yy  I yy  I yy
MB   
W FB  .Vsubmerged

I yy
MB  
Vsubmerged

but MG  MB  L
I yy
MG  L (2.20)
Vsubmerged

Where L  the vertical distance between center of gravity and center of buoyancy.
From equation (2.20) we have the following cases for stability:
81
1- MG   Ve MB  L Stable
2- MG  0 MB  L Neutral stable
3- MG  Ve MB  L Unstable

Fig. (2.24)

82
Example (2.23)
A block of rectangular cross sectional of 5 m long,
3 m wide and 1.2 m deep is immersed 0.8 m in sea
water. If the density of the sea water is
1020 Kg m 3 , Is this block stable in this position?

Solution
For check stability, we must calculate the metacentric height MG,
I yy
Where: MG  L
Vsubmerged

(1) The distance between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity
0. 8
The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base   0.4 m
2
1.2
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.6 m
2
Then L  0.6  0.4  0.2 m
(2) The submerged volume
Vsubmerged  5  3  0.8  12 m 3

(3) The second moment of inertia

3
b.h 3 5  3
I yy    11.25
12 12
Then, the metacentric height is
I yy
MG  L
Vsubmerged

11.25
MG   0. 2
12
MG  0.9375  0.2  0.7375

MG   ve The block is stable

83
Example (2.24)
A block of rectangular cross sectional of 2 m long,
1.8 m wide and 1 m deep is immersed 0.8 m in water.
If the specific gravity of the block is 0.65. prove that
the block is stable?

Solution
For check stability, we must calculate the metacentric height MG,
I yy
Where: MG  L
Vsubmerged

(1) Determine the submerged part of the block

FB   w .[Link]

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .g .Vsubmerged  mb .g

 w .g.  2  1.8  h   b .[Link]

 w  2  1.8  h  0.65   w  2  1.8  1

h  0.65  1  0.65 m
(2) The distance between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity
0.65
The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base   0.325 m
2
1
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.5 m
2
Then L  0.5  0.325  0.175 m
(3) The submerged volume
Vsubmerged  2  1.8  0.65  2.34 m 3

(4) The second moment of inertia

3
b.h 3 2  1.8
I yy    0.975
12 12
Then, the metacentric height is
I yy
MG  L
Vsubmerged

84
 0.975
MG   0.175
2.34
MG  0.4154  0.175  0.2404

MG   ve The block is stable

Example (2.25)
A cylindrical block of 3 m diameter and 4 m long is weighting
150 KN . Show that it cannot float vertically in water.
Solution
For check stability, we must calculate the metacentric height MG,
I yy
Where: MG  L
Vsubmerged

(1) Determine the submerged part of the block

FB   w .[Link]

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .[Link]  150  10 3


1000  9.81  32 h  150  10 3 h  2.16 m
4
(2) The distance between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity
2.16
The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base   1.08 m
2
4
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   2m
2
Then L  2  1.08  0.92 m
(3) The submerged volume

Vsubmerged  32  2.16  15.268 m 3
4
(4) The second moment of inertia
 
I yy  d4  34  3.976
64 64
Then, the metacentric height is
I yy
MG  L
Vsubmerged

85
 3.976
MG   0.92
15.268
MG  0.26  0.92  0.66
MG   ve The block is unstable
Example (2.26)
A block of wood of 120 mm  120 mm in section is required to
float in water. Find the length of the block required to be
just stable in water. Take the specific gravity of the wood is
0. 8.
Solution
For check stability, we must calculate the metacentric height MG ,
I yy
where MG  L
Vsubmerged

(1) Determine the submerged part of the block

FB   w . g .Vsubmerged

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .[Link]  mb .g

 w .g.  0.12  0.12  h   b .[Link]

 w  0.12  0.12  h  0.8   w  0.12  0.12  l

h  0.8  l  0.8.l
(2) The distance between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity
0.0.8.l
The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base   0.4.l m
2
l
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.5.l m
2
Then L  0.5.l  0.4.l  0.1.l
(3) The submerged volume
Vsubmerged  0.12  0.12  0.8.l  0.01152.l m 3

(4) The second moment of inertia

3
b.h 3 0.12  0.12
I yy    0.00001728
12 12
Then, the metacentric height is
86
 I yy
MG  L
Vsubmerged

For the block just stable, MG  0

0.00001728
0  0.1.l
0.01152.l
0.00001728
 0.1.l
0.01152.l
0.001152.l 2  0.00001728

l 2  0.015 l  0.1225 m  122.5 mm

Example (2.27)
An iceberg can be idealized as a cube of side length
L as shown. If seawater is denoted by S  1.0, then

glacier ice (which forms icebergs) has S  0.88. Is it

stable?
Solution
For check stability, we must calculate the metacentric height MG,
I yy
Where: MG  L
Vsubmerged

(1) Determine the submerged part of the block

FB   w .[Link]

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .[Link]  mb .g

 w .g .  l  l  h   b .g  l  l  l

 w  h  b  l

b
h l
w
h  S .l  0.88.l
(2) The distance between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity
h 0.88l
The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base    0.44.l
2 2

87
 l
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.5.l
2
Then L  0.5.l  0.44.l  0.06.l
(3) The submerged volume
Vsubmerged  l  l  h  l  l  0.88l  0.88.l 3

(4) The second moment of inertia

3
b.h 3 l  l  l4
I yy   
12 12 12
Then, the metacentric height is
l4
MG   0.06.l
12  0.88l 3
MG  0.095.l  0.06.l
MG  0.035.l
MG   ve

The block is stable

Example (2.28)
A block of wood of rectangular cross sectional a  b  and
height H is just floating in stable equilibrium. Assuming
the block has specific gravity of “S”, show that:
b / H  6 S 1  S 

Solution
(1) Determine the submerged part of the block
FB   w .[Link]

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .g .Vsubmerged  mb .g

 w .g .  a  b  h   b . g  a  b  H

 w  h  b  H

b
h H
w
h  S .H

88
 h
Then S 
H
h S .H
(2) The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base    0.5S .H
2 2
H
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.5.H
2
Then L  0.5H  0.5S .H  0.5H 1  S 
(3) The submerged volume Vsubmerged  a  b  h  a.b.S .H

(4) The second moment of inertia

b.h 3 a  b 3
I yy  
12 12
Then, the metacentric height is
a.b 3
MG   0.5.H 1  S 
12  a.b.S .H
b2
MG   0.5.H 1  S 
12.S .H
For just stable MG  0
b2
0  0.5.H 1  S 
12.S .H
b2
 0.5.H 1  S 
12.S .H
b 2  6.S 1  S .H 2

b2 b
 6.S 1  S   6.S 1  S 
H2 H
Example (2.29)
A solid circular cylinder of height H , radius R , and
specific gravity S , is just floating in stable equilibrium.
Show that: R / H  2 S 1  S 
Solution
(1) Determine the submerged part of the block
FB   w .[Link]

For equilibrium
FB  W

 w .g .Vsubmerged  mb .g
89
  w .g .   .R 2 .h   b .g   .R 2 .H

 w  h  b  H
b
h H
w
h  S .H
h
Then S 
H
h S .H
(2) The distance of center of buoyancy from the block base    0.5S .H
2 2
H
The distance of center of gravity from the block base   0.5.H
2
Then L  0.5H  0.5S .H  0.5H 1  S 
(3) The submerged volume Vsubmerged   .R 2 .h   .R 2 .S .H

(4) The second moment of inertia

 .R 4
I yy 
4
Then, the metacentric height is
 .R 4
MG   0.5.H 1  S 
4  R 2 .S .H
R2
MG   0.5.H 1  S 
4.S .H
For just stable MG  0
R2
0  0.5.H 1  S 
4.S .H
R2
 0.5.H 1  S 
4.S .H
R 2  2.H 2 .S 1  S 

R2 R
 2 S 1  S   2 S 1  S 
H2 H

90
 Problems
2.1 Water and gasoline surfaces are open to the atmosphere and at the same elevation. What is
the height h in the third liquid?

2.2 Calculate the pressure at A, B, C , and D in the system shown in Fig. Take oil has S .G  0.8.

2.3 Find the differnce in pressure between tanks A and B if d1  300 mm, d 2  150 mm,
d 3  460 mm, d 4  200 mm.

2.4 What is the pressure difference between points A and B.

91
2.5 What is the gage pressure of air in the tank?

2.6 The mercury manometer of Fig. indicates a differential reading of 0.30 m when the
pressure in pipe A is 30-mm Hg vacuum. Determine the pressure in pipe B.

2.7 Determine the pressure difference between points A and B.

2.8 For the inverted manometer of Fig. All fluids are at 200 C. If PB  PA  97 KPa, determine
the height H in centimeters.

92
2.9 Water initially fills the funnel and its connecting tube as shown in Figure Oil SG  0.85 is
poured into the funnel until it reaches a level h  H 2 as indicated. Determine and plot the
value of the rise in the water level in the tube, l as a function of h for H 2  h  H , with
H  D  0.6 m and d  3 cm.

2.10 Determine the new differential reading along the inclined leg of the mercury manometer
of Fig. if the pressure in pipe A is decreased 10 kPa and the pressure in pipe B remains
unchanged. The fluid in A has a specific gravity of 0.9 and the fluid in B is water.

2.11 In Fig. both the tank and the tube are open to the atmosphere. If L  2.13 m, what is the
angle of tilt  of the tube?

93
2.12 A force of 445 N is exerted on lever AB. End B is connected to a piston, which fits into a
cylinder having a diameter of 50 mm. What force P must be exerted on a larger piston to
prevent it from moving in its cylinder which has a 250 [mm] diameter?

2.13 The hydraulic jack in figure is filled with oil at 56 Ib f ft 3 . Neglecting the weight of two

pistons, what force F on the handle is required to support the 2000 Ib f weight shown?

2.14 In the hydraulic jack shown in Fig. a force P of 150 N is applied. What weight W can be
supported?

94
2.2 Force on a flat plate
2.15 Weightless cover gate AB closes a circular opening 80 cm in diameter when weighed
down by the 200 Kg mass shown. What water level h will dislodge the gate?

2.16 At what height h will the water cause the door to rotate clockwise? The door is 3 m wide.
Neglect the weight of the door.

2.17 Gate AB is 3 m wide into the paper and is connected by a rod and pulley to a concrete
sphere (SG =2.40). What sphere diameter is just right to close the gate?

95
2.18 Find the force on door AB from fluids. Give distance d below B for the position of
force.

2.19 An open rectangular tank is partially filled with water. The dimensions are shown.
(a) Determine the force on the bottom of the tank from the water.
(b) Determine the force on the end of the tank from water.
(c) Determine the force on the door shown at the side of the tank.

2.20 Find the net hydrostatic force per unit width on the rectangular gate AB in Fig. and its
line of action.
96
2.21 Gate AB in Fig. is a homogeneous mass of 180 kg. and 1.2 m wide into the paper, resting
on smooth bottom B. All fluids are at 200 C . For what water depth h will the force at point B be
zero?

2.22 Gate ABC in Figure is 1 m square and is hinged at B. It will open automatically when the
water level h becomes high enough. Determine the lowest height for which the gate will open.

2.23 Consider the submarine shown in Figure.

(a) Calculate the total hydrostatic force on the hatch for the geometry shown.
(b) What depth would the submarine have to attain in a perfectly horizontal orientation for the
total hydrostatic force on the hatch to be the same as that calculated in part (a)?
97
2.24 Find the force F that must be exerted on the smaller piston A to keep the door CD in a
vertical position, the door is 3 m wide.

2.3 Force on a curved surface

2.25 What is the resultant force from fluids acting on the door AB which is a quarter circle?
The width of the door is 1.3 m.

2.26 What is the resultant force from fluids acting on the spherical surface?

98
2.27 What is the horizontal force on the semi–spherical door AB from all fluids inside the
tank? The specific gravity of oil is 0.8.

2.28 A parabola gate AB is hinged at A and latched at B. If the gate is 10 ft wide, determine
the force components on the gate from the water.

2.29 Determine the total hydrostatic force on the curved surface AB in Figure.

2.30 The uniform body A has width b into the paper and is in static equilibrium when pivoted
about hinge O. What is the specific gravity of this body if
(a) h = 0
(b) h = R

99
2.31 Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the hydrostatic force on the quarter-
circle panel at the bottom of the water tank in Figure

2.32 Consider the fluid tank shown in Figure. Calculate the total hydrostatic force per unit
width on gate A. Do you think the corresponding total force on gate B will be higher or lower
than that on gate A? Why?

2.33 Consider the fluid tank shown in Figure. Calculate the total hydrostatic force per unit
width on gate A if a = 0.3 ft−1. Do you think the corresponding total force on gate B will be
higher or lower than that on gate A? Why?

100
2.34 A water heater company produces tanks with the designs shown in Figure. Calculate the
total hydrostatic force on the base of tank A given that the water temperature is 40°C and the
radius of the hemispherical base is 25 cm. Will the total hydrostatic force on the base of tank
B be higher or lower than that for tank A? Why?

2.4 Buoyancy Force

2.35 The can floats in the position shown. What is its weight in N ?

2.36 A tank is filled to the edge with water. If a cube 600 mm on an edge and weighing 445 N
is lowered slowly into the water until it floats, how much water flows over the edge of the
tank.

2.37 A cylindrical control weir is shown. It has a diameter of 3 m and a length of 6 m. Give the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the weir from the fluids.

101
2.38 Two spheres, each 1.3 m in diameter, weight 5 kN and 13 kN , respectively. They are
connected with a short rope and placed in water. What is the tension (T) in the rope and what
portion of the lighter sphere protrudes from the water?
2.39 A solid 1-m-diameter sphere floats at the interface between water (SG = 1.0) and
mercury (SG = 13.56) such that 40% is in the water. What is the specific gravity of the
sphere?
2.40 A cube of material weighing 445 N is lowered into a tank containing a layer of water
over a layer of mercury. Determine the position of the block when it has reached
equilibrium

2.41 A rectangular tank of internal width 6 m is partitioned as shown in fig. and contains oil
and water. If the specific gravity of oil is 0.82, what must h be? Next, if a 1000 N block of
wood is placed in flotation in the oil, what is the rise of the free surface of the water in
contact with the air?

2.42 A spar buoy is a buoyant rod weighted to float and protrude vertically, as in Fig. It can
be used for measurements or markers. Suppose that the buoy is maple wood SG  0.6, 5 cm
by 5 cm by 3.66 m, floating in seawater SG  1.025. How many Newtons of steel SG  7.85
should be added to the bottom end so that h  45 cm ?
102
2.43 The uniform rod in Figure is hinged at point B on the waterline and is in static
equilibrium as shown when 2 kg of lead (SG =11.4) are attached to its end. What is the
specific gravity of the rod material? Take the rest angle   30 0.

2.44 A uniform wooden beam SG  0.65 is 10 cm by 10 cm by 3 m and is hinged at A, as shown

in Fig. at what angle  will the beam float in water.

2.45 A block of material having a volume of 0.028 m 3 and weighing 290 N is allowed to sink
in the water. A wooden rod of length 3.3 m and a cross section of 1935 mm 2 is attached to
the weight and also to the wall. If the rod weighs 13 N , What will be the angle  being
for equilibrium?

103
2.46 A square wooden (SG = 0.6) rod, 5 cm by 5 cm by 10 m long, floats vertically in water at
200 C when 6 kg of steel (SG = 7.84) are attached to the lower end. How high above the water
surface does the wooden end of the rod protrude?
2.5 Stability
2.47 Suppose that an iceberg that the height is L and the depth into the paper is L but the width
is H where H < L. with S = 0.88 for the iceberg, determine the ratio H/L for which the iceberg
becomes neutrally stable.

2.48 Consider a wooden cylinder (SG =0.6) 1 m in diameter and 0.8 m long. Would this
cylinder be stable if placed to float with its axis vertical in oil (SG = 0.85)?
2.49 A barge is 15 ft wide and 4 ft long and floats with a draft of 4 ft. It is piled so high with
gravel that its center of gravity is 2 ft above the waterline. Is it stable?

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2.51 Consider a homogeneous right circular cylinder of length H , radius R, and specific
gravity S , floating in water with its axis vertical. Show that the body is stable if
R
 2 S 1  S 
H
2.52 A cone floats in water with its vertex downward and base horizontal. It has base diameter
d and vertical height h. if the specific gravity of cone is S, show that for stable equilibrium:


2h  d 2 S 1 3 1  S 1 3 

2.53 Consider the geometry shown in Figure. The cube center is level with the surface of the
liquid.
(a) If the mass M is 300 Kg , calculate the density of the cube.
(b) For the density calculated in part a, will the cube float or sink if the mass is removed? If it
floats, is it stable? Why or why not?
(c) Repeat part (a), but this time let the partially submerged object be spherical, with its center
level with the surface of the liquid.

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