C H A P T E R (1)

Basic Principles of Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is the science dealing with the behavior of fluids when subjected to
various forces. Fluid mechanics together with the mechanics of deformable bodies are the two
branches of the mechanics of non–rigid bodies. Obviously, it is the counterpart of the mechanics
of rigid body and both constitute the branches of engineering mechanics. The term “fluid” is
applied to certain substances, which, whether at rest, or under conditions of static equilibrium,
cannot resist a shear force–no matter how small that force is. Thus the fluid particles
continuously change their position relative to one another when subjected to a shear force.
Fluids are usually classified either as liquids or gases.
The flow of ideal non-viscous fluids was extensively studied and mathematical theories
were developed during the last century. The field of study was called as ‘Hydrodynamics’.
However the results of mathematical analysis could not be applied directly to the flow of real
fluids.
Experiments with water flow resulted in the formulation of empirical equations
applicable to engineering designs. The field was called Hydraulics. Due to the development of
industries there arose a need for the study of fluids other than water. Theories like boundary
layer theory were developed which could be applied to all types of real fluids, under various
conditions of flow. The combination of experiments, the mathematical analysis of
hydrodynamics and the new theories is known as ‘Fluid Mechanics’. Fluid Mechanics
encompasses the study of all types of fluids under static, kinematic and dynamic conditions.
The study of properties of fluids is basic for the understanding of flow or static condition
of fluids. The important properties are density, viscosity, bulk modulus and surface tension.
Viscosity causes resistance to flow. Bulk modulus is involved in the propagation of disturbances
like sound waves in fluids. Surface tension leads to capillary effects.
A fluid is defined as a material which will continue to deform with the application of
shear force however small the force may be.
1.2 Compressible and Incompressible Fluids
If the density of a fluid varies significantly due to moderate changes in pressure or
temperature, then the fluid is called compressible fluid.

1
 Generally gases under normal conditions can be classified as compressible fluids. In these
phases the distance between atoms or molecules is large and cohesive forces are small. So
increase in pressure or temperature will change the density by a significant value.
If the change in density of a fluid is small due to changes in temperature and or pressure,
then the fluid is called incompressible fluid. All liquids are classified under this category.
When the change in pressure and temperature is small, gases are treated as
incompressible fluids. For certain applications like propagation of pressure disturbances, liquids
should be considered as compressible.
In this chapter some of the properties relevant to fluid mechanics are discussed with a
view to bring out their influence on the design and operation of fluid machinery and equipments.
1.3 Dimensions and Units
It is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms “Units” and “Dimensions”. The
word “dimension” is used to describe basic concepts like mass, length, time, temperature and
force. “Large mass, long distance, high temperature” does not mean much in terms of
visualizing the quantity. Dimension merely describes the concept and does not provide any
method for the quantitative expression of the same.
Units are the means of expressing the value of the dimension quantitatively or
numerically The term “second” for example is used to quantify time. “Ten seconds elapsed
between starting and ending of an act” is the way of expressing the elapsed time in numerical
form. The value of dimension should be expressed in terms of units before any quantitative
assessment can be made.
There are two widely used systems of units in the world. These are
(1) British or English system (it is not in official use now in Briton) and
(2) SI system (International System of Units).
The basic units required in Fluid Mechanics are for mass, length, time and temperature.
Some of the units used in this text are listed in the table below:

2
 Quantity S.I. Unit English Unit Units Conservation
Mass Kg Ibm or Slug 1 Ibm  0.454 Kg

1 Slug  14.594 Kg

Time s s
Length m ft or in 1 ft  0.305 m

1 in  25.4 mm
Temperature K 0  C 0  273 R 0  F 0  460 C0 
5 0
F  32 
9
R 0  1.8K 0
Force N Ib f 1 Ib f  4.448 N

Work N .m  J Btu  778 Ib f . ft 1 Btu  1055 J

Power WJ s 1 hp  2545 Btu s 1 hp  0.7457 kW

Pressure N m 2  Pa Psi  Ib in 2 1 Ib in 2  6895 Pa

1 Ib ft 2  47.88 Pa

1.4 Continuum
As gas molecules are far apart from each other and as there is empty space between
molecules doubt arises as to whether a gas volume can be considered as a continuous matter like
a solid for situations similar to application of forces.
Under normal pressure and temperature levels, gases are considered as a continuum (i.e.,
as if no empty spaces exist between atoms). The test for continuum is to measure properties like
density by sampling at different locations and also reducing the sampling volume to low levels.
If the property is constant irrespective of the location and size of sample volume, then the gas
body can be considered as a continuum for purposes of mechanics (application of force,
consideration of acceleration, velocity etc.) and for the gas volume to be considered as a single
body or entity. This is a very important test for the application of all laws of mechanics to a gas
volume as a whole. When the pressure is extremely low, and when there are only few molecules
in a cubic meter of volume, then the laws of mechanics should be applied to the molecules as
entities and not to the gas body as a whole. In this text, only systems satisfying continuum
requirements are discussed.

3
1.5 Definition of Some Common Terminology
Density (mass density): The mass per unit volume is defined as density. The unit used is
Kg m 3 . the measurement is simple in the case of solids and liquids. The symbol used is  .

Specific Volume: The volume occupied by unit mass is called the specific volume of the
material. The symbol used is v, the unit being m3/kg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of
density.
In the case of solids and liquids, the change in density or specific volume with changes in
pressure and temperature is rather small, whereas in the case of gases and vapours, density will
change significantly due to changes in pressure and/or temperature.
Weight Density or Specific Weight: The force due to gravity on the mass in unit volume
is defined as Weight Density or Specific Weight. The unit used is N/m3. The symbol used is  .
At a location where g is the local acceleration due to gravity,
Specific weight,    .g (1.1)
Density will be invariant while specific weight will vary with variations in gravitational
acceleration.
Specific Gravity or Relative Density:
(1) For liquids
The specific gravity of a fluid, is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of
water at some specified temperature. Usually
Specific weigh of fluid f f g f
S   
specific weight of water at 4º C  w w g w
and since it is the ratio of densities
(2) For Gases
The specific gravity of a fluid, is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of
air at some specified temperature. Usually
Specific weight of Gas
S
specific weight of stadard air

Standard air: P = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa

T = 15ºC =2880K
3
 =1.2232 kg/m

 = 1.777* 10-2 (kg/m.s)

4
1.6 Characteristic Equation for Gases
The characteristic equation for gases can be derived from Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature the volume of a gas body will vary inversely with
pressure. Charles’ law states that at constant pressure, the temperature will vary inversely with
volume. Combining these two, the characteristic equation for a system containing m kg of a gas
can be obtained as
PV  m RT (1.2a)
In the SI system, the units to be used in the equation are Pressure, in N m 2 , volume, m 3 , , mass,
Kg , temperature, K and gas constant, R in J Kg .K .

This equation defines the equilibrium state for any gas body. For a specified gas body with mass
m, if two properties like P, V are specified then the third property T is automatically specified
by this equation. The equation can also be written as,
P v  RT (1.2b)
Where v  V m or specific volume. The value for R for air is 287 J/kg.K
Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with changes in gas density directly
related to changes in pressure and temperature through the equation
P   RT (1.2c)
The characteristic equation for gases can be applied for all gases with slight approximations, and
for practical calculations this equation is used in all cases.
1.7 Viscosity
A fluid is defined as a material which will continue to deform with the application of a
shear force. However, different fluids deform at different rates when the same shear stress
(force/area) is applied.
Viscosity is that property of a real fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to shear
force. Referring to Figure (1.1), it may be noted that a force is required to move one layer of
fluid over another.

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 Fig. (1.1): Concept of viscosity

For a given fluid the force required varies directly as the rate of deformation. As the rate
of deformation increases the force required also increases.
The force required to cause the same rate of movement depends on the nature of the fluid.
The resistance offered for the same rate of deformation varies directly as the viscosity of the
fluid. As viscosity increases the force required to cause the same rate of deformation increases.
Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear force to be applied for a deformation rate
of u y  over an area A is given by,
u
  (1.3)
y
u
and F   . A  A (1.4)
y

where F is the applied force in N, A is moving area in m2, u y is the velocity gradient (or rate
of deformation), 1/s, perpendicular to flow direction, here assumed linear, and  is the
proportionality constant defined as the dynamic or absolute viscosity of the fluid.
The dimensions for dynamic viscosity  can be obtained from the definition as N.s/m2 or
kg/m.s. The first dimension set is more advantageously used in engineering problems. However,
if the dimension of N is substituted, then the second dimension set, more popularly used by
scientists can be obtained. The numerical value in both cases will be the same.
u
 
y

N 1
2
 .   N .s m 2  Pa.s  Kg m.s
m s

6
The popular unit for viscosity is Poise.
Poise  1 g cm.s  0.1 Kg m.s  0.1 N .s m 2  0.1Pa.s

Centipoise (cP) is also used more frequently as,

cP  0.001 N .s m 2  0.001Pa.s  0.001 Kg m.s

The kinematics viscosity   of a fluid is the ratio of its viscosity to its density.
 Kg m 3
    m2 s
 m.s Kg
The popular unit used is stokes (in honour of the scientist Stokes). Centistoke is also often used.
1 Stoke  1 cm 2 s  10 4 m 2 s

Of all the fluid properties, viscosity plays a very important role in fluid flow problems.
The velocity distribution in flow, the flow resistance etc. are directly controlled by viscosity. In
the study of fluid static (i.e., when fluid is at rest), viscosity and shear force are not generally
involved. In this chapter problems are worked assuming linear variation of velocity in the fluid
filling the clearance space between surfaces with relative movement.
1.7.1 Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids
As mentioned before, when the relation between the rate of shearing stress and shearing strain is
linear the fluid is called “Newtonian fluid”. Fortunately most common fluids, both liquids and
gases are Newtonian. Figure (1.2) illustrates the linear variation of shearing stress with the rate
of shearing strain (or the velocity gradient) for common fluids.

Fig.(1.2): Linear variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain

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 An ideal fluid has zero viscosity. Shear force is not involved in its deformation. An ideal
fluid has to be also incompressible. Shear stress is zero irrespective of the value of du dy .
Bernoulli equation can be used to analyses the flow.
Real fluids having viscosity are divided into two groups namely Newtonian and non
Newtonian fluids. In Newtonian fluids a linear relationship exists between the magnitude of the
applied shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation. It means that the proportionality
parameter (in equation (1.3),    du dy  ), viscosity,  is constant in the case of Newtonian
fluids (other conditions and parameters remaining the same). The viscosity at any given
temperature and pressure is constant for a Newtonian fluid and is independent of the rate of
deformation. The characteristics is shown plotted in Figure (1.3). Two different plots are shown
as different authors use different representations.

Fig.(1.3): Rheological behavior of fluids

Non Newtonian fluids can be further classified as simple non Newtonian, ideal plastic
and shear thinning, shear thickening and real plastic fluids. In non Newtonian fluids the
viscosity will vary with variation in the rate of deformation. Linear relationship between shear
stress and rate of deformation du dy  does not exist. In plastics, up to a certain value of applied
shear stress there is no flow. After this limit it has a constant viscosity at any given temperature.
In shear thickening materials, the viscosity will increase with du dy  deformation rate. In shear
thinning materials viscosity will decrease with du dy  . Paint, tooth paste, printers ink are some

8
examples for different behaviors. These are also shown in Figure (1.3). Many other behaviors
have been observed which are more specialised in nature.
Example (1.1)
The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide, parallel plates is
2
3V   y  
given by the equation: u 1    
2   h  

Where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 1.915 Pa.s. When V  0.6 m s and
h  5 mm determine:
(a) The shear stress acting on the bottom wall
(b) The shear stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline.
(c) The shear stress acting on the top wall

Solution
du
 
dy

 3V  2 y 
     0  2 
 2  h 

 3V
 y
h2
(a) The shear stress acting on the bottom wall
At the bottom wall y  h
 3V
  h
h2
3V 3  0.6  1.915
   689.4 N m 2
h 0.005
(b) The shear stress acting on the centerline
At the bottom wall y  0
 3V
 00
h2
9
(c) The shear stress acting on the top wall
At the bottom wall y  h
 3V
 h
h2
 3V  3  0.6  1.915
   689.4 N m 2
h 0.005
Example (1.2)
The “no slip” condition means that a fluid “sticks” to a solid surface. This is true for both fixed
and moving surfaces. Let a layers of fluid be dragged along by motion of an upper plate as
shown in fig. The bottom plate is stationary. Drive an expression for the shear stress.

Solution
The shear stress can be obtained from the relation
du
 
dy

u
 
y

V 0 V
   
h h

10
Example (1.3)
A cylinder of 0.2 m diameter, 0.2 m length having a mass of 1 kg
falls under gravity through a pipe of 0.2005 m in diameter,
having an axis vertical. If the viscosity of the separating fluid is
equal to 1 poise, determine the terminal velocity of the cylinder.
Solution
0.2005  0.2
h  0.00025 m
2
(1) The shear stress can be obtained from the relation
du
 
dy

u
 
y

V 0 V
  
h h
(2)The friction force can be obtained from the equation of motion
 Fy  m.a
W  F f  0 (Due to constant velocity)

Ff  W

F f  m.g

F f  m.g = 1  9.81  9.81N

The relation between the shear stress and the friction force
F f   .A

V
Ff    DL
h
V
9.81  0.1     0.2  0.2
0.00025
9.81  50.265  V V  0.195 m s

11
Example (1.4)
Let two layers of fluid are dragged along by the motion of an upper plate as shown in fig. The
bottom plate is stationary. The top fluid puts a shear stress on the upper plate, and the lower
fluid puts a shear stress on the bottom plate. Determine the ratio of these two shear stresses.

Solution
For fluid (1)
du u
 1  1  1
y y
U1  U 2
 1  1
0.02
3 2
 1  0.4   20 N m 2
0.02
For fluid (2)
du u
 2  2  2
y y
U2  0
 2  2
0.02
20
 2  0.2   20 N m 2
0.02
The ratio of the two shear stresses can be obtained
 1 20
 1
 2 20

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1.7.2 Application of Viscosity Concept
(1)Viscous Torque and Power for Rotating Shafts

Fig. (1.4): Rotating Shaft in Bearing

du u V 0 V
(1) Shear stress,        , as linearity is assumed
y y h h

D .D
V  .R    
2 2
V .D  ..D
     ,
h 2h 2h
(2) Tangential force, F   . A , A  DL
 ..D
F  DL
2h

F  ..D 2 L
2h
 D
(3) Torque, T  F  R   ..D 2 L 
2h 2

T  ..D 3 .L
4h
(4) power, P  T  

P  ..D 3 .L  
4h
 2N
P  . 2 .D 3 .L , but  
4h 60
2
  2N  2
P  . 3
 .D .L P  .N 2 .D 3 .L
4h  60  3600h
For these equations, proper units are listed below:

13
L, R, D, h should be in meter and N in rpm. Viscosity μ should be in N.s/m2 (or Pa.s). The
torque will be obtained in N.m and the power calculated will be in W.
Note: Clearance h is also the oil film thickness in bearings. End effects are neglected. Linear
velocity variation is assumed. Axial location is assumed.
Example (1.5)
Determine the power required to run a 300 mm diameter shaft at 400 rpm in journals with
uniform oil thickness of 1 mm. Two bearings of 300 mm width are used to support the shaft.
The dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.03 Pa.s.
Solution
du u V 0 V
(1) Shear stress,        , as linearity is assumed
dy y h h
2N D DN
V  .R    , clearance in m
60 2 60
V DN DN
   
h 60h 60h
DN   0.3  400  0.03
   188.5 N m 2 ,
60h 60  0.001
(2) Tangential force, F   . A , A  DL
F    DL  188.5    0.3  0.3  2  106.6 N
0.3
(3) Torque, T  F  R  106.6   15.99 N .m
2
(4) power, P  T  
2N 2  400
P T   15.99   669.8 W
60 60
Example (1.6)
In a test set up as in figure to measure viscosity, the cylinder
has inside diameter 20 cm and length of 20 cm. The cylinder
rotates at 900 rpm and the torque measured is 0.2 Nm. If the
film thickness between the cylinder and sleeve is 0.15 mm,
determine the viscosity of the oil.
Solution
(1) The shear stress can be obtained from the relation
du u
  
y y

14
 V 0
 
R 0  Ri

V .Ri
  
R0  Ri R0  Ri
(2) The friction force can be obtained from the equation of motion
F f   .A

.R
Ff    2Ri .L
R0  Ri

2
Ff  Ri2L
R 0  Ri
(3) The Torque can be obtained from the equation of motion
T  F f  Ri

2
T Ri2L  Ri
R0  Ri

2 2N
T Ri3L but 
R0  Ri 60

4 2
T Ri3 NL
60R0  Ri 

2
0.2    0.13  900  0.2
15  0.00015
0.2  789.57    0.00025 Pa.s

15
(2) Viscous Torque for Disk Rotating Over a Parallel Plate
Consider an annular strip of radius r and width dr shown in Figure (1.5).

Fig. (1.5): Rotating disk

du u V 0 V
(1) Shear stress,        , as linearity is assumed
dy y h h
V  .r
V .r  ..r
     ,
h h h
(2) Tangential force, dF   .dA , A  2 rdr
 ..r
dF   2 rdr
h
2
dF   ..r 2 dr
h
2
(3) Torque, dT  dF  r   ..r 2 dr  r
h
2
dT   ..r 3 dr
h
Integrating the expression from center to the edge (from 0 to R)
R
2 3
T  h ..r dr
0

16
 R
2
T .  r 3 dr
h 0

R
2 r4 
T  .  
h  4 0

2  R4  0
T .  
h  4 

T  ..R 4
2h
(4) power, P  T  
P  T 

P  ..R 4  
2h
 2N
P  . 2 .R 4 but 
2h 60
2
  2N  4
P  .  .R
2h  60 

P  . N 2 .R 4
1800h
use R in meter, N in rpm and μ in Pa s.

17
(3) Viscous Torque for Cone in a Conical Support
Considering a small element between radius r and r  dr , as shown in figure (1.6). The
surface width of the element in contact with oil is dx  dr sin 
The surface area should be calculated with respect to centre O as shown in figure the
point where the normal to the surface meets the axis or the centre of rotation, the length OA
being r/cos θ.
dr 2nrdr
Hence contact surface area = 2r  dx  2nr  
sin  sin 

Figure (1.6): Rotating cone or conical bearing

The velocity along the surface is .r  and the film thickness is h.
Consider an annular strip of radius r and width dr shown in Figure (1.6)
du u V 0 V
(1) Shear stress,        , as linearity is assumed
dy y h h
V  .r
V .r  ..r
    
h h h
(2) Tangential force, dF   .dA , dA  2 rdr  sin 

 ..r 2rdr
dF  
h sin 
2
dF  . ..r 2 dr
h sin 

18
 2
(3) Torque, dT  dF  r  . ..r 2 dr  r
h sin 
2
dT  . ..r 3 dr
h sin 
Integrating the expression from center to the edge (from 0 to R)
R
2 3
T  h sin  . ..r dr
0

R
2
T . .  r 3 dr
h sin  0

4
2 r 4 
T ..  
h sin   4 0

2  R4  0
T ..  
h sin   4 

T . ..R 4
2h sin 
(4) Power, P  T  
 2N
P . ..R 4   , But  
2h sin  60
 2N
P . . 2 .R 4 , But  
2h sin  60
2
  2N  4
P ..  .R
2h sin   60 

3
P . .N 2 R 4
1800h sin 
Using μ in Ns/m2, h and R in metre the torque will be in N.m.

19
Example (1.7)
Block of mass M slides on a thin film of oil of thickness h. Contact area of block with oil is A.
If a mass m released from rest.
(a) Express the viscous force on the block when move at speed V .
(b) Expression of differential equation governing block speed as function of time.
(c) Obtain an expression for the maximum speed of the block.

Solution
(a) The viscous force on the block
du u V 0 V
    
dy y h h
F f   .A

V  .V . A
Ff   .A Ff 
h h
(b) The differential equation governing block speed
(1) For mass m,
 Fy  m.a
m.g  T  m.a
T  m. g  a 
(2) For Block M,
 Fx  M .a
T  F f  M .a

T  F f  M .a

 .V . A
m.g  m.a   M .a
h

20
  .V . A
m.g   M .a  m.a
h
 .V . A dV
m.g   M  m a but a
h dt
 .V . A dV
m.g   M  m 
h dt
(c) The maximum speed of the block
The block speed governing equation,
 .V . A dV
m.g   M  m 
h dt
dV
At maximum speed , V  Vmax , this mean that 0
dt
 .Vmax . A
m.g   M  m   0
h
 .Vmax . A
m.g  0
h
 .Vmax . A m.g.h
 m.g Vmax 
h . A

21
1.8 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
The compressibility of a fluid is measured and defined either by the coefficient of
compressibility   or bulk modulus K  .
[Link] coefficient of compressibility “  ”
1  V 
    At constant temperature (1.5)
V  P 
V = total volume
P= Pressure
2. Bulk modulus “ K ”
The bulk modulus of a fluid is a measure of its elasticity and is defined as the ratio of stress to
the volumetric strain
Bulk modulus, K is defined as the ratio of the change in pressure to the rate of change of
volume due to the change in pressure. It can also be expressed in terms of change of density.
1  P 
K  V   at constant temperature (1.6)
  V 
The unit of the bulk modulus is that of stress or pressure
1
Also with  
v
 P 
 K     at constant temperature
  
For ideal gas P  RT
P
Then  RT

P
and K  RT  P


The negative sign indicates that if P is positive then V is negative and vice versa, so that the
bulk modulus is always positive (N/m2).
The bulk modulus for liquids depends on both pressure and temperature. The value increases
with pressure as V will be lower at higher pressures for the same value of P . With
temperature the bulk modulus of liquids generally increases, reaches a maximum and then
decreases. For water the maximum is at about 50°C. The value is in the range of 2000 MN/m2 or
2000 × 106 N/m2 or about 20,000 atm.

22
Example (1.8)
Determine the bulk modulus of a liquid whose volume decreases by 4% for an increase in
pressure of 500 × 105 pa. If the density is 1000 kg/m3.
Solution
P 
Bulk modulus is defined as, K   V  
 V


P P 500  105
K  V    1.25  109 N m 2
V V 0.04
V
Example (1.9)
The pressure of water in a power press cylinder is released from 1 bar to 990 bar isothermally.
If the average value of bulk modulus for water in this range is 2430 × 106 N/m2. What will be
the percentage increase in specific volume?
Solution
P 
The definition of bulk modulus, K   V  
 V 

 P  P P
K   v    v 
 v  v v
v
P
K 
v
v

2430  106  
990  1  105
v
v
v
 0.0407
v
% change in specific volume = 4.07%

23
1.9 Surface Tension
Many of us would have seen the demonstration of a needle being supported on water
surface without it being wetted. This is due to the surface tension of water.
All liquids exhibit a free surface known as meniscus when in contact with vapour or gas
Liquid molecules exhibit cohesive forces binding them with each other. The molecules below
the surface are generally free to move within the liquid and they move at random. When they
reach the surface they reach a dead end in the sense that no molecules are present in great
numbers above the surface to attract or pull them out of the surface. So they stop and return back
into the liquid. A thin layer of few atomic thickness at the surface formed by the cohesive bond
between atoms slows down and sends back the molecules reaching the surface. This cohesive
bond exhibits a tensile strength for the surface layer and this is known as surface tension. Force
is found necessary to stretch the surface.
Surface tension may also be defined as the work in Nm/m2 or N/m required creating unit
surface of the liquid. The work is actually required for pulling up the molecules with lower
energy from below, to form the surface.
Another definition for surface tension is the force required to keep unit length of the
surface film in equilibrium (N/m). The formation of bubbles, droplets and free jets are due to the
surface tension of the liquid.
1.9.1 Surface Tension Effect on Solid-Liquid Interface
In liquids cohesive forces between molecules lead to surface tension. The formation of droplets
is a direct effect of this phenomenon. So also the formation of a free jet, when liquid flows out
of an orifice or opening like a tap. The pressure inside the droplets or jet is higher due to the
surface tension.

Fig.(1.7): Cohesive and adhesive forces

Liquids also exhibit adhesive forces when they come in contact with other solid or liquid
surfaces. At the interface this leads to the liquid surface being moved up or down forming a

24
curved surface. When the adhesive forces are higher the contact surface is lifted up forming a
concave surface. Oils, water etc. exhibit such behaviour. These are said to be surface wetting.
When the adhesive forces are lower, the contact surface is lowered at the interface and a convex
surface results as in the case of mercury. Such liquids are called nonwetting.

Surface tension coefficient   is derived here for two applications; Figure (1.8):

(A) Surface tension on half droplet

Pi  P  Patm
Pi  A    D

Pi  R 2    2R
Pi  R  2

2 4
Pi   (a)
R D

(B) Surface tension on half a bubble

D0  Di  D
Pi  A    D  2

Pi  R 2    2R  2
Pi  R  4 (b)

4 8
Pi   Fig.(1.8): Surface tension coefficient
R D
Surface tension for common liquids in contact with air at 20 oC
Fluid Surface tension in N/m
Water 0.073
Glycerin 0.063
SAE 30 oil 0.035
Mercury 0.44
Ethyl alcohol 0.023
Blood 0.058
Gasoline 0.022
Kerosene 0.028

25
1.10 Capillary Action
If a glass tube of small diameter is lowered into a vessel full of water, it is seen that the water
rises in the tube. On the other hand, if the same tube is lowered into a vessel full of mercury, the
mercury level drops inside the tube (see Fig.1.9). This is caused by the combined action of two
forces; adhesion force and surface tension force. The adhesion between the solids and fluids is
expressed by the contact angle, , measured from the vertical line at the edge of the contacting
surfaces. Those fluids, which tend to repel solids have a contact angle larger than 90 degrees
and, therefore, have a tendency to drop out of the tube. On the other hand, those fluids, which
tend to cling to solids having a contact angle smaller than 90 degrees and, therefore, have a
tendency to rise in a tube. We have previously defined the adhesion force as the attraction force
between molecules of different materials and the cohesion force is attraction force between
molecules of the same materials.
The adhesion force between water and glass is more than cohesion force between the molecules
of water, so water will arise in the capillary tube. On the other hand, the adhesion force between
mercury and glass is less than cohesion force between the molecules of mercury, so mercury will
drop in capillary.

(a)Water rise in glass (b) Mercury down in glass

Fig. (1.9): Capillary effect in a small tube

26
1.10.1 Capillary Rise or Depression
Let a glass tube of diameter d be lowered into water as shown in Fig.(1.10) Let us assume that
water rises to a height h in the tube. The surface tension   acts upwards at an angle  .
Equilibrium is attained when enough water has risen in the tube so that its weight W  becomes
equal to the surface tension force F . The vertical component of surface tension is equal to
 cos  and it acts along the circumference of the tube. Hence the total force F acting upwards is
given by:
F   cos    d
The weight of the water in the tube is given by:

W  mg  gV  g d 2h
4
At equilibrium
W  F


g d 2 h   cos    d
4
4 cos
h (1.7)
 gd
Where:
 = density of the fluid Fig. (1.10): Forces analysis on capillary tube
d = diameter of the tube
σ = surface tension coefficient
θ = the angle of contact
This equation provides the means for calculating the capillary rise or depression.
Example (1.10)
Determine the capillary depression of mercury in a 2 mm ID glass tube. Assume
  0.5 N m and   1300.
Solution
4 cos
h
 gd

4  0.5  cos130
h  0.00482 m h  4.82 mm
13600  9.81  0.002

27
Example (1.11)
In a closed end single tube manometer, the height of mercury column above the mercury well
shows 757 mm against the atmospheric pressure. The ID of the tube is 2 mm. The contact angle
is 135°. Determine the actual height representing the atmospheric pressure if surface tension is
0.48 N/m. The space above the column may be considered as vacuum.
Solution
(1) Calculate the Mercury depression in the tube
4 cos
h
 gd

4  0.48  cos135
h  0.00509 m h  5.09 mm
13600  9.81  0.002
Actual height of mercury column = Mercury column height + Capillary depression
Corrected height of mercury column = 757 + 5.09 = 762.09 mm
Example (1.12)
Develop an expression for capillary rise between two concentric glass tubes of radii r0 and
ri and contact angle  .
Solution
The vertical component of surface tension is equal to
 cos  , the total force F acting upwards is given by:
F   cos    2 ri  2 r0 
F  2 cos    ri  r0 
The weight of the water between the two tubes is given by:

W  mg  gV  g  r02   ri2  h 

W  g r02  ri2 h 
At equilibrium
W  F

g  r02  ri2 h  2 cos    ri  r0 

g  r0  ri  r0  ri h  2 cos    ri  r0 
2 cos 
g  r0  ri h  2 cos  h
g  r0  ri 

28
 Problems
1.1 Determine the wall shear stress and shear stress at y  0.02 m , y  0.04 m and y  0.08 m for
the following velocity profile between two parallel plates
(a) u  10 y 1.5

(b) u  10 y 0.5

(c) u  2 y  3 y 3  y 4
(d) u  10 sin y 
Take the fluid viscosity,   0.001 N .s m 2 .
1.2 Water is moving through a pipe. The velocity profile at some section is shown in Figure and
 d2 
is given mathematically as V    r 2 , where V  velocity of water at any position r ,
4  4 
  a constant,   viscosity of water, d  pipe diameter, and r  radial distance from
centerline.
(a) What is the shear stress at the wall of the pipe due to water?
(b) What is the shear stress at a position r  d 4 ?
(c) If the pipe has long L, what drag force is induced on the pipe wall by water?

1.3 A large plate moves with speed V0 over a stationary plate on a layer of oil. If the velocity
profile is that of a parabola, with the oil at the plates having the same velocity as the plates,
what is the shear stress on the moving plate from oil? If a linear profile is assumed, what is the
shear stress on the upper plate?

29
1.4 A block weighing 1 KN and having dimensions 200 mm on an edge is allowed to slide down
an incline on a film of oil having a thickness of 0.005 mm . If we use a linear velocity profile
in the oil, what is the terminal speed of the block? The viscosity of the oil is 7  10 2 Poise .

1.5 A hydraulic lift shaft of 450 mm diameter moves in a cylinder of 451 mm diameter with the
length of engagement of 3 m . The interface is filled with oil of kinematic viscosity of
2.4  10 4 m 2 s and density of 900 kg m 3 . Determine the uniform velocity of movement of the

shaft if the drag resistance was 300 N .

1.6 A shaft of 145 mm diameter runs in journals with a uniform oil film thickness of 0.5 mm . Two
bearings of 20 cm width are used. The viscosity of the oil is 19 cP . Determine the speed if the
power absorbed is 15 W .
1.7 A hydraulic lift shaft of 500 mm diameter moves in a cylindrical sleeve the length of
engagement being 2 m . The interface is filled with oil of kinematic viscosity of 2.4  10 4 m 2 s
and density of 888 kg m 3 . The drag resistance when the shaft moves at 0.2 m s is 267.81 N .
Determine the internal diameter of the cylinder.
1.8 The belt moves at a steady velocity V and skims the top of a tank of oil of viscosity  , as
shown. Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil, develop a simple formula for the required
belt–drive power P as a function of h, L, V , b,  . what belt–drive power P, in watts, is
required if the belt moves at 2.5 m s over SAE30W oil with viscosity of 0.29 kg m.s , with
L  2 m, b  60 cm, and h  3 cm ?

1.9 A thin plate is separated from two fixed plates by very viscous liquids (1) and (2)
respectively, as in figure. Plate spacing h1 and h2 are unequal, as shown. The contact area is

30
 A between the center plate and each fluid. Assuming a linear velocity distribution in each
fluid, derive an expression for the force F required to pull the plate at velocity V .

1.10 A small plane is pulled along the centre plane of the oil filled space between two large
horizontal planes with a velocity U and the force was measured as F . The viscosity of the oil
was 1 . If a lighter oil of viscosity  2 fills the gap what should be the location of the plate for
the force to be the same when pulled with the same velocity.
1.11 A large thin plate is pulled through a narrow gap filled with a fluid of viscosity  on the
upper side and a fluid of viscosity C on the lower side. Derive an expression for the location
of the plate in the gap for the total force to be minimum.
1.12 Two large plates are 6 mm apart and the space in between in filled with a fluid. A plate of 1
mm thickness and 10 cm square is pulled parallel to the planes and midway between them with
a velocity of 2 m s . Assume linear velocity profile on either side. The force required was
0.32 N . Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
1.13 Two large vertical plane parallel surfaces are 5 mm apart and the space between them is
filled with a fluid. A thin plate of 12.5 cm square falls freely between the planes along the
central plane and reaches a steady velocity of 2 m s . Determine the weight of the plate if the
viscosity of the fluid filling the space is 0.02 N .s m 2 .
1.14 Two large planes are parallel to each other and are inclined at 30 0 to the horizontal with the
space between them filled with a fluid of viscosity 20 cP . A small thin plate of 0.125 m square
slides parallel and midway between the planes and reaches a constant velocity of 2 m s . The
weight of the plate is 1 N . Determine the distance between the plates.
1.15 Derive an expression for the force required for axial movement of a circular shaft through a
taper bearing as shown in figure. The diameter of the shaft is D m and the length is L . The
clearances at the ends are t1 m and t 2 m. The oil has a viscosity of  and the shaft moves
axially at a velocity V .

31
1.16 The clearance between the shaft of 100 mm diameter and the bearing varies from 0.2 mm to
0.1 mm over a length of 0.3 m . The viscosity of the oil filling the clearance is 4.8  10 2 N .s m 2 .

The axial velocity of the shaft is 0.6 m s . Determine the force required.
1.17 A shaft of 150 mm diameter rotates in bearings with a uniform oil film of thickness 0.8 mm .
Two bearings of 15 cm width are used. The viscosity of the oil is 22 cP . Determine the torque if
the speed is 210 rpm .
1.18 A circular disc of 0.3 m diameter rotates over a large stationary plate with 1 mm thick fluid
film between them. Determine the viscosity of the fluid if the torque required to rotate the disc
at 300 rpm was 0.1 N.m .
1.19 In some electric measuring devices, the motion of the pointer mechanism is dampened by
having a circular disc turn (with the pointer) in a container of oil.

(a) What is the damping torque for   0.2 rad s if the oil has a viscosity of 8  10 3 N .s m 2 .
Neglect effects on the outer edge of the rotating plate.
(b) Develop an expression giving the damping torque as a function of x (the distance that the
midplane of the rotating plate from its center position). Do this for   0.2 rad s .
1.20 A circular disc rotates over a large stationary plate with a 2 mm thick fluid film between
them, the viscosity of the fluid being 40 cP . The torque required to rotate the disc at
200 rpm was 0.069 N.m . Determine the diameter of the disc.

32
1.21 The space between two 6 in long concentric cylinders is filled with glycerin
(viscosity= 8.5  10 3 Ib.s ft 2 ). The inner cylinder has a radius of 3 in. and the gap width
between cylinders is 0.1 in. Determine the torque and the power required to rotate the inner
cylinder at 180 rev min . The outer cylinder is fixed. Assume the velocity distribution in the
gap to be linear.
1.22 A viscous clutch as shown in figure transmits torque. Derive an expression for the torque
and power transmitted.

1.23 A conical body is made to rotate at a constant speed of 10 rad s . A film of oil having a
viscosity of 8  10 3 N .s m 2 separates the cone from the container. The film thickness is

0.025 cm . What torque is required to maintain this motion? The cone has a 5 cm radius at the
base and is 10 cm tall.

1.24 A conical bearing of outer radius 0.4 m and inner radius 0.2 m and height 0.2 m runs on a
conical support with a clearance of 1 mm all around. The support is rotated at 600 rpm .
Determine the viscosity of the oil used if the torque required was 21.326 N.m . Also determine
the power dissipated

33
1.25 A sphere of radius R rotate at a constant speed  rad / s .A thin film of oil separates the
rotating sphere from a stationary spherical container. Develop an expression for the resisting
torque in terms of R,  ,  , and e.

1.26 For the case of spherical bearing, show that the power required to overcome the fluid
viscosity expressed by the relation:
2 2 R 4  cos 2  2
P   cos  
h  3 3

1.27 When the pressure of water in a press cylinder is released from 1000  105 N m 2 to 1 bar ,
there was a 4.11 percentage increase in specific volume while the temperature remained
constant. Determine the average value of bulk modulus for water in this range.
1.28 The pressure of water increases with depth in the ocean. At the surface, the density was
measured as 1024.5 kg m 3 . The atmospheric pressure is 1.01 bar . At a certain depth where the
pressure was 900 bar the density was measured as 1065.43 kg m 3 . Determine the average value
of bulk modulus.
1.29 Due to an increase in pressure the volume of a liquid increases by 2.7% . Determine the
pressure increase. The bulk modulus of the liquid is 37.04  109 N m 2 .
34
1.30 A heavy tanks container oil (A) and water (B) over
which air pressure is varied. The dimensions shown
correspond to the atmospheric pressure of the air. If air
is slowly added from a pump to bring the pressure P of
the air up to 1 MPa gage, what will be the total
downward movement of the free surface of oil and air?
Take the average values of bulk modulus of elasticity of
liquids to be, 2050 MN / m 2 for oil and 2075 MN / m 2 for
water, neglect hydrostatic pressures.
1.31 Determine the capillary depression of mercury in a 4 mm ID glass tube. Assume surface
tension as 0.45 N m and   115 0.
1.32 A thin plate 1 m wide is slowly lifted vertically from a liquid with a surface tension of
0.1 N m . Determine what force will be required to overcome the surface tension.

1.33 A mercury column is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The height of column
above the mercury well surface is 762 mm . The tube is 3 mm in diameter. The contact angle is
140 0 . Determine the true pressure in mm of mercury if surface tension is 0.51 N m . The space

above the column may be considered as vacuum.

1.34 The capillary depression of mercury in a 3.25 mm ID glass tube was found as 2.99 mm .
Determine the value of surface tension.   129 0.
1.35 In manometers an error in measurement will occur when a small bore tube is used.
Capillary rise adds to the column height and capillary depression reduces the column height.
The height of water column at 20 0 C in a tube of 8 mm ID is 12 mm , out of this 3.17 mm is due to
capillary action. Determine the value of surface tension.   0 0.
1.36 In order to lift a thin plate 1 m width slowly and vertically from a liquid, a force of 0.2 N
was required at the instant of separation to overcome surface tension forces. Assume   0 0.
Determine the value of surface tension.
1.37 An additional force of 0.212 N was required to keep a cylinder of 150 mm OD with weight
equal to the buoyant forces, floating in a liquid with contact angle   60 0 due to surface
tension effects. Determine the value of surface tension.
1.38 At 600 C the surface tension of mercury and water is 0.47 and 0.0662 N m , respectively.
What capillary height changes will occur in these two fluids when they are in contact with air
in a clean glass tube of diameter 0.4 mm ?
35
1.39 The system in figure below is used to calculate
the pressure P1 in the tank by measuring the 15 cm
height of liquid in the 1 mm diameter tube. The fluid
is at 600 C. Calculate the true fluid height in the tube
and the percent error due to capillarity if the fluid is
(a) Water (b) Mercury

36