Building & Construction Unit

Structural Steel Workshop

Peter Hau, Raymond Lok & Stephen Lee
Structural Steel Work
This training module is designed to give students a
good appreciation on the use of structural steel as a
construction material and the good practices of
structural steel work construction.
Learning Objectives:
State the characteristics of structural steel as
construction material, and the commonly used
steel sections
Read and interpret the construction details of
structural steel elements of a building structure
in drawing format
Participate in fabrication of a simple steel building
frame; use of cutting and drilling tools;
connection practices including bolt and nuts and
welding
Recognize protective coatings of structural steel
structures: painting & hot-dip galvanizing
Conduct inspection on the fabricated frame and
simple NDT for the welding connections
 • 18,038 metallic parts

The Eiffel Tower •

•
•
5,300 workshop designs
50 engineers and designers
150 workers in the Levallois-Perret factory
• Between 150 and 300 workers on the construction site
• 2,500,000 rivets
• 7,300 tonnes of iron
• 60 tonnes of paint
• 2 years, 2 months and 5 days of construction
• 5 lifts.
Source: [Link]

Source: [Link]
HSBC Main Building
HSBC Main Building is the first building of its size in Hong Kong
constructed entirely of structural steel without any reinforced
concrete in its inner core.
Source: [Link]
[Link]#ixzz3adsVffNl
Img source: [Link]
 Terminology
Steel framed structures are usually made
up of the following structural elements
connected by bolts or welding :
stanchions
(columns)
trusses

bracing

girders (large
beams
steel beams)
 熱軋 鋼板)
Hot rolled steel (熱軋 鋼板
Hot rolling is a metalworking process that
occurs above the recrystallization
temperature of the material.
The starting material is usually large
pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting
products, such as slabs, blooms, and
billets
Mainly to produce sheet metal or simple
cross sections, such as rail tracks.
Steelmaking: Rolling
[Link]
Hot rolled steel
 Shapes and Properties of hot rolled steel
Shapes of commonly used steel sections in Hong Kong based on product information of
British Steel: UB, UC, EA, UA, PFC, CHS, RHS, SHS and Joists
Standard Length of Steel Component: 12m
UC - Universal UB - Universal Beam EA - Equal Angle UA - Unequal Angle
Column

PFC- Parallel Flange RHS - Rectangular SHS - Square Hollow CHS – Circular Hollow
Channel Hollow Section Section Section
 UB
UC

RHS

UA

EA

SHS
CHS
PFC
H-Piles and pre-bored H-piles
H-Piles pre-bored H-piles
Standard and grade of steel
BS EN 1993 is the standard for the design,
fabrication and erection of structural steelwork
(These were formerly referred to BS 5950).
BS EN 10025 is the standard for material
strength is specified in relation to steel grade. It
dependent on yield stress. Stresses are given for
three grades of steel called S275, S355 & S460
(These were formerly referred to BS 4360 as
Grades 43, 50 and 55) is commonly used, except
for bridges
Structural steel for bridgework according to BS
5400
Standard and grade of steel

Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005

Connection Methods
Typical examples of structural steel works
connections method:

Beam-to-column connections: Bolted

endplate + welded connections
Beam-to-beam connections: Endplate type
beam splice (plate-to-plate connection).
Column bases: Bolted base plate
connection.
Column-to-Column: Splice plate + welded
connections
Example of beam-to-column connections:
Extended End Plate Moment Connection

This connection is the end

plate moment connection. It
is made by shop-welding a
plate to the end of a beam
and field-bolting it to a
column or to another beam.
The four bolts around the
tension flange transmit the
flange force into the column.
Additional bolts may be
needed in deeper sections.
A bolt may also be added
near the neutral axis of the
beam to prevent gaps
between the plates.

Source: [Link]
Example of Beam-to-beam connections:
Beam Splice Moment Connection
This is a beam splice
moment connection. The
flange plates and bolts in
this beam splice must be
capable of transferring all
the flange force from one
side to the other. The web
plate and bolts may help to
resist moment, but their
primary function is to
transfer shear across the
splice. This moment
connection has flange
plates on the outside only.
In some connections it
may be necessary to have
plates inside the flanges
as well.
Source: [Link]
Example of Column bases: Pipe Column
Base Plate
A round pipe column sits
atop a wide flange and is
fastened with a rectangular
end plate having four bolts.
Even though all the bolts lie
outside the round section,
this is generally designed as
a pinned connection. The
column delivers a
concentrated load to the
beam and a bearing stiffener
is used on the web.

Source: [Link]
Example of Column-to-Column: Welded
Column Splice

An all-welded column splice.

The web plate is shop-welded to

the lower column, then the upper
column is lowered into the
connection and field-welded.

The web bolts are just for fit-up

and erection.

Source: [Link]
Structural Steelwork Fabrication Processes

1. Measurement / Marking
2. Cutting and Drilling
3. Welding/Plating Components
4. Painting/Galvanizing
5. Quality Control
6. Handover
Cutting and Drilling
Use of common hand tools or equipments
including cutting machine, grinder, hammer,
dividers, steel rule, and drilling machine etc.
Precaution of holes drilling
Holes in steel sections and plates shall be
formed to the following sizes:
For ordinary bolts and high strength friction grip bolts:
< 24 mm diameter - 2 mm greater than the bolt diameter.
> 24 mm diameter - 3 mm greater than the bolt diameter.

For holding down bolts:

6 mm < the bolt
diameter or with sufficient
clearance to ensure that a bolt,
whose adjustment may cause
it to be out of perpendicular,
can be accommodated
through the base plate.

Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition

Bolt and Nut
Direct tension indicators
Hardened washer with
protrusions
Placed under the bolt head
Protrusions are flattened when
bolt is tightened
Common Practice
Each part of the structure shall be aligned as
soon as practicable after it has been erected.

Any temporary bracing or temporary restraint

shall be left in position until erection is
sufficiently advanced to leave the remaining
structure in a stable and safe condition.
Scriber
Center punch
Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments used to
make internal, external and depth measurements.
How to read it?
Bench vice
Hack saw
 Metal files and file cleaner
BODY EDGE HEEL TANG

HANDLE - screws or wedges onto tang

Angle Grinder
Abrasive wheel cut-off machine

Check the wheel by

suspending it on one finger.
Tap it gently with the handle
of a screwdriver. The wheel
should emit a clear metallic
ring.

[Link]
[Link]
Horizontal band saw
Bench Drilling Machine
Twist drill
Benchwork exercise
Welding/Plating Components
A weld is defined as a localized coalescence of
metals wherein coalescence is produced by
heating the metal to suitable temperatures, with
or without the application of pressure and
without the use of any filler metal.

Butt welds (以對頭焊接接合) and fillet welds are

included in the section of welded connections.
Butt welds are normally used for in-line jointing
in plates or sections and fillet welds are used for
tee or lap jointing.

Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Butt welds

Fillet welds
Welding/Plating Components
Tack weld

Functions of tack weld – hold up the correct alignment and

connection of two components before permanent welding.
The minimum length of the tack shall be the lesser of 4
times the thickness of the thicker part or 50 mm.
If the permanent weld joint is required for the any x ray
inspection. The tack weld cannot be connected on the joint
directly. Such (b) and (c) as below:
Tack weld
Welding/Plating Components
Butt Weld
Full penetration welds
A full penetration weld is a butt that has complete penetration and fusion
of weld with parent metal throughout the thickness of the joint. In the use
of matching welding consumables, which have all mechanical properties
equivalent to, or better than, those specified for the parent metal, the
design strength of full penetration butt weld can be taken as equal to the
parent metal. (If parent materials are of different grades, the lower grade
steel should be assumed for all connected plates.) However, the electrode
for the highest grade should be used. Two common types of butt welds
are available as U and V butt joints. U butt joint has a depth of penetration
equal to the depth of weld penetration and V butt joint has a depth 2 mm
less than the depth of weld penetration.

Partial penetration weld

When connecting strength is not required to be as high as the strength of
the capacity of the connection components, a partial penetration butt weld
can be used.
Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Welding/Plating Components
Fillet welds
Fillet weld is more commonly used because its
cost is lower than full penetration weld.

Fillet weld does not require end preparation of

the element to be welded and the size or leg
length is smaller. The amount of testing required
for fillet weld is also smaller.

Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Welding/Plating Components

Symbols indicating fillet welds

Symbols for different butt weld notches

Source: [Link]
Acceptance of Welds
Weld Type Weld Size Approval of Welding
Procedure
Butt weld < or = 4 mm Not necessary

Ditto > 4 mm By qualified welding

inspector
Fillet weld < or = 4 mm Not necessary

Ditto > 4 mm By qualified welding

inspector

Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005

Acceptance of Welds
Weld Type Frequency of Non-destructive
Testing
All types of butt welds 100% ultrasonic examination
and magnetic particle inspection

Fillet welds with leg 20% ultrasonic examination and

length exceeding and magnetic particle inspection
including 10 mm
Fillet welds with leg 20% magnetic particle
length not exceeding 10 inspection
mm
Secondary attachment 5% of attachments by magnetic
welds, e.g. for fixing particle inspection and ultrasonic
purlins, side rails examination if leg length
exceeds and includes 10 mm
Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition
Acceptance of Welds

Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005

Acceptance of Welds

Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005

Protection against corrosion

Paint system
Cementitious spray
Concrete casing
Cementitious Barrier Coat
Galvanizing
Minimum thickness (no protection)
Sacrificial corrosion allowances
Cementitious spray
Coating System - Painting
Steel materials is easily rust without protective
coating. Because the rust on steel materials may
cause malfunction or weaken the strength of own
structure. So, we must provide some competent
coating to prevent any rusting reaction occur.

Difference between primer and undercoat?

Primer stops residue from seeping out and prevents
discolouration once the topcoat is applied.
Undercoat helps level the surface of paint and also helps
block out strong colours before applying topcoat. Key
purpose is to provide a smooth, uniform, even surface
for topcoats.
Coating System - Painting
Painting is the principal method of protecting
structural steelwork from corrosion. Paints are
usually applied one coat on top of another and
each coat has a specific function or purpose.

Primers for steel are usually classified according to the main

corrosion
Iron-oxide (Generally red or yellow)
Zinc Phosphate
Hot-Dip Galvanized (BS EN ISO 1461)

Finished coating - A high performance, two, components

chemically-cured aliphatic urethane gloss enamel for use in
areas where maximum gloss & colour retention are required.
For use on properly prepared and primed / galvanized steel
Coating System - Painting
Zinc Phosphate Primer (Type of Primer)
Zinc Phosphate Primers are steel primers formulated with zinc phosphate a mineral that
offers inhibitive or active corrosion protection to protect the steel substrate from corrosion.

The major forms of corrosion protection:

1. Passive Barrier Protection
2. Active Protection
3. Sacrificial Protection
[Link]
Coating System - Painting
Red or Yellow Oxide Primer (Type of Primer)
A alkyd based primer loaded with anticorrosive iron oxide
pigment for the protection of steel surfaces against
moderate corrosive environments.

Red Oxide provides tough barrier surface and excellent UV

absorption layer. They are also excellent weather resistant.
Coating System - Painting
Micaceous Iron Oxide (MIO) (Type of
Undercoat) Fe 0
2 3
Coating System - Painting
Gloss Enamel (Type of Finishing Coat)
Coating System - Painting
Common thickness of each coating
Primer: dry film thickness = 35 µm
Undercoat: dry film thickness = 35 µm
Finishing coat: dry film thickness = 30 µm
Minimum overall dry film thickness = 100 µm
Checking with thickness of coating we use elcometer

Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition

 Paint Test
Determination of the Dry Film Thickness
by Ecotest Plus Coating Thickness Gauge
(BS3900: Part C5:2007 / BS EN ISO2808:2007)

Introduction
• The film thickness is determined from the
interaction between magnetic field and the
metallic substrate through the change in the
magnetic field,

• This method is suitable for coatings on metal

substrate.
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing

Hot Dip Galvanizing ( 熱 浸 鍍 鋅 ) is a factory controlled

metallurgical combination of zinc and steel that provides
corrosion resistance in a wide variety of environments. It
protects steel from corrosion in two ways. It provides
cathodic protection and barrier protection.

[Link]
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing

1. Degreasing
2. Pickling
3. Fluxing
4. Galvanizing
5. Finishing
6. Quenching
7. QC Inspection
Hot Dip Galvanizing Process
Surface Preparation
The most important step in the application of any coating. In most
instances, where a coating fails before the end of its expected service life
it is due to incorrect or inadequate surface preparation. With galvanizing,
the surface preparation process contains its own built-in means of quality
assurance and quality control in that zinc will simply not react with a steel
surface that is not perfectly clean.

Caustic Cleaning Acid Pickling Fluxing

Source: [Link]
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
Galvanizing - In this step, the
material is completely immersed in a
bath of a minimum of 98% pure
molten zinc. The bath temperature is
maintained at about 450° C. Fabricated
items are immersed in the bath long
enough to reach bath temperature.
The articles are slowly withdrawn from
the galvanizing bath , and the excess
zinc is removed by draining, vibrating,
and/or centrifuging. The steel then
goes into a dilute chromate quench
giving your product a longer lasting
luster.

Source: [Link]
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
Inspection/Finishing
The most important
method of inspection for
galvanized articles is visual.
A variety of simple physical
and laboratory tests may
be performed for:
— Thickness,
— Adherence of the coating,
— Uniformity of the coating,
— Appearance

Source: [Link]
Inspection and Quality Control
Inspection and checking occurs at each stage in the
fabrication process and after final assembly.
These checks are usually carried out examine for:

Straightness
Flatness
Inherent defects
Dimensions
Connections
Alignment of holes
Welding
Finishes/cleanliness
Material testing
Samples of steel shall be provided from each
batch of steel within 3 days after delivery of the
batch to the fabricator’s works or to the Site.
The rate of sampling and the position and
direction of the samples shall be in accordance
with BS EN 10002-1 and BS EN 10045.

Test for material of steel

Impact test (BS EN 10045-1)
Tensile test (BS EN 10002-1)
Material testing
Charpy 'V-notch' Impact test (BS EN 10045-1)
Consists of striking a notched test piece with a hammer and
measuring the energy required to cause fracture. The energy is
indicated on the dial of the test machine and the force is produced
by a swinging mass. Energy to fracture specimen .

[Link]
Material testing
Tensile test (BS EN 10002-1)
Testing machines are used to determine the mechanical properties of
materials under tension, compression, bending, shear and torsion. A
standard test piece is gripped at either end by suitable apparatus in a
testing machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is
stretched until it breaks. The test provides information on proof stress,
yield point, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area.

[Link]
Inspection and Quality Control
All welds shall be inspected and tested according to the
requirements.
NDT inspection has become important in different industries.
Also, the inspection is widely used and requires expensive
equipment and special technologies.

Final inspection of welds

a. Visual examination
b. Non-destructive testing (NDT)
Dye Penetrate Testing
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Ultrasonic Testing
X-ray
Non-destructive testing (NDT)
Dye Penetrate Testing
Utilized to detect open or surface cracks or
defects in materials. Red dye or fluorescent
penetrants are utilized as well as various types of
wet and dry developers.

3. Remove red 5. As it dries,

1. Pre- 2. Penetration penetrate 4. Applied red penetrate
treatment by of red completely with white in flaw area is
cleaner penetrate cleaner before developer absorbed and
inspection appeared

[Link]
Non-destructive testing
Magnetic Particle Inspection

An articulated leg magnetic yoke

providing a portable means of
creating magnetic fields for
detection of surface cracks.
ferromagnetic materials to detect
surface and slight subsurface
discontinuities.

[Link]
Non-destructive testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) are performed
for the detection and sizing of internal
defects, flaws or discontinuities in
piping, castings, forgings, weldments or
other components.
Exact sizing techniques have been
developed to detect and monitor
progressive cracking in a variety of
equipment.

[Link]
Non-destructive testing
Radiographic Testing (RT) (X-ray)
To detect and evaluate internal defects
and structural variations, including cracks,
lack of fusion, incomplete penetration,
porosity and inclusions. These tests are
performed with Iridium 192, Cobalt
isotopes, or low-voltage x-ray. Several
dark room trailers are available for on-site
development of radiographs.

Image of a beehive through

low-voltage x-ray.
Reference
Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005, Building Department,
HKSAR.
Connections From Steel Sculpture, College of Engineering and Applied
Science, University of Wyoming, Denver, US, Online
[[Link]
Section 15, Structural Steel Work, General Specification for Building ( 2007
Edition ), Architectural Services Department, HKSAR.
Section 21, Painting, General Specification for Building ( 2007 Edition ),
Architectural Services Department, HKSAR.
Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel
2005 , Building Department, HKSAR.
Appendix I, Symbols Used in Engineering Drawings, Engineering - 1502;
Engineering Design I (Computer Graphics), Faculty of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, University of Newfoundland, Canada. Online
[[Link]
Galvanizing Process, Goodluck Steel Co, India. Online
[[Link]
 THE END

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