surrogate approaches

BIODIVERSITY • chosen based on taxonomy, habitat, life-history features, or other ecological

functions
• the term biodiversity was coined by walter rozen of the US
academy of science in 1986 • keystone, umbrella, indicator, and flagship species
• first used in 1988 by e.o. wilson, the famous harvard biologist keystone species
• the term encompasses the total richness and variety of life on — play essential community roles
earth — much larger impact on the community or ecosystem/more influential
(relative to its abundance)
• biodiversity studies are directed at five levels of biological — impact becomes apparent once removed from an ecosystem
organization
— gene, species, population, community, and ecosystem — without them, an ecosystem would dramatically differ or would even cease
to exist altogether
types of biodiversity — e.g. tropical figs bear fruits during off fruiting season— without them,
genetic diversity
— sum total of information contained in the genes of species of many animals would starve to death during periods of fruit scarcity
plants, animals, and microorganisms; genetic variation within a species umbrella species
species diversity — require large areas of habitat or home range - their protection might
— the number and relative proportions of different species, and automatically protect a large number of co-occuring species and the ecosystems and
their distribution and functions or interactions within a given spatial
context habitat types that go with these species
— most are listed as endangered or threatened on the IUCNred list
ecosystem diversity
— distribution and abundance of habitats, biotic communities, — marine turtles (for ocean ecosystems); Philippine eagle (for land
and ecological processes in the biosphere ecosystems)
aspects of species diversity indicator species
species richness — species that set a benchmark against which comparisons can be made
— the total number of species after a period of time
— are sensitive to certain changes in the environment hence found only in
species evenness areas where these factors are optimal
— the relative abundance/proportion of species — may work well only in a particular habitat or ecosystem
— examples: giant golden crown flying fox, sensitive aquatic
macroinvertebrates (stoneflies, mayflies, caddisflies)
flagship species
— popular, charismatic species that serve as symbols or rallying points to
stimulate conservation awareness and action
— serve to act as an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat, issue,
campaign, or environmental cause
— achieving conservation of that species, status of other species sharing its
habitat or are vulnerable to the same threats, may also be improved
— examples: mindoro’s ‘tariktik’; bohol’s tarsier; cebu’s ‘siloy’
biodiversity hotspots
benefits of biodiversity
• a place on earth that is both biologically rich and deeply threatened due to
• biodiversity at all forms, levels, structure, and function provides habitat loss by human activity
many anthropocentric, as well as ecocentric benefits to
humankind. • conservation international criteria to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot:
— must have high percentage of plant life found nowhere else in the world
anthropocentric benefits from biodiversity amounting to at least 1,500 endemic vascular plants (<0.5% of the world's total);
— many potentials for different lifeforms to provide information — must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation
necessary for science, materials that are useful to humans, and all
other recreational, medical, and consumptive benefits top 10 biodiversity hotspots in the world where biodiversity is richest and
most threatened
anthropocentric nature 1. atlantic forest of tropical south america
— choosing to protect a certain species or ecosystem, just 2. cape floristic region, south africa
in case it turns out to be useful 3. cerrado, brazil
4. coastal forests of eastern africa
ecocentric benefits from biodiversity 5. himalaya
— just knowing that a healthy and vibrant coral reef system or a 6. indo-burma
tropical forest is present can already be fulfilling (even if you may
never have actually visited it or has directly benefited from it) —> the 7. madrean pine-oak woodlands, mexico and southern us
need to protect these 8. mesoamerica
ecosystem services 9. polynesia-micronesia
10. philippines
• these are the services that ecosystems perform for humanity
• animals, plants, and other living component of every ecosystem do biodiversity hotspots concept
many things for humans such as purifying water and air, — suggested in 1988 by norman myers due to the growing concern about the
pollinating crops, stabilizing soil, maintaining proper heat balance rapid loss of endemic species and habitat
in the atmosphere, and cycling critical nutrients — covers endemism at the species, genetic, and ecosystem levels in any area
or region with exceptionally high biodiversity
• economic context — endemism: a gene, species, or ecosystem is only found or only lives in
— mangrove forests lessened damage to a coastal community in a particular region of the world— the loss of its kind means that it is lost forever
cebu due to typhoon; “service”— absorbing and slowing down the
strong winds and waves distribution of biodiversity
• a complex pattern called "ecoregions"
measuring and monitoring biodiversity
• most ideal would be to measure actual processes • ecoregions
— i.e. rates of productivity, pollination rates and patterns, — large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage
species interaction, etc. of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions
— very tedious and time consuming biodiversity coldspots
• simpler and quicker approach • the hotspot concept is very effective in driving biodiversity conservation
— use of surrogate species that can represent a broader set of efforts especially in terms of international funding
species/habitats to support conservation or management strategies
• but it needs to leave out huge expanses of the cold places in the planet
dubbed as biodiversity "coldspots"
international union for conservation of nature (IUCN) conservation causes of biodiversity loss
status • population growth resulting to overharvesting
extinct (ex) • habitat loss
— when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has • deforestation; loss of mangrove species; urbanization
died • invasive alien species (IAS)
— e.g. rhinoceros philippinensis (philippine rhinoceros)
• environmental pollution
extinct in the wild (ew)
• climate change
— when it is known only to survive in cultivation or in captivity
— e.g. todiramphus cinnamominus (guam kingfisher) effects of biodiversity loss
critically endangered (cr) • threats to food security
— evidence (severe population decline, very small population, very • threats to energy security
small geographic area occupied) indicates it is facing an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild during the next 10 years to be >50% • unavailability of clean water
— dicaeum quadricolor (cebu flowerpecker) • damage to social relationships (e.g. fight over territories)
endangered (en)
— evidences (large population decline, small population, small
geographic area occupied) indicate a very high risk of extinction in the
wild during the next 20 years to be >20%
— e.g. vanda sanderiana (waling-waling)
SUSTAINING LIVING SYSTEMS
vulnerable (vu) biodiversity conservation
— evidences (large population decline, small population, small • 1992 united nation's convention on biological diversity (cbd)
geographic area occupied) indicate a very high risk of extinction in the
wild during the next 20 years to be at least >10% • signatory: philippines
— e.g. aeschynanthus curvicalyx (lipstick plant)
objectives of cbd
near threatened (nt) — conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components,
— after evaluation, does not qualify for critically endangered, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out og utilization of
endangered or vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely genetic resources
to qualify for a threatened category in the near future
establishment of protected areas (PAs)
least concern (lc) — iucn definition: a clearly defined geographical space, recognized,
— after evaluation, does not qualify for critically endangered, dedicated, and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the
endangered, vulnerable or near threatened; widespread and abundant long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and
taxa are included in this category cultural values
— the iucn definition of PAs was adopted by the national integrated
data deficient (dd) protected areas system act (nipas) of 1992 (ra no. 7586) and its amendatory
— information is inadequate to make a direct, or indirect, law, the expanded national integrated protected ares system act (enipas) of
assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or 2018 (ra no. 11038)
population status
why is it important to establish or designate protected areas?
not evaluated (ne) — protected areas possess natural, biological, and physical
— has not yet been evaluated against the criteria diversities of the environment, particularly areas with biologically unique
features that sustain human life and development, as well as plant and animal
life
philippine biodiversity — such biological diversity will provide the present and future
generations of filipinos with food, clean water, clothing, shelter, medicine,
• the philippines is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world livelihood, agriculture, fishing grounds for artisanal fisherfold, shoreline
• more than 52,177 described species, more than half of which is protection, and other services designed to protect against the impacts of
endemic natural disasters and climate change
— crucial role in helping mitigate and adapt to climate change is also
• reasons for high diversity and endemicity: increasingly recognized; it has been estimated that the global network of
— tropical location, a highly heterogeneous and complex protected areas stores at least 15% of terrestrial carbon
topography, isolation created by separate islands, and rugged — oceans, including protected seascapes, are the biggest carbon
topography sinks, 5 with mangroves, seagrass beds, and salt marshes significantly storing at
• derives large benefits from ecosystems least 10 times more carbon than terrestrial forests
— a recent study has shown that the combined carbon
• in particular, the country recognizes the important role played by sequestration potential of tidal salt marshes, mangroves, seagrass meadows,
watersheds , river basins and coastal areas in the environment and and kelp forests "compares favorably with and, in some respects, may exceed
in society as a source of livelihood (supporting fisheries, recreation the potential of carbon sinks on land according to a report by the iucn"
and tourism and many other activities)
quick facts about philippine biodiversity
— one of the 17 mega-diverse country (although relatively small
among the 17 megadiverse countries, the philippines has the greatest
concentration of unique species per unit area in the world)
— 60-70% of the world’s biodiversity (has more than 52,177
described species, half of which are endemic or found nowhere else on
earth)
— top 10 in terms of endemism (in terms of terrestrial
vertebrates, the philippines is known to host 1,238 species of which 618
(or 50%) is endemic
— philippines is known to be the world’s “center ofmarine
biodiversity”
— the country belongs to the coral triangle, which covers more
than 75% of all coral species and 35% of world’s coral reefs
 cebu kbas
what are the most important features of the laws that establish — olango island
protected areas?
— the laws provide for processes, systems, and strategies that — gilotongan marine sanctuary
help ensure the maintenance and sustainability of biologically and culturally — mactan island
diverse, rich, and significant areas — liloan
— common features include provisions on governance systems — central cebu protected landscape
and processes, management and enforcement strategies, public participation,
tenure, and allowable and non-allowable activities — mt. capayas
— daanbantayan
what are the categories of protected areas? — bantayan islets
— strict nature reserve
— natural park — moalboal
— natural monument — nug-as and mt. lanoy
— wildlife sanctuary — mt. kangbulagsig
— protected landscapes and seascapes
— resource reserve
— natural biotic areas
HEALTH AND WELLNESS
— other categories established by law, convention, or
international agreements of which the philippine government is a signatory what can we get from a healthy ecosystem?
protected areas in the philippines • ecosystems also interact with other ecosystems and the abiotic
as of 2016 environment
— 559 protected areas • a healthy ecosystem cosists of various organisms engaged in
— 45,762 square kilometers of protected areas (15.32% of total land complex set of relationships between other living systems and its
area) environments thereby producing various benefits termed
— 21, 269 square kilometers (1.16 of total marine area) ecosystem services
— these services include the following:
• overall management in the country is under the general supervision of 1. provisioning such as food, clean and fresh water, fuel,
the department of environment and natural resources (denr) wood, etc.
2. regulating such as those that regulate climate, disease,
activities related directly to ecosystem services cleanliness, flood, and other hazard controls
• reforestation, watershed protection, and carbon sequestration 3. cultural or aesthetic which also includes spiritual,
educational and recreational
• monitoring and protection of species 4. supporting which include nutrient cycling, production, etc.
• for nature-based recreation, visitor monitoring
• forests provide food, oxygen, carbon sinks, livelihood and other
activities in PA management resources
• demarcation and patrolling of boundaries • wetlands ensure clean water safeguarding against water-borne
infectious organisms
• capacity building of staff
• mangroves protect coastal areas from storm surges while
• purchase of necessary equipment providing habitats for fishes and various marine resources
• information and education campaign • the entire landscape produced by living systems provides a place
for recreation, meditation, enhanced aesthetic aspirations and
challenges to biodiversity conservation in PAs
cultural identity — non-material benefits that is essential to
• funding shortfall of about 70% (denr pawb, 2012) psychological and mental wellbeing
• lack of community support or conflict with protected area managers
can arise when any or a combination of these scenarios occur: ensuring sustainability of ecosystem services is crucial to human health
— lack of awareness about biodiversity and well-being
— neglected in decision making
— establishment of PAs is perceived to result in inequitable distribution
of benefits or disadvantage the community by curtailing their resource
utilization or source of livelihood
key biodiversity areas
• areas that contribute significantly to the global persistence of
biodivesity
• identified by national constituencies using globally standardized criteria
and quantitative thresholds (refer to iucn's "a global standard for the
identification of key biodiversity areas" vers. 1.0 for the details
• applied to species and, terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems
• more than 15,000 KBAs identified globally (langhammer, butchart, and
brooks, 2018)
philippine kbas
— are priority sites for conservation
— delineation of kbas initiated by:
— conservation international (ci) philippines
— haribon foundation
— biodiversity management bereau (bmb; formerly pawb) of the
denr
— most are terrestrial areas; some cover both terrestrial and marine
areas
— with various levels of protection (protected, partially protected,
unprotected)
— a total of 228 kbas were identified (128 terrestrial and 123 marine),
delineated in 2006 and 2009, respectively
— cover over 106,000 square kilometers
— home to 855 species, including 396 globally threatened, 398
restricted-range, and 61 congregatory species
 marine biodiversity
drivers of change that impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services • excessive or non-sustainable utilization of ecosystem services (i.e.
overfishing in the open seas led to a depletion of 80% of the world's
fish stocks)
• anthropogenic causes and global warming — dwindling of marine
mammals, birds, and other animals (i.e. polar bears) dependent on
the sea for food
• oceans comprise 75% of the earth’s surface and the collapse of
ecosystems supported by oceans would lead to collapse of other
ecosystems (including land ecosystems)

DRIVERS OF CHANGE: IMPACTS ON PROVISIONING DRIVERS OF CHANGE: IMPACT ON REGULATING

SERVICES SERVICES
climate change and anthropogenic activities
is agriculture and aquaculture the answer to food security? • the earth receives energy from the sun, and then this energy is either
• agriculture absorbed, transmitted, or reflected by the atmosphere
— one of the major contributors to biodiversity loss worldwide • naturally occuring greenhouse gases trap the energy, causing a warming
• the same is true for aquaculture, that is, farming of the seas in the air
through fishponds and fish pens • the rest of the remaining energy is emitted back into outer space,
• both agriculture and aquaculture while supplying enough food and fish leading to earth cooling
for a growing human population are also causing the build-up of dead • these phenomenon lead to a global average temperature of 15 degree
zones celsius
• fertilizers and pesticides washed into waterways; undigested food
from aquaculture
— contribute to the buildup of nutrients and phosphates that
promote algal growth
— decomposition of these nutrients and dead algae depletes water of
oxygen contributing to dead zones and threatening food sources
• decline in marine biodiversity
sustainable traditional agriculture
• evolved as part of the tradition, beliefs, native technologies, and
myths of small communities
• people plant a variety of crops (crop diversification) to ensure food
supply throughout the year
• encourages agro-system resilience and provides health benefits
modern agriculture
• focusing more on "cash crops" or commodities for export
• provides food security by ensuring "quantity" anytime but with greenhouse effect
narrowing/limited array of food sources
• greenhouse gases
— of the 7000 crops used as food by humans throughout history
— naturally occuring gasses in the atmosphere including co2, NOxi, o2,
— currently only 12 crops and 5 animals provide >75% of human o3, methane, chloroflourocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
energy intake with 3 (maize, rice, and wheat) proving >50% of caloric intake
from plants • greenhouse effect
• large plantations (monocultures) for greater food production result — natural process of warming the troposphere and hence the earth
in: surface. for this reason, it is technically called the tropospheric heating
effect
— deforestation of large tracts of land
— oversimplification of food sources since only one or a few types of
crops are planted
— less source of micro and macronutrients to ensure good nutrition
and a healthy population
• introduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides led to rapid decline
in the population of pollinators and symbiotic microbes in nitrogen-
fixing plants resulting to:
— altered/lowered nutritional content of “farmed” food sources
compared with those from the wild
— grown food sources more vulnerable to ill health
 — without sinking cold water, the ocean currents could slow down or stop
cooling process of the earth in some places
• as a result of the tropospheric heating effect, earth tends to go — this could change the climate in places like europe that have milder
warm climates thanks to the warm currents in the oceans around them
• however, a counteracting cooling process also occurs such that global the great ocean conveyor belt
average temperature is maintained at 15 degree celsius — refers to the major ocean currents that move warm water from
• heat is absorbed through the equator to the poles and cold water from the poles back toward the
equator
— evaporation of liquid surface water, such as ponds, lakes, rivers,
sea, ocean pacific island nations
— rise of water vapor followed by condensation and eventually rain — considered to be the most vulnerable in terms of climate change
and sea level rise
global warming
— their average elevation is just 1 to 2 meters above sea level
• defined as an enhanced greenhouse effect (i.e. natural warming gets
enhanced and in effect raise average global temperature of the — 90% of the population live within 5 km of the coast and half the
atmosphere by 0.6 to 0.9 degree celsius infrastructure is within 500m of the sea
• primarily dure to increased co2, and other greenhouse gases input effect on weather
from anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel burning
— prolonged heat waves and droughts
weather — increased flooding due to heavy and prolong precipitation
• atmospheric conditions that occur locally over short period of time — in 2015 for example, philippines has experienced 18 months of el nino
(i.e. from minutes to hours or days) which affected the country’s food security according to the food and
• rainy, snowy, cloudy, windy agriculture organization
climate effect on human health
• long term, regional, or even global average temperature, humidity — increase in death and illness, especially the poor and elderly
and rainfall patterns over seasons, years, or decades — e.g. exposure to extreme heat can lead to heat stroke and
• tropical, temperate dehydration, as well as cardiovascular, respiratory, and cerebrovascular disease
— increase in tropical diseases
climate change
— rising temperatures and changing weather patterns are altering
• it is broad range, global phenomenon whereby changes occur as a
result of the warming temperature the spread of vector-borne diseases
• in miller's book "Living in the Environment (2004)" the following are — i.e. malaria, dengue
evidences of climate change — variation in climatic conditions, such as temperature, rainfall
1. co2 in the troposphere is higher than in the past 420,000 years patterns, and humidity, has a profound effect on the longevity of the mosquito
2. 75% of the anthropogenic co2 comes from fossil fuel burning and on the development of malaria parasites
3. 20th century is the hottest in the past 1000 years
4. average global temperature rise by 0.6 +/- 0.2 degree celsius
5. melting of land-based ice caps DRIVERS OF CHANGE: IMPACT ON CULTURAL
6. shrinking of some glaciers
7. average global sea level rise SERVICES
8. early spring arrival and later autumn frosts
effect on water distribution non-tangible benefits (cultural services)
— anomalies in precipitation occurred in the past decades • green and blue spaces can provide physical and mental benefits
— expansion of deserts and growing drought (especially in asian and
africa) — physical activity that is essential to good health and wellness, lessen
effect on biodiversity risks of non-communicable diseases (i.e. diabetes, hypertension), and extend
life expectancy
— shift in climate belts had been observed, which could affect — increased immune function essential to combat communicable
makeup and location of forests diseases; exposure to other microorganisms in the environment may help keep
— change in structure and location of habitats harmful organisms at bay
— great impact especially on non-migratory species • communing with nature provides humans a clear mental state
— threat in wildlife reserves • studies show that exposure to the natural world (a green and biodiverse
— e.g. forest fires environment)
— improves mental health
amazon rainforest fires — decreases depression (accounts for 4.3% of the burden of mental
• the brazilian amazon registered a 104% increase in fire hotspots health particularly afflicting women worldwide), anxiety and stress
during the same eight-month period (january to august) compared — increased recuperation time for patients exposed to an experience
to 2023 with nature, whether virtual or real
• several factors have contributed to the massive increase in fires in • opportunities for tourism and recreation
the amazon • living with nature to relax or de-stress — esp. those from urban
• the region is experiencing drier conditions, a phenomenon closely communities and/or those that are too busy with work, take a break by
linked to climate change and intensified by el nino. in fact, 2023 was travelling to various places as tourists
the hottest year ever recorded for our planet and june 2024
marked 13 consecutive months of global record temperatures, decreased "cultural" experience with nature
increasing the forest's vulnerability to fires • those who live in poor, crowded communities devoid of interactions with
• the region also experienced a historic drought in 2023, which caused nature
flames to spread through native vegetation • in children in developed countries that
• low water levels in the region's rivers made it difficult to combat — are focused on scholastic experience
the fires, leaving indigenous and riverside villages inaccessible
— have decreased outdoor activities
effect on ocean currents and sea levels — have increased use of technology
— there has been a shift and change in ocean currents
— have overprotective parents
— melting of ice caps lead to global sea level rose by 9-88 cm during
the 21st century
— as earth’s climate warms, the water also warms melting sea ice
— this warming could make the water less cold and less likely to sink
 effects of decreased cultural services
— rise in psychological problems, stress and anxiety, and poor coping
mechanisms for children and young adults
— increase in “lifestyle” diseases associated with intake of unnatural
foods, a sedentary life, and the lack of mental relaxation (e.g. diabetes)
biodiversity loss on health and well-being
• rise of non communicable diseases such as diabetes due to consumption
of high fat from production-intensive animal sources
• not only will physical health be affected but also social and mental health,
as well as community cohesion