Algebraic Structures
# Monoid
Definition
A monoid is made up of:
1. A set M
2. A binary operation *: It takes two elements from the set and gives another
3. An identity element e ∈M
element from the set.
A monoid must satisfy 3 properties:
1. Closure
If a and b are in M, then a∗b must also be in M.
2. Associativity:
(a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c) for all a,b,c∈M
3. Identity Element:
There must be an element e∈M such that:
e∗a=a for all a∈ M
Example: Numbers with Addition
Let’s take:
Set M: All integers (ℤ)
Operation *: Addition +
Identity e: 0
Check the properties:
Closure:
Any two integers added together give another integer
(e.g., 2 + 3 = 5)
Associativity:
(2+3)+4=2+(3+4)=9
Identity:
0+5=5=5+0 , So (ℤ, +, 0) is a monoid.
# Semi-group
Definition
A semi-group is a set S with:
A binary operation * (like addition or multiplication)
The operation must be associative
That's it! No need for an identity element.
Properties of a Semi-group:
1. Closure:
For all a,b∈S, the result of a∗b is also in S
2. Associativity:
(a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c) for all a,b,c∈S
Note: Unlike a monoid, a semi-group does not require an identity element.
Example : Natural Numbers with Addition
Let:
Set S=N={1,2,3,… }
Operation: Addition +
Check:
Closure:
2+3=5∈
Associativity:
(2+3)+4=9=2+(3+4)
Identity?
There's no 0 in N, so no identity ❌
This is a semi-group, but not a monoid
# Group :-
A group is a mathematical structure that builds on a monoid, but adds one more
important feature: inverses.
Definition
A group is a set GGG with a binary operation ∗*∗ such that:
1. Closure:
For all a,b∈G , a∗b ∈G
2. Associativity:
(a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c) for all a,b,c∈G
3. Identity Element:
There exists an element e∈G such that e∗a=a
4. Inverses:
For every a∈G, there exists an element a−1∈G ,G such that
a*a−1=a−1*a=e
So, a Group = Monoid + Inverses
Example: Integers with Addition
Let’s take:
Set G=Z(all integers)
Operation: Addition +
Identity: 0
Inverse: For any number a, the inverse is -a
Check group properties:
Closure:
2+3=5∈Z
Associativity:
(1+2)+3=1+(2+3)=6
Identity:
0+5=5=5+0
Inverses:
4+(−4)=0
So, (Z,+) is a group.
#subgroup :-
A subgroup is a smaller group inside a bigger group — it follows the same group
rules, just within a subset of the elements.
Definition
Let (G,∗) be a group.
A subset H⊆G is a subgroup if:
H is closed under the group operation ∗*∗
1. H is non-empty
2.
3. H contains the identity element of GGG
4. Every element a∈H has its inverse a−1also in H
If all 4 conditions are true, H is a subgroup of G.
Shortcut Test (for finite groups):
If a non-empty subset H is closed under the operation and inverses, it's a
subgroup.
Example: Even Integers as a Subgroup
Let:
Group G=(Z,+) — integers under addition
Subset H={...,−4,−2,0,2,4,6,...} — all even integers
Check subgroup properties:
1. Non-empty: 0∈H
2. Identity: 0∈H
3. Closure: 2+4=6∈H
4. Inverses: −2∈ H, since it's still even
So, even integers form a subgroup of integers under addition.
Example: {1,−1} in (R∗,×)
Let:
Group G=(R∗,×): non-zero real numbers with multiplication
Subset H={1,−1}
Check:
1. Non-empty
2. Identity:
1∈H
3. Closure:
1×−1=−1
4. Inverses:
1−1=1∈ H, (−1)−1=−1∈H
So, {1,−1}is a subgroup of R∗
Summary
A subgroup is:
A part of a group
That also behaves like a group on its own
Following closure, identity, and inverses
#Abelian group :-
An Abelian group is a group where the operation is commutative.
Definition
A group (G,∗)(G, *)(G,∗) is called an Abelian group if:
1. It satisfies all group properties:
o Closure
o Associativity
o Identity element exists
o Inverse exists
2. Commutativity:
For all a,b∈G:
a∗b=b∗a
In short: Group + Commutative = Abelian group
Example : Integers with Addition
Set: Z (all integers)
Operation: + (addition)
Check:
Closure:
2+3=5∈ Z
Associativity:
(a + b) + c= a+ (b + c)
Identity:
0, because a+0 = a
Inverses:
a+(−a)=0
Commutativity:
a+b=b+a
So, (Z,+), is an Abelian group.
#Homomorphism:-
Definition :-
Let (G,∗) and (H,⋅) be groups.
A function f:G→H is a group homomorphism if:
f(a∗b)=f(a)⋅f(b) for all a,b∈G
In simple words: The function respects the group operation.
Example: Group Homomorphism from Z→Zn
Let:
G=(Z,+)G = the group of integers under addition
H=(Zn,+)H = integers modulo n
Define a function:
f:Z→Zn,f(a)=a mod n
Check the homomorphism property:
f(a+b ) = (a+b) modn= [amod n + b modn] modn = f(a)+f(b)
It respects the operation → homomorphism.
Example: f(x)=2x from (Z,+)→(Z,+)
Let:
f:Z→Z, defined as f(x)=2x
Check:
f(a+b) = 2(a+b) = 2a+2b = f(a)+f(b)
Homomorphism