Part 2: Biology (Living Things and their Environment) Module 2 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation
LESSON 1 (LIVING THINGS REPRODUCE)
Lesson Outcomes:
1. Inferred that living things reproduce
2. Identified observable characteristics that are passed on from parents to offspring
Living things and reproduction.
The organisms that reproduce are called progenitors. The organisms that result from reproduction are
called descendents. They have the same characteristics as their progenitors.
Two individuals of different sexes are involved in sexual reproduction; the descendent shares
characteristics of both. Only one organim is involved in asexual reproduction; the descendents are
identical to the progenitor.
Animals perform sexual reproduction using reproductive organs. Sexual reproduction in animals has
three phases: the production of gametes, fertilization and the development of the embryo.
In most plants the reproductive organims is the flower. A flower has four main parts: the pistil, the
stamen, the calyx and the corolla.
In flowering plants sexual reproduction involves three phases: pollination and fertilization, the
formation of the fruit and seed and the germination of the seed.
Lesson 2
LIFE CYCLES OF HUMANS, ANIMALS AND PLANTS (GRADE 4)
Lesson Outcomes:
1. Described the stages in the development of a human being
2. Described examples of life cycle in plants and animals
3. Differentiated the life cycles of animals and plants
Topic 1 (Expert Group 1): Human Fertilization A new human begins to develop if
sperm and egg cell unite in the proces called fertilization. In humans, this process is
called conception. The Im between fertilization and birth is called pregnancy. In
humans, pregnancy lan about 280 days or nine months. During that time a single
cell, the fertilized eg changes into a complex living thing made up of billions of cells.
Fertilization of human egg usually takes place in the Fallopian tube O sperm
fertilizes the egg. Then a new membrane forms around the outside of the egg. This
membrane prevents other sperm from entering the egg. The feniles egg is called a
zygote. As it moves from the fallopian tube to the uterus, the zygote begira divide
by mitosis. It forms a hallow ball of cells. About 10 days after fertiliz this ball of cells
attaches to the linings of uterus. The cells in the hallow continue to divide.
Topic 2 (Expert Group 2): Human Fetus Development From about the third week of
development until the end of the second month the developing organism is called
an embryo The embryo is attached to the by a special structure called the placenta
A placenta is a special structure rough which materials can pass between the
embryo and the mother. The placenta has many blood vessels that are part of the
embryo's blood supply. The mother's blood comes very close to the blood vessels of
the embryo. However, the wood from the mother and the embryo do not mix
Nutrients and oxygen diffuse he mother's blood to the embryo's blood Carbon
dioxide and other wastes diffuse hom the blood of the embryo into the mother's
blood.
The umbilical cord is a ropelike structure containing blood vessels that connects the
embryo to the placenta. The embryo is surrounded by a clear membrane called the
amnion. The amnion forms a sac containing a fluid that cushions the embryo.
During the embryo stage, all the maior body systems begin form
From the beginning of the third month until birth the developing baby is called
fetus. After 11 weeks, arms and legs are well developed Facial features, such as he
eyes, have also formed. By 16 weeks of age, the fetus begins to move actively.
These movements can be felt by the mother. The heartbeat can be heard by the
stethoscope. The fetus about 20 cm long at this time. During the last three months
of development the fetus grows quickly.
Topic 3 (Expert Group 3) Birth Near the time of birth, the fetus usually turns within
the uterus. Its head points down towards the cervix, the neck of the uterus. At birth,
the fetus is about 50 cm ong and has a mass of about 3 kg. Birth begins when the
muscles of the mother's terus begin to contract. These contractions of the muscles
of the uterus are called labor The period of labor can be divided into three stages.
The first stage of labor usually lasts about 10 to 12 hours. During this time,
contractions push the baby toward the cervix. The cervix dilates or opens wider.
During the second stage of labor, the baby emerges. At this point the contractions
of the uterus become stronger and last longer. The baby is usually bom head first.
When the baby is born, the umbilical cord is still attached to the placenta inside
uterus. The cord is clamped and cut so that the baby does not lose blood from the
blood vessels inside the cord.
The third stage of labor occurs shortly after the baby is born. More contractions of
the uterus force the placenta and the amnion out of the mother's body. This mass of
tissue is called the afterbirth. Release of the afterbirth is the end of the labor
Changes in the mother's body continue after the birth of the baby. Hormones cause
milk to be formed in the breasts. The baby can feed on this milk by nursing.
Life Cycle of Humans: Stages of Human Growth and Development
1. Fertilization-Union of egg rell and sperm cell
The process of human development, begins with the process known prenatal
development, li begins with the unmen of egg cell and sperm coll in the process
called fermlization, or conception. The chromosomes of the egg cell combine with
the chromsotues of the sperty cell to form a new cell called zygute. The zygote,
which contains a combination of genetic material from bosh parents, develops into
the embryu. The embryo then develops embryome and extra embryonic tissues
which will later form the fetal imembranes and the placenta. Embryo is the term
used for the developing organism from the thing weck of development until the end
of the second month, fetus is the serm for the developing organism from the
beginning of third month to birth. The amnion is a membrane that surrounds the
developing organism, it contai clear fluid that cushions the growing organism. The
placentaina structure through which materials are exchanged between blood of the
fetus and that of the mother. The ambitical cord attaches the fetus to the placenta,
blood vessels inside the cord transport materials to and from the placenta.
2. Birth the release of the baby from the womb
or uterus to the outside world During the first stage of labor, contractions of the
uterus push the baby towards the cervix, the cervix dilates, during the second stage
the baby emergen and the umbilical cord is cut, during the third stage, the placenta
and the amnin is forced outside of the mother's body by contractions of the uterus
3. Infancy or Babyhood After birth,
the human undergoes different stages of physical growth and development. The
different stages are Infancy and Babyhood Stage, Early Childhood Stage, Late
Childhood Stage, the Adolescence Stage, the Fath Adulthood Stage and the Old Age
Stage Infancy and Babyhood Stage is the stage from birth to 2 years of age This
stage marks the rapid physical growth. It is considered as one of the mos
remarkable and busiest times of development. Physical growth occurs rapid during
the first two years of life. Development occurs in gross and fine motn language,
emotional and temperament.
4. Early and Later Childhood
Early Childhood Stage happens from two up to 6 years of age. Healt children at this
stage exhibit important growth and development in various art such as social and
emotional, language and communication, movement physical, and cognitive The
Late Childhood Stage happens from six up to twelve years of f Physical
development is slow and steady in this stage. The child gains gre control over his
body. In terms of social development, the child's relationship changes towards
others and the child will gemerally have multiele wat contacts outside the family
Emotionally, the child controls anderstand emotions and becomes skilled in
expressing his emotions. Most of the child's cognitive development takes place in
school as the brain contimes to develop.
5. Adolescence Adolescence Stage happens from thirteen up to nineteen years of
age. This stage is considered as the transition stage between childhood and adulted
stage. Sex maturation and rapid physical development happen in this stage Boys
begin to show secondary sexual traits such as deeper voice due t thickened vocal
cords, increased growth of hair on the face, chest, armpes and pubic regions. Some
parts of the body may have more muscles and fats. Inside the body of the male, the
testes enlarge and produce sperms. Among females, secondary characteristics
include enlargement of the breast, developement of hair in armpits and pubic urea,
and the menstrual cycle. The female is able to produce an egg one at a time in the
28 day cycle. Every month there at changes in the uterus to prepare for the
fertilization of the egg and pregnancy when the egg is fertilized. This includes the
thickening of the uterine walls due to an increase of the female hormones. When an
egg is not ferilized, it is released with the lining of the uterus as menstruation which
occurs for about three to seven days. Then another cycle begins. Many women
suffer from discomforts a few days before and during menstruation. Headaches,
sleeping problems, irritability and anxiety, tenderness of the breast and even
depression may be felt. These symptoms are pre- menstrual syndrome. Regular
exercise and eating balance diet may reduce these discomfort. Tumor may occur in
the uterus, ovarian and cervical cancers are possible disorders of the female
reproductive organs.
6. Early Adulthood Early Adulthood Stage
happens from nineteen to forty years. This stage of life generally consists of
leaving home, completing education, beginning full- time work, attaining financial
independence, establishing a long-tern untunate relationship and starting a family.
7. Middle Age The Middle Age Stage
happens between the ages forty and above up to sixty-five. This stage in life is the
transition stage and physical adjustment stage. An individual may experience
decline in physical and mental capabilities.
8. Old Age
Old Age Stage happens from sixty-five to death, In this stage, an individual could
experience rapid physical and mental decline as well as psychological and physical
illness.
9. Death This is the physical condition of the body when all the organs do not
anymore function to continue life. This is sometimes called cellular or organ death.
This state may not always happen after old age. Some people die young
Life Cycles of Butterfly, Mosquito and Frog Metamorphosis is the series of
changes undergone in form by animals frorts see in
1. Metamorphosis in Mosquitoes Mosquitoes lay eggs that hatch in water, to
become the larva commonly known as wrigglers. Even with small amount of water,
the larvar can grow, Eventually it becomes a pupa with an outer covering or a
cocoon. Inside the cocoon, the larva reorganizes to produce the parts of an adult.
The adult then emerges from the pupal stage when the cocoon breaks. Mosquitoes
need water and land as habitat to continue their life cycle 2. Metamorphosis in
Butterflies The butterflies lay eggs in the underside of lower surface of leaves of
som plants that are preferred food like calamansi and "gabi." The caterpillar or larva
hatches from the eggs. It is wormlike and feeds voraciously on the leaves as grows
in size. Sometimes these would eat almost all the leaves of a plant. The next stage
is pupa which is covered by a cocoon. At this stage, the pupa does not move. Inside
the cocoon, the larva reorganizes to produce parts of an adul Then the cocoon
finally breaks releasing the adult butterfly. Many butterflies have colorful wings that
flutter at early morning from one flower to another.
3. Metamorphosis in Frogs On the other hand, the female frog lay jelly-coated
eggs in water which fertilized externally by sperms released by male adult frogs.
Black tadpoles hatch from the egg. The tadpoles appear fishlike and later develop
legs an external gills. After about three months, the gills are replaced by lungs and
the young frog emerges and moves to land.
Life Cycle of Flowering Plant
The life cycle of a flowering plant starts when the adult plant produces a flowe The
flower has pistils that are involved in the development of egg cells. The stamen of
the flower produces pollen grains that contain sperm cells. The pollen grains an
transferred from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil by insects and
other pollinating agents. Fertilization of an egg cell by the sperm cell occurs in the
ovule d the ovary. The ovules develop into mature seeds and the ovary grows into a
fruit. The seeds inside the fruit can become a new plant.
Seeds from parent plants are scattered or dispersed by animals, wind and wares
Mature seeds germinate when favorable conditions are present such as water, prop
temperature and nutrients. The young plant grows to become a mature plant.
Lesson 3: Reproduction Among Flowering Plants (Grade 5)
A. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
The flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering plants. Some kinds of plant have
a rhe flower that produce both male and female sex cells. Other kinds have flower
that produce either mae or female sex cells
[Link] can take place only between plabts of the same kind. If the pollen
from a papaya blossom lands on a guava, for example, no pillination occurs. A
mango flower must be pollinated by pollen grains from another mango flower. When
an insect, or small bird visits a flower, that animal transfers the male sex cells from
one flower to another. This transfer is part of process of sexual reproduction in the
flower.
2. In fertilization, a male sex cell joins with a female sex cell to produce a fertilized
cell.
3. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds. The seed contains tgw embryo.
Ovules develop into mature seeds, while tje ovary develops into a fruit. A fruit is
ripened ovary that contains one or more mature seeds.
4. When conditions are proper for growth, seeds undergo germination. Germination
is the growth of an embryo into young plant.
B. Asexual Reproduction or Vegatative Propagation in Plants
Many plants that produce seeds can also reproduce by asexual means.
Asexual reproduction involve only one parent. Asexual reproduction in seed plants
is called vegetatative propagation. Vegetative propagation is the development of
new plant from a stem, roots and leaf of a parent plant. In this process, there is no
union of an egg cell and sperm cell and no seed forms.
1. Use of cuttings
A cutting is a plant part that has been removed from the parent plant and
use to grow a new plant. The plant used is a cutting that is often a stem with leaves
attached. The cutting may be placed in water, in wet soil, or in some other wet
substances. Once the cutting plabted in soil, it will grow new stems and leaves.
Some important food plant such as sugar cane, sweet potato, and many
ornamental plants are grown from stem cutting.
2. Use of grafting
Grafting is a method in which cutting from one plant is attached to the
rooted plant, but it retains its own traits. Grafting is usually done in trees to
increase the amount of fruit a tree produces. Grafting can also be used to grow
fruits on trees that resist drought and disease.
3. Grown from corms, bulbs and tubers
New plants can also be grown from corms, bulbs and tubers. A corm is
thickened underground stem. "Gabi" is a plant that forms corms. Onions can be
propagated from enlarged enlarged rounded but called bulbs. Tubers are enlarged
food-storing underground stems that contain many small buds called "eyes". A new
plant can be grown from each eye as in potatoes.
4. Grown from leaves
New plants can also be grown from whole leaves or part of leaves. Usually, only
the fleshy leaves, such as begonia and katabatic can be grown from their leaves.
Vegetative propagation is useful for many reasons. New banana plants are grown
from suckers. Grapes can be grown by vegetative propagation so that the fruits do
not contain seeds. Seedless fruits are easier to eat. This method is often a faster
method of growing plants than growing them from seeds.
Lesson 4: Reproduction in Non-Flowering Plants (Grade6)
A. Plants Reproduction: Non- Flowering Plants
Plants need to reproduce to maintain the existence of the species on earth.
Flowering plants reproduce asexually and sexually as you have already learned. Not
all plant bear flowers. Mosses, ferns and pine trees are groups of plants that do not
bear flowers for reproduction. Among mosses, the mature plant produces spores
enclosed in capsule and when mature the capsule break to release sporws, a kind of
asexual reproduction. These spores germinate and grow to a mature plant which
you see in moist places like flower pots, brick walls, forest floor and river banks. In
the matute plant, sex organs produce either the egg cell or sperm cells. Fertilization
may occur to produce a zygote that will grow into a young plant. A moss plant has
parts that develop spore and sex cells. Mosses then reproduce both sexually and
asexually.
Among ferns, the plants that you see are those that produce spores on the
underside of the leaflets. When spores are ejected from the spore cases that hit
moist places, these germinate and grown into heart-shaped gametophytes that
produce female and male sex cells. After fertilization the zygote grows into a young
plant that is spore bearing. The underground stems or rhizomes produce young
plants, Ferns are important in-home decoration, landscaping and for floral
atrangement. Fiddleheads, the newly formed leaves, are eaten as salads.
Conifers, like pine trees, generally ate found in palce like baguio and cold countries.
They have needle-like leaves and produce seeds in cones of mature plants. There
are smaller male and bigger female cones that contain the reproductive cells. The
seeds are naked or not enclosed by a fruit wall. When seeds are released by the
female cones, these germinate in moist soil. Pine trees are source of lumber,
ornamental plants in parks and christmas decors. The relatives of pine include the
giant tedwood tree( tallest and largest plant on earth) and bristlecone pine (the
oldest plants more than 5000yrs old), cycads and ginkgo.